UNIT-II

Operational Amplifier &

Applications

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 What is an Op-Amp?
• An Operational Amplifier (known as an “Op-Amp”) is
a device that is used to amplify a signal using an
external power source.
• Specialized circuit made up of transistors, resistors
and capacitors fabricated on an integrated chip

= + +
2
 Circuit symbol for an Op-Amps
A traditional Op-Amp:

V2 : non-inverting input
V1 : inverting input
Vo : output
V+ : positive power supply
V- : negative power supply

Vo = A (V2 – V1)
• The difference between the two inputs voltages (V1 and V2) multiplied by the gain
(A, “amplification factor”) of the Op-Amp gives you the output voltage

• The output voltage can only be as high as the difference between the power supply
(V+ / V-)and ground (0 Volts)
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 Operation of Op-Amp

Inverting amplifier

V0=A(V2-V1)=A(0-V1)= - AV1
4
 Operation of Op-Amp-contd…

Non-Inverting amplifier

V0=A(V2-V1)=A(V2-o)= AV2
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 An Ideal Op-Amp
• Voltage gain is infinite i.e. A=∞
• Infinite input impedance i.e. Ri=∞
• Zero output impedance i.e. RO=0
• Infinite bandwidth.
• Zero input offset voltage (i.e., exactly zero out
if zero in).
• Characteristics of an ideal op-amp does not
change with temperature.

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 Ideal versus Real Op-Amps
Parameter Ideal Op-Amp Real Op-Amp
Differential Voltage Gain ∞ 105 - 109
Gain Bandwidth Product ∞ 1-20 MHz
Input Resistance ∞ 106 - 1012 Ω
Output Resistance 0 100 - 1000 Ω

Ideal

Real

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 Equivalent Circuit of an Op-Amp

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 Saturation
Saturation is caused by increasing/decreasing the input
voltage to cause the output voltage to equal the power
supply voltage*
Vout
The property by which Op-amp output
V+ saturates at two saturation levels (±Vsat)
Slope = A (“gain of Op- decided by the supply voltages is called as
Amp”) saturable property of Op-amp.

Vin

V-

Saturation
9
Points
 Continu….
• As the open loop gain of op-amp is very large, of the order of 105 or more,
even a very small difference input voltage (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) produces extremely
high output voltage.

• However maximum output voltage is limited by supply voltage.

• For example for a supply voltage of ±15V, the output voltage is limited to
maximum of ±13.5V. Once the output reaches this limit, it does not
increase further even if the magnitude of input voltage is increased.

• Under this condition op-amp is said to be clipped or saturated.

 Op-Amp Parameters
• COMMON-MODE REJECTION (CMRR)
• INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE
• INPUT BIAS CURRENT
• INPUT OFFSET CURRENT
• SLEW RATE

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 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
(CMRR)
• The ability of amplifier to reject the common-mode
signals (unwanted signals) while amplifying the
differential signal (desired signal).
• Ratio of open-loop gain, Ad to common-mode gain,
Ac.
• CMRR= Ad / Ac
• CMRR=20 log(Ad / Ac )
• The higher the CMRR, the better, in which the open-
loop gain is high and common-mode gain is low.
• CMRR is usually expressed in dB & decreases with
frequency
• The typical value of CMRR for µA741 is 90dB
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 Input Offset Voltage(Vio)
• Ideally, output of an op-amp is 0 Volt if the
input is 0 Volt.
• Realistically, a small dc voltage will appear at
the output when no input voltage is applied.
• Thus, differential dc voltage is required
between the inputs to force the output to zero
volts.
• This is called the Input Offset Voltage, Vio.
range between 2 mV or less.
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 Input Bias Current(IB)
• Ideally should be zero.
• The dc current required by the inputs of the
amplifier to properly operate the first stage.

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 Input Offset Current (Iio)
• It is the algebraic difference between the
currents flowing into non inverting and
inverting terminals.

• Input offset current Iio=|IB1-IB2|

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 Slew Rate
• It is the maximum rate of change of the
output voltage.
• Expressed in V/μs
• It’s a measure of how fast the output can
“follow” the input signal.

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 Typical parameter values for
µA741 IC

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 Virtual short in an Op-amp

• Ri represents the input resistance

• Output voltage Vo is given by
• Vo=A[V2-V1]
• [V2 -V1]=Vo/A
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• For µA741 IC, supply voltage is 12V and open loop voltage
gain is 2x105.
• To get an output voltage of 10V by applying an input voltage
𝑣
of 1 V, the required differential input voltage is, (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑜
𝐴
= 10𝑉/2 × 105 = 50µV.
• This value is very small compared to input & output voltages
and may be considered as 0V.
• i.e., (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) ≅ 0𝑉 or 𝑣2 = 𝑣1

• This shows that inverting and non-inverting input terminals

are at same potential.

• Hence, voltage across 𝑅𝑖 is zero. No current flows from input

terminals to ground. The virtual short is also called as virtual
ground.
 Applications
• Inverting amplifier
• Non-Inverting amplifier
• Inverting adder
• Voltage follower
• Op-amp Integrator
• Op-amp Differentiator
• Comparator
 Inverting amplifier
• Input voltage is applied to the
inverting terminal
• Non inverting terminal is
grounded
• Feedback resistor is connected to
inverting terminal

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 • Since non inverting input terminal is grounded, 𝑣2 = 0. Due
to virtual ground at the input of op-amp, 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 0 (1)

• Due to high input impedance, current flowing into its inverting

input terminal is zero.

Same current flows through R1 and Rf.

i.e., 𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑓 (2)

𝑣𝑖𝑛 −𝑣1
But, 𝑖1 =
𝑅1
Since, 𝑣1 = 0,
𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑖1 = (3)
𝑅1
𝑣1 −𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑖𝑓 = = (4)
22 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
 Sub (3) & (4) in (2) we get,
−𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑖𝑛
• =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1
𝑅𝑓
Or, output voltage of an inverting op-amp is 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑅1
The closed loop gain is
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑓 = =
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
where 𝑨𝒇 is closed loop gain with negative feedback.
• Waveforms
 Non-Inverting amplifier
• Input voltage is applied
to the non inverting
terminal
• Inverting terminal is
grounded through R1
• Feedback resistor is
connected to inverting
terminal
• Due to virtual ground at
the input terminals of
op-amp, 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 0
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• Since, 𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 , 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
∴ 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 (1)
Due to high input impedance, 𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑓 (2)
𝑣1 𝑣𝑖𝑛
But, 𝑖1 = = (3)
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑣1 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑓 = = (4)
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓

𝑆𝑢𝑏 3 & 4 𝑖𝑛 2 , we get

𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛
=
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓

𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑖𝑛

= +
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 1 1
= 𝑣𝑖𝑛 ( + )
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 1 1
= 𝑅𝑓 ( + )
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1
The output voltage of a non-inverting op-amp is
𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 +
𝑅1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑓
The closed loop gain is, 𝐴𝑓 = =1+
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
where 𝑨𝒇 is closed loop gain with negative feedback.
Waveforms
 Inverting Op- amp Adder
Due to virtual short,
VA = VB = 0
i1 = (V1 - VA ) / R1
= V1 / R 1 (1)
i2 = (V2 - VA ) / R2
= V2 / R2 (2) R3
i3 = (V3 - VA ) / R3
= V3 / R3 (3)
if = (VA – Vout ) / Rf
= -Vout / Rf (4)

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 Due to high input impedance,
if = i1 + i2 + i3 -------------------------------- (5)
Substitute (1), (2), (3) and (4) in (5)

- Vout / Rf = V1 / R1+ V2 / R2 +V3 / R3

Vout = - [Rf V1 / R1+ Rf V2 / R2 + Rf V3 / R3]
Rf =R1=R2 =R3 , then
Vout = - [ V1 +V2+ V3 ]
Hence, output voltage is numerically equal to algebraic
sum of output voltages 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 … 𝑣𝑛 .
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 Voltage Follower
• It is a circuit in which the output voltage follows the applied
input voltage.
• The circuit consists of a non inverting amplifier where Rf is
short circuited and R1 is open circuited.

• Since the input voltage is directly applied to the non

inverting input terminal,

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V2 = Vin (1)
 Due to virtual short,
V1 = V2 (2)
The inverting input terminal is directly tied to the output terminal,
Vout = V1 (3)
Combining (1), (2) and (3)
Vin = Vout (4)
From (4) it is clear that output voltage follows the input voltage.
Closed loop gain,

Af = Vout / Vin = 1

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 Op-Amp as Integrator

𝑄
Voltage across the capacitor is, 𝑣𝑐 = (1)
𝐶
Due to virtual ground, 𝑣1 = 0
Current through resistor 𝑅 is
𝑣 −𝑣
𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑛 1
𝑅
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑖1 = (2)
𝑅𝑖𝑛
No current flows through inverting terminal of op-amp.

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• Current through C is 𝑖𝑓 . Also voltage across the capacitor is
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
∴ 𝑣𝑐 = −𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 , (3)
𝑄
we know that, 𝑣𝑐 = = −𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 (4)
𝐶
differentiating the equation (4), we get
1 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑣
= − 𝑜𝑢𝑡 or
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
= −𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The rate of change of charge is current 𝑖𝑓 through the capacitor C
and is given by
𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑖𝑓 = −𝐶. (5)
𝑑𝑡
Equating (2) and (5) we get,
𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑓 , i.e., we have
 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
= −𝐶
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
Integrating on both sides, we get
𝑡 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
0 𝑅
𝑑𝑡 = −𝐶 𝑑𝑡 i.e.,
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑡 = −𝐶𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
0 𝑅
1 𝑡
∴ 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 (6)
𝑅𝐶 0 𝑖𝑛
RC is known as time constant. Negative sign indicates that there
is a phase shift of 180° between input and output signals.
 Op-Amp as Differentiator

• The circuit which produces differentiation of the applied input voltage at its output
is called as differentiator.

𝑄
As capacitor charges, voltage across it is 𝑣𝑐 = (1)
𝐶
𝑄
𝑣𝑐 = = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣1 , (2)
𝐶
Differentiating (2) on both side, we get
𝑑𝑄 1 𝑑(𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣1 )
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

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Due to virtual ground, 𝑣1 = 0
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑣𝑖𝑛
∴ =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Rate of change of charge is current 𝑖1 through the capacitor.
𝑑𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑖1 = 𝐶 (3)
𝑑𝑡
Current through the resistor 𝑅𝑓 is
𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑖𝑓 =
𝑅𝑓
−𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑖𝑓 = (4)
𝑅𝑓
Equating (3) and (4), we have
𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑓
𝑑𝑣𝑖𝑛 −𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐶 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑓
 𝑑𝑣𝑖𝑛
• 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝐶𝑅𝑓 (5)
𝑑𝑡
• Negative sign indicates that there is a phase shift of 180°
between input & output signal.𝐶𝑅𝑓 is the time constant of the
differentiator.
 Non Inverting Comparator
Case 1: with positive reference

• Reference voltage is applied at the inverting input.

• Vin is applied at the non inverting input.

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 • Since, Vin is applied at the non inverting input the circuit is
called as non inverting comparator.
• Open loop gain is very large.
• With a small input voltage the op-amp will go into
saturation and the output voltage will be either +Vsat or -Vsat
• When Vin < Vref , Vout is at -Vsat because the voltage at the
inverting input is greater than the voltage at the non
inverting input.
• When Vin > Vref , Vout is at +Vsat because the voltage at the
inverting input is lesser than the voltage at the non inverting
input.
• So, Vout is ±Vsat

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 Non Inverting Comparator
Case 2: with negative reference

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 • Since, Vin is applied at the non inverting input the circuit is
called as non inverting comparator.
• Open loop gain is very large.
• With a small input voltage the op-amp will go into
saturation and the output voltage will be either + Vsat or -Vsat
• When Vin < Vref , Vout is at -Vsat because the voltage at the
inverting input is greater than the voltage at the non
inverting input.
• When Vin > Vref , Vout is at +Vsat because the voltage at the
inverting input is lesser than the voltage at the non inverting
input.
• So, Vout is ±Vsat

40
 Inverting Comparator
Case 1: with positive reference

• Reference voltage is applied at the non inverting input.

• Vin is applied at the inverting input.

41
 • Since, Vin is applied at the inverting input the circuit is called
as inverting comparator.
• Open loop gain is very large.
• With a small input voltage the op-amp will go into
saturation and the output voltage will be either +Vsat or -Vsat
• When Vin < Vref , Vout is at +Vsat because the voltage at the
inverting input is lesser than the voltage at the non inverting
input.
• When Vin > Vref , Vout is at -Vsat because the voltage at the
inverting input is greater than the voltage at the non
inverting input.
• So, Vout is ±Vsat

42
 Inverting Comparator
Case 2: with negative reference

• Reference voltage is applied at the non inverting input.

• Vin is applied at the inverting input.

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 • Since, Vin is applied at the inverting input the circuit is called
as inverting comparator.
• Open loop gain is very large.
• With a small input voltage the op-amp will go into
saturation and the output voltage will be either +Vsat or -Vsat
• When Vin < Vref , Vout is at +Vsat because the voltage at the
inverting input is lesser than the voltage at the non inverting
input.
• When Vin > Vref , Vout is at -Vsat because the voltage at the
inverting input is greater than the voltage at the non
inverting input.
• So, Vout is ±Vsat

44
 IC 555 Timer as an oscillator
• IC 555 is a versatile linear IC introduced during 1970
• Used for applications such as astable multivibrator, pulse
detector, automatic battery charger etc.,

Features:
• It can produce accurate time delays or oscillations ranging
from few micro seconds to several hours
• 2 modes of operation: monostable, astable
• Supply voltage range: 4.5V to 18V, current: 200mA

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 • It is a 8 pin IC package

Pin diagram:

• Pin 1: It is a ground pin. Voltages are measured with respect

to 1.
• Pin 2&6: Trigger and threshold pins.
• Pin 3: It is an output pin, output signal is collected.
• Pin 4: It is a Reset pin. This pin helps for capacitor discharge

46
 • Pin 5: It is a Control voltage pin that is connected to 2/3 VCC to
change the levels of voltage for other applications.

• Pin 7: It is a discharge pin that connected to collector of the

transistor. It gives a path for the capacitor to discharge based
on the output Q of RS flip flop.
• Pin 8: It is a power supply pin connected to +Vcc.

Internal diagram (architecture) of 555 timer IC

• It consists of a chain of three resistors of equal values (R) as
5KΩ are connected through VCC.
• 2 comparators with reference voltage of 2/3 VCC appears at
comparator 2 and 1/3 VCC at comparator 1
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 • An RS flip flop and a discharge transistor
Internal diagram of IC 555 timer

48
 • SR Flip flop with truth table:

• Circuit diagram

49
 IC 555 for oscillator operation

50
 Waveforms:

Figure : voltage across capacitor C at pin 2, Output voltage at

pin3

51
 • Table: Working logic of IC555 timer

VOLTAGE LEVELS COMP1 COMP2 R S Q

1 0 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 1

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53
 𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑇𝑂𝑁
∴ 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = = =
𝑇𝑂𝑁 + 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 𝑇

********

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