93

Journal of Environmental Science and Management Special Issue 2-2016: 93-100 ISSN 0119-1144
Environmental Sustainability Analysis of Charcoal
Production in Mulanay, Quezon, Philippines
JESAM

ABSTRACT

Global and historical trends show the re-emergence of woodfuels as alternative Maria Rowena Beatriz Q. Inzon1
sources of energy amid concerns over their environmental impacts. Charcoal production, Ma. Victoria O. Espaldon2
in particular, remains a significant source of indigenous energy for developing countries Leonardo M. Florece2
like the Philippines, where it is perceived as a cause of deforestation and environmental Carmelita M. Rebancos2
degradation. This study presents a case where charcoal production can be practiced on Antonio J. Alcantara2
a sustainable basis by focusing on aspects that affect the environment, namely, wood
source, harvesting strategy and production techniques. Key informant interviews, focus
group discussions and a survey among charcoal producers in Mulanay, Quezon revealed
a preference on hardwoods that produce slow-burning charcoals and other readily- 1
School of Environmental Science and
available, usually invasive, tree species. Harvesting strategies include tree felling and Management and Office of the Vice
pruning and rotational harvesting to allow stock replenishment. Charcoal producers Chancellor for Research and Extension,
employ an old but simple production technique called ‘binulkan’, which has an efficiency University of the Philippines Los
rate of 7.7% by weight. The study concludes that an environmentally-sustainable charcoal Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines
industry in Mulanay can be achieved by planting and utilizing suitable tree species and 4031
improving harvesting systems and production techniques. Further study is recommended 2
School of Environmental Science and
to assess the feasibility of establishing wood plantations for charcoal production with Management, UPLB
regard to its poverty reduction potential and continued benefits to the community.
*corresponding author:
Key words: charcoal production, environmental sustainability [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

The potential of biomass energy, particularly energy in the form of woodfuels and agricultural residues
woodfuels, as an alternative to fossil fuel-based energy are the sources of fuel and income for the poor. As a source
sources is currently gaining worldwide attention. The Food of livelihood, charcoal production and trade become part
and Agriculture Organization (2004) defines woodfuels of a long term agricultural cycle (Arnold et al. 2006).
as “any type of biofuel derived directly or indirectly from During land preparation, instead of just clearing the land
trees and shrubs grown on forest and non-forest land.” and burning biomass, farmers gather small diameter trees,
Woodfuels – fuelwood and charcoal – provide for more than bushes and shrubs to make charcoal as a means to augment
14% of the world’s total primary energy (FAO 1996). In its their income during the off-harvest season (Cruz et al.
2005 Update of the Philippine Energy Plan, the Department 1991). For some, however, making charcoal becomes a
of Energy (DOE) noted that the country’s energy mix was primary source of livelihood particularly when there is lack
and will continue to be dependent on indigenous energy, of any other economic opportunity.
including woodfuels. Charcoal, in particular, was used by
an average of 35% of all households in the Philippines based Since charcoal is produced locally, the employment
on the Household Energy Consumption Survey (HCES) for generated by its production is often cited as a major benefit.
1989, 1995 and 2004 (Table 1). Yet this economic contribution is marginally written about
at greater lengths (Trossero 2002a). Charcoal trade provides
Charcoal contributes only 2.2% or roughly 5.5 income to rural folks whose labor is hugely required in
Million Barrels of Fuel Oil Equivalent (MMBFOE) of the harvesting, processing, transporting and trading of the fuel.
Philippine energy demand on a national scale (Table 2) Studies reveal that the woodfuel trade, including charcoal,
(DOE 2004), but it translates to 1.148 MT or more than a generates 20 times more local employment than other forms
billion kg of charcoal consumed every year. of energy within the national economy and on a per unit
basis. But because the trade occurs as a small-scale informal
In a developing country like the Philippines, biomass sector, no comprehensive statistics on the magnitude of its
94 Environmental Sustainability Analysis of Charcoal Production
employment and income generation exists (FAO 2001a as Bondoc Peninsula, Quezon, at the southern tip of Southern
cited by Trossero 2002b). Tagalog. Bounded on the north by Catanauan, on the east
by San Narciso, on the south by San Francisco, on the
While the charcoal industry provides a viable west by Tayabas Sea, Mulanay is accessible via land and
alternative to fossil fuels and serves as an income source for water. Located between 13º31.5´ North and 122º24.5´ East,
rural folks, disagreements exist on its environmental impacts this first class municipality is 279 kilometers away from
and sustainability as a livelihood. It is often perceived as a Manila and 142 kilometers from Lucena City, its provincial
cause of deforestation and environmental degradation. In capital (Figure 2). Mulanay is divided into 28 barangays
this study, charcoal production in Mulanay, Quezon was – four Poblacions and 24 rural barangays. Most of the
presented as a case where environmental sustainability barangays are along the road while some are remote. 10 of
couldbe ensured by focusing on the following aspects that the barangays are found along the coast. As of 2010, total
affect the environment: wood source, harvesting strategy population is 50,826 majority of which rely on subsistence
and production techniques. farming and fishing.

Sustainable charcoal production can be promoted The study used household survey, focus group
as a tool in poverty reduction. As such, this study aimed discussion and key informant interviews for data
to analyze and assess the environmental sustainability collection. Descriptive statistics, using measures of central
of charcoal production in Mulanay. Specifically, it was tendency, were used to analyze and interpret data. Some
designed to profile the charcoal producers and charcoal relations were estimated using derived measurements.
production area; develop and test suitable criteria and These were analyzed vis-à-vis an adapted set of criteria
indicators for environmental sustainability analysis of and indicators based on FAO’s Forestry Paper: Criteria
charcoal production; and used the criteria and indicators and Indicators for Sustainable Woodfuels released in 2010.
in examining the environmental sustainability of charcoal
production. Criteria and Indicators (C and I) are neutral assessment
tools which measure, assess, monitor and demonstrate
METHODOLOGY progress towards attaining the sustainable management
of resources (Mwampamba et al. 2013). This set of C and
The Study Area I was guided by overarching principle/s which providing
the primary framework for managing forests sustainably
Mulanay is part of the twelve municipalities of (CIFOR 1999).

Table 1. Trends in household energy consumption. Typically done by international forest management
% of Households Using Fuel entities to establish proof of sustainable forest management,
Fuel Type 1989 1995 2004 the concept of C and I are usually presented in a hierarchical
Electricity 64.7 83.9 87.6 structure (Figure 1).
Kerosene 74.75 79.9 56.3
LPG 21.9 33.0 51.8 A criterion serves to define goals which add meaning
Charcoal 32.1 38.5 34.2 to a principle without itself being a direct measure of
Biomass Residue 46.4 29.2 18.9 performance (Stupak et al. 2011). Indicators, on the other
Source: DOE’s 1989, 1995 and 2004 Household Energy Consumption Surveys

Table 2. Primary energy consumption in the Philippines, 2002 vs. 2001 (in Million Barrels of Fuel Oil Equivalent).
2002 2001 Percent Change Share Relative to Total Energy
2002 2001
Renewable 108.8 107.4 1.3 43.4 43.2
Geothermal 17.7 18.0 -1.9 7.0 7.2
Hydro 12.1 12.2 -1.0 4.8 4.9
Biomass 78.8 77.0 2.4 31.4 31.0
Wood/Woodwaste 44.7 43.7 2.3 17.8 17.6
Bagasse 11.2 11.0 2.2 4.5 4.4
Charcoal 5.5 5.4 1.3 2.2 2.2
Agriwaste 17.5 16.9 3.1 7.0 6.8
Others 0. 0.2 28.3 0.1 0.1
Source: DOE 2004
Journal of Environmental Science and Management Special Issue No. 2 2016 95
hand, are quantitative or qualitative variables that are
measurable or described and which can show trends over
time (FAO 2010). Designed to test for socio-cultural,
economicand environmental sustainability of forest
management, it is also meant to be flexible and adaptable
for application globally, regionally and locally at different
scales.

For this particular research, analysis for environmental

sustainability of the charcoal industry in Mulanay was
done using an adapted set of C and I from FAO. In it was
a set of principles, criteria and indicators specifically for
sustainable charcoal production. The selection of Principle,
Criteria and Indicators presented herein demonstrates a
more suitable and more appropriate set for Mulanay that
was employed in this study (Table 3).

In this study, the maintenance of ecosystem function

and services was the overarching principle of environmental
sustainability for charcoal production and served as the
“fundamental law or truth” on which the criteria and
Figure 2. Administrative Map of Mulanay, overlayed with
indicators were based. Charcoal production is extractive in
SPOT 5 Image taken October 2004.
nature; thus it is important that its non-forest sources were
not undermined, since they derive from ecosystems that
are part of a bigger landscape providing various goods and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
services for human consumption (Thompson 2011).
Mulanay Charcoal Producers’ Profile

A total of 63 charcoal producers were surveyed

in Mulanay between February and November 2012.
Owing to the labor-intensive nature of charcoal-making,
most respondents belong to the 20-59 age range and are
predominantly male (73%). Most respondents (76%) were
married and many (57%) belong to a small household of
at most four people, while the rest have a household size
of 5 to 12 people. Very few (3%) had college education,
some (33%) reached high school, while the rest (64%)
had elementary education. Thirty-five charcoal producer-
Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of C and I (source: CIFOR respondents are natives of Mulanay, while the rest migrated
1999). from Marinduque, Bicol and other towns of Quezon
because of the farming opportunities and have resided
Table 3. Criteria and Indicators for environmental in the municipality for the past 22 years on the average.
sustainability of charcoal production in Mulanay.
Principle: Ecosystem Function and Services are Maintained Twenty-three of the respondents were producer-
landowners, compared with 40 who were producer-
Criteria Indicators
1. Conservation of species 1.1 Number of preferred
farmworkers. Producer-landowners own an average of 4 ha
diversity species of land, which is planted mostly with banana and coconut,
2. Maintenance of site 2.1 Area of land available complemented with some fruit trees and annual crops.
productive capacity for charcoal
2.2 Stock density of wood To augment income and maximize land value, these
resources small landowners ventured into charcoal-making while
3. Conservation and 3.1 Soil and water quality waiting for their crops to bear fruit. Trees and shrubs
maintenance of soil and water competing with the main crops were made into charcoal for
resources household consumption and sale to charcoal traders. The
96 Environmental Sustainability Analysis of Charcoal Production
more enterprising landowners engaged in buying and selling
of charcoal in between marketing of their main crops.

Based on interviews with the respondents, two

types of producer-farmworkers emerged. The first type
was the regular farmworkers, who were given permission
to reside in the land while helping in the cultivation and
maintenance of the coconut or banana plantation. Aside
from their farm income, they engaged in charcoal-making
and shared the proceeds with the landowner. The second
type was the seasonal farmworkers, who are only called
in to help in the clearing of the land for planting and Figure 3. Cumulative increase in charcoal producers from
made charcoal out of the wood that has been cleared. 2000 to 2012 in Mulanay, Quezon, Philippines.
Their income from labor came solely from the sale of
charcoal after the landowner’s share has been deducted.
land use in Mulanay, Quezon was used predominantly for
For both regular and seasonal producer-farmers, the same
agriculture (85.19%). Primary crops are banana planted to
sharing scheme applies, i.e., 10% or one sack for every
20,064.51 ha and coconut growin in 14,015 ha. Naturally-
ten sacks of charcoal produced goes to the landlord.
growing trees and shrubs, which serve as wood sources for
It has been observed that unemployed producer-
charcoal production, are found in between these crops.
farmworkers in Mulanay, presumably realizing the surge
in charcoal demand in the market, form groups and look The average charcoal producer works on a four-hectare
for landowners who will commission them to clear land land. It was a common practice to gather wood for charcoal
for charcoal production. Such setup deserves further production strictly within one’s own property. Within the
investigation as to its impact on the sustainability of wood property, charcoal producers normally picked a site for kiln
supply. Of the 40 producer-farm workers interviewed, more construction near areas where they would harvest the wood
than half joined such groups, together with their families. or where re-growth of naturally-growing trees and shrubs
competes with the primary crop for resources. The average
There was a marked increase in the number of charcoal distance from the harvesting area to the kiln is 140.28 m.
producers in recent years. By plotting the year producers The charcoal producer would set up all the supplies and
started engaging in charcoal production, a surge in the materials needed not only for charcoal-making but also for
cumulative number of producers was observed starting 2009 temporary dwelling in the area. A temporary shelter made
(Figure 3). One respondent said that he has been engaged in from bamboo and covered with tarp shall be built near the
charcoal production since 1968, two since 1992 and one since harvesting site to save time and effort in going to and from
1998. By 2000, five respondents were already into charcoal the house during charcoal-making, as well as to serve as a
production and the number slowly increased to 15 until windbreaker for the kiln. In some cases, an existing kiln and
2008. By the end of 2009, twenty-nine of the respondents a shelter was already in place from the last production cycle.
were into charcoal-making. The number climbed to 41 the
next year and to 57 a year after. At the time of the interview, Harvesting wood means any of the following: cutting
six of the respondents were new charcoal producers. One or lopping off branches from individual trees; tree felling
possible explanation for this phenomenon is the rise in or cutting off whole trees leaving only the stump; and the
charcoal demand during the past few years. While this study collection of dead and fallen branches for charcoal-making
failed to obtain comprehensive data on charcoal demand, (Hyman 1983).
the establishment of the charcoal traders’ cooperative in
2007 was a response to increasing demand for charcoal in Depending on the size of the tree, most producers made
nearby cities (Lucena, San Pablo City and Quezon City). use of itak and kabig (locally made knives) for harvesting.
The traders’ Cooperative noted an increase in commercial powersaws, although limited in number in Mulanay, were
establishments serving grilled food in the said period. sometimes rented when harvesting much bigger trees. Cut
wood were then transported to the kiln either by hauling it on
Charcoal Production in Mulanay foot (pasan) or on a carriage pulled by a carabao (paragos).
Time spent in harvesting wood depends primarily on the
Site Selection and Wood Harvesting availability of trees to be harvested. Average time spent
in harvesting wood was 33.5 hours or at least four days at
According to its 2009 Socio-Economic Profile, eight working hours a day.
Journal of Environmental Science and Management Special Issue No. 2 2016 97
Wood was then cut into uniform sizes near the kiln for transformed into charcoal. At first, thick, white smoke was
easy stacking. No standard size was observed. Average time visible after ignition. This was the drying phase wherein
spent in cutting wood into uniform sizes was 17.64 h or at water was being released from the pores of the wood into
least two eight-hour days. the air as vapour (Foley 1986).

Construction of Kiln Actual pyrolysis was taking place when the smoke
coming from the kiln darkens in color and leaves a pungent
All charcoal producer-respondents used the earth- smell. Pyrolysis is a “term loosely applied to describe
covered mound kiln. Known in Mulanay as binulkan, the the set of processes which take place when the chemical
earth-covered mound kiln is one of the oldest, cheapest and structure of wood breaks down under high temperature and
simplest methods in charcoal-making. Wood was stacked in the absence of air” (Foley 1986). This process releases
in a pile on the ground and covered with vegetation or chemical substances called volatiles, which cause the smoke
pantabon na dayami and then a layer of soil. The size of the to darken and emit a pungent smell. As this continues, loss
kiln varied depending on the availability of wood to process of volume along the kiln would be very visible as some areas
or the amount of wood collected. would collapse, indicating that pyrolysis is near completion.

Stacking wood in a pile requires much skill to ensure As the temperature around the kiln begun to fall
optimum distribution of air and heat during carbonization. and the smoke changed color to pale blue, pyrolysis was
First, a bottom layer of small-diameter wood was arranged completed and the cooling phase begun. At this phase, the
on the ground in a radial pattern identical to a spider’s web. kiln has now shrunk considerably.
Wood was not required to be placed from end to end on
the bottom layer. The second layer, also constructed from Proper care is still important during the cooling
small-diameter wood, was arranged perpendicular to the phase. This was the part where producers were literally
bottom layer and was more closely-packed. This will be the “nakikipag-agawan sa apoy” (in competition with fire).
platform or the base of the kiln. It was important for this The danger of combustion was still present if air enters
layer to be strong and sturdy. the kiln before the charcoal’s temperature falls below the
ignition temperature. Producers also watched out for half-
Construction of the next layer involved actual stacking cooked charcoal, because this can ignite spontaneously as
of wood. Producers begin with the biggest ones and made it comes into contact with air. Sometimes, charcoal is left to
their way up by filling in all spaces. The key was to pack cool by itself but usually the cooling process is accelerated
each wood tightly to prevent collapse of the structure, by pouring water around the kiln. When the charcoal cools
ensure even carbonization throughout the kiln and produce down to air temperature, it became ready for packing.
better yield. Vertical slabs were sometimes placed around
the kiln to hold the wood in position. The wood was then The whole carbonization process was the slowest
covered with a layer of dayami (hay), followed by a layer stage in charcoal production. Depending on the size of the
of soil, which usually has already been used from previous kiln, carbonization could take at least one whole day to 14
cycles (luto na ang lupa). Lighting of the kiln depended on days to complete.
its size. For small- to medium-sized kilns, fire was lit in a
small hole in the ground at one or two ends of the kiln. For Packaging and Transport
large-sized kilns, a lighting post with pangos (half-cooked
charcoal) and kerosene was built in the middle of the kiln Charcoal was normally packed inside National Food
after the second layer of wood. This would be ignited after Authority (NFA)-issued rice sacks, which can be bought
the kiln has been completed. Small ventilation holes were for PhP 10.00 to PhP 14.00 each. Since there was now
left along the surface of the kiln. no danger of spontaneous combustion, the entire family
usually joins the producer in packing charcoal into sacks.
Carbonization Weight per sack ranges from 10 to 30 kg depending on the
tree species used.
Once carbonization starts, the kiln must undergo
day and night supervision. The producer controls the rate Charcoal traders usually picked up the sacks of
of carbonization by opening and closing ventilation holes charcoal from the producer’s house if the condition of the
on the covering. Water should always be at hand in case interior roads allows the entry of “top-downs”, which was
of combustion. As heat was being continually applied, the a modified tricycle. Meanwhile, others used the paragos
color of smoke and the smell and temperature around the kiln (carabao-pulled carriage) for charcoal transport. Selling
helped producers identify how far the wood has already been price per sack varies from PhP 80.00 to PhP 120.00.
98 Environmental Sustainability Analysis of Charcoal Production
Aspects of Charcoal Production Affecting the 2004). Commonly found in areas saturated with water, the
Environment tibig trunk has a watery sap that is known to be a cure for
common ailments like fever and muscle pains.
Wood Source
Kakawate or madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium).
Charcoal producers in Mulanay used a variety of Kakawate can grow 2-15 m in height. It may be single
tree species to make charcoal, including forest trees such or multi-stemmed and has a feathery crown (Suttie n.d.).
as mahogany and acacia, fruit trees such as mango and Commonly cultivated as shade for crops because of its
santol, and naturally-growing trees and shrubs such as ipil- fine foliage, it is also used in fuel production because it
ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) and kakawate (Gliricidia can be coppiced and can even tolerate repeated cutting.
sepium). Charcoal producers prefer hardwood that produce Its growth rate is over 2 m yr-1, relatively fast in its early
slow-burning charcoals and readily-available trees over years or when pruned annually. Wood yield can reach
other species. Using weight-adjusted ranking, the five most as high as 3.5-4.5 kg tree-1 yr-1 in Central America and
preferred species are the following: fuelwood volumes in the Philippines produces 23-40 m3
ha-1. (Elevitch and Francis 2006). Kakawate wood burns
Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala). Locally known as slowly and emits little smoke when burned, making it a
sipres, this is a small to medium-sized, highly-branched preferred species for charcoal production (ICRAF n.d.).
tree that can grow to a maximum height of 20 m. The World
Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) database described ipil-ipil Harvesting Strategy
as “aggressive colonizer which has been attributed to its
year-round flowering and fruiting and ability to resprout Charcoal producers in Mulanay practice coppicing
after fire or cutting.” With a heating value of 29 mJ kg-1 and by tree felling (leaving the stump) and pruning (cutting
recovery value of 25-30%, ipil-ipil is a good raw material off branches only). Based on interviews, charcoal traders
for charcoal production. In addition, it can sprout 5-15 practiced rotation of harvesting and allowed the stock to
branches after pruning with 1-4 stems dominating after a recover for 3-5 years before wood was again harvested for
year. Wood yield range from 3-4 m yr-1 and 10-60 m3 ha-1 a charcoal production. This means that traders needed to have
year after rotation of 3-5 years. Mulanay charcoal producers a relatively wide network of small landowners to be able to
consider this tree as “laging nandyan” or readily-available. sustain the demand for charcoal. Since charcoal producer-
landowners and producer-farmworkers on the average have
Binunga (Macaranga tanarius). This is a pioneer, fast- 4 ha of land from which to obtain wood supply, and the
growing tree that can grow up to 20 m in height. It is average harvesting radius was 140 m from the kiln, the
naturally-growing because it is wind-dispersed. In the four-hectare land was just enough to supply wood for one
Philippines, the bark produces a gum used as glue in kiln for a limited time. In other words, producer-landowners
making musical instruments. Its bark and leaves are used in and producer-farm workers did not rotate harvesting within
making basi, a fermented drink from sugar cane. Because their respective areas but charcoal traders did rotate their
of its foliage, binunga has been recommended as a shade buying pattern over a wide area, since some areas need to
tree to promote natural regeneration. It is said to be a good “rest” for at least three years to replenish their stock. This
source of fuel (ICRAF n.d.). explains why majority of producer-respondents were just
“occasional” charcoal producers, engaging in charcoal-
Acacia (Samanea saman). Easily recognizable because of making only twice or four times a year. For these producers,
its characteristic umbrella-like canopy, the acacia can reach charcoal-making remained as a a part-time job designed to
a height of 30 m and 4.5 m dbh (ICRAF n.d.). A favourite augment income and to remove trees considered obstructive
shade tree forFilipinos, the crown normally reaches 30 m in to crops. Respondents who claim to have engaged in
diameter. Although massive in size, the acacia is considered charcoal-making on a regular or full-time basis were seasonal
a moderately fast-growing tree with growth rates of 0.75- farmworkers who seek other areas to clear in exchange for
1.5 m yr-1 and has very good coppice ability (Staples and wood supply. It was from these producers that charcoal
Elevitch 2006). Because of its vast size, acacia wood traders could rely on a steady supply of charcoal for trade.
produces 5200-5600 kcal kg-1 when it burns, making it a
high-quality source of firewood and charcoal (ICRAF n.d.). All producer-respondents used the binulkan type
of kiln to carbonize wood. Depending on the skill of the
Tibig (Ficus nota). This is a fast-growing evergreen producer or the amount of available wood, the kiln could
that can grow to a height of 8-10 m. Also known as the be constructed in different sizes. The average height of
Filipino Fig Tree, it is commonly used medicinally. It can the kiln was 1.53 m and the average diameter was 3.43 m.
also serve as a pioneer species for reforestation (Fernando Using these dimensions and the formula for computing the
Journal of Environmental Science and Management Special Issue No. 2 2016 99
volume of a half-sphere, the volume of wood needed to fill between harvest can mitigate the loss through litterfall.
an average kiln was estimated at 9 m3.
A range of impacts on the hydrological processes and
The average diameter of cut wood used by producers water quality could also happen especially during harvesting
and the approximate height of an early maturing tree were and site preparation. Groundwater and aquatic ecosystems
used to come up with an estimate of the volume of wood could be subject to changes in water yield, stream
obtained from a tree. From the survey, the average diameter temperature and increased turbidity and sedimentation
of cut wood is 16.31 cm and the approximate height of an (Lattimore et al. 2009).
early maturing tree is 8 m. From these dimensions, it was
estimated that an early maturing tree will yield 0.167 cu m From site visits and interviews with charcoal producers
of wood. Therefore, 54 trees were needed to fill the average and traders, there appears to be no immediate threat to soil
kiln having a 9 m3 capacity. and water quality because of charcoal production. Charcoal
kilns occupy only a small portion of land. Harvesting was
Production Techniques done near the location of the kiln, hence no significant
reduction to soil quantity. Any reduction in soil organic
This study attempted to estimate the efficiency rate of matter and soil nutrients are replenished through the
the binulkan production technique by comparing charcoal rotation periods in between harvest. No kilns were found
yield of the kiln with the amount of raw wood used. Based to be near any water source. There were also no reported
on the survey, the average yield of each cycle of production incidents of water contamination.
was 22 sacks of charcoal, with each sack weighing 17.8 kg
on the average. From these figures, it was estimated that CONCLUSION
the average weight of charcoal produced in an average kiln
was 391.6 kg. This study aimed to analyze and assess the
environmental sustainability of charcoal production in
Wood density was then approximated using data on Mulanay, Quezon. Specifically, it attempted to profile the
the dimension and weight of an average cut of wood used in charcoal producers and to describe the charcoal production
the kiln. An average cut of wood was 0.1631 m in diameter process in study area, to develop and test suitable criteria
and 0.6122 m length, while the average weight is 7.27 kg. and indicators for Environmental Sustainability Analysis
The volume of the average cut of wood was computed as and use these in examining the environmental sustainability
0.0128 cu m. Dividing the weight of the wood (7.27 kg) of charcoal production.
by its volume (0.0128 m3), the density was estimated to be
567.97 kg m-3. Multiplying the volume of the kiln by the There was a marked increase in the number of
density of the wood (9 m3 x 567.97 kg m-3), the weight of farmers involved in charcoal production since 2008. This
the raw wood used was estimated to be 5,111.73 kg. coincidedwith the formation of a 90-member charcoal
traders’ cooperative, indicating a growing demand for
Comparing the weights of the charcoal yield with charcoal from the Bondoc Peninsula, Philippines.
the weight of raw wood, the efficiency rate of the kiln,
by weight, was estimated at 7.7%, which was comparable Charcoal producers in Mulanay can be classified as
with the 7.5% computation of Nahayo et al. (2013) and the producer-landowner, producer-regular farmworker and
expected rate of no more than 10% by Foley (1986). producer-seasonal farmworker. The first two types consider
edcharcoal-making as a means to augment income while the
Soil and Water Management third type was lured into full-time charcoal-making because
of unemployment and the opportunity to have stable income.
In studying the effect of the charcoal industry to
soil and water quality, one should look at two aspects of The charcoal-making process in Mulanay employs one
the charcoal production process: the extraction and the of the oldest and simplest methods of charcoal production
carbonization of wood. Of the two, wood extraction was – the binulkan method. One production cycle could last up
expected to have a greater impact on soil and hydrology. to 14 days and involves wood harvesting, kiln preparation,
carbonization and packaging. The efficiency rate is low at
However, a review of available studies reveal that 7.7% recovery rate by weight. An average charcoal producer
there is little or no significant reduction in soil organic works on a four-hectare land, has two to four cycles of
matter and nutrient availability due to wood extraction production in a year, and produces 22 sacks of charcoal per
for charcoal production (Chidumayo et al. 2003). In cases cycle. The estimated charcoal yield ha-1 is 88 sacks yr-1. It is
where there were reductions, longer rotation period in also found out that there is no immediate threat to soil and
100 Environmental Sustainability Analysis of Charcoal Production
water quality in and around charcoal production areas. Food and Agriculture Organization. 1996. Report: Forests, Fuel
and the Future: Wood Energy for Sustainbale Development.
However, this study identifies the aspects of charcoal Forestry Topics Report.
production process that could put immense pressure on the Food and Agriculture Organization. 2004. Unified Bioenergy
environment and thus threaten the sustainability of charcoal Terminology.
production as a livelihood. This study asserts that charcoal
production in Mulanay can be made environmentally- Food and Agriculture Organization. 2010. Criteria and indicators
sustainable given that: suitable tree species (fast growers, for sustainable woodfuels. FAO Forestry Paper No. 160.
good quality) are planted; charcoal harvesting systems are Rome, Italy.
improved; production techniques are improved; and soil Hyman, Eric L. 1983. Analysis of the Woodfuels Market: A Survey
and water management programs are integrated. of Fuelwood Sellers and Charcoal Makers in the Province
of Ilocos Norte, Philippines. Biomass International Journal,
Finally, an assessment of the feasibility of establishing Vol. 3, pp. 167-197. 1983.
wood plantations for continued provision of benefits to
the community and its potential contribution to poverty Lattimore, B., C.T. Smith, B.D. Titus, I. Stupak and G. Egnell.
reduction is recommended for further studies. 2009. Environmental factors in woodfuel production:
Opportunities, Risks and Criteria and Indicators for
Sustainable Practices. Biomass and Bioenergy.
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