Integral Calculus, Linear and Introductory Abstract Algebra

by

M J MOTALANE

SMTB000

Study guide

in the

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURE

(School of Mathematical and Computer Sciences)

UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO
 Table of contents

Table of contents 1

List of Notations 6

1 MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 8

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2 Propositional Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.3 Conditional and Biconditional Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.4 Laws of Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.5 Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.6 Predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

1.7 Negation of Quantified statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

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1.8 Methods of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

1.8.1 Direct proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

1.8.2 Indirect proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1.8.3 Proof by cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2 INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR EQUATIONS 41

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.2 Matrix Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

2.2.1 Matrix Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.2.2 Matrix Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2.3 Echelon Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.4 Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2.5 Matrix Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

2.6 System of Linear equations: Matrix method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

2.6.1 Matrix Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

2.7 3 × 3 systems with parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

2.7.1 Elementary Matrices and Test for Invertibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

3 SET THEORY AND RELATION 88

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3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

3.2 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3.2.1 Listing of elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3.2.2 Important sets of numbers: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

3.2.3 Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

3.2.4 Equal sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

3.2.5 The empty set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

3.2.6 Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

3.3 Set Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

3.3.1 Cartesian Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

3.3.2 Power Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

3.3.3 Symmetric difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3.4 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3.4.1 Types of Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

3.4.2 Equivalence Classes and Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

3.4.3 Congruence Modulo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

3.5 Algebraic structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

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3.5.1 Associativity, Commutativity and idempotency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

3.5.2 Algebraic structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

3.5.3 Boolean algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

3.6 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

3.6.1 One-to-One and Onto functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

3.6.2 Composite Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

3.6.3 Inequalities and absolute value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

4 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, BINOMIAL THEOREM AND COMBI-

NATORICS 133

4.1 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

4.2 Factorials and Binomial Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

4.2.1 Binomial expansions and Binomial theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

4.2.2 Middle Term(s) in the Expansion (a + b)n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

4.2.3 Expansion of (a + b)n when n negative integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

4.2.4 Expansion of (a + b)n when n is a fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

4.3 Combination and Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

4.3.1 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

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4.3.2 Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

5 COMPLEX NUMBERS 158

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

5.2 Solutions, Operations and Properties of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 159

5.2.1 Operations with complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

5.3 Modulus-Argument form (Polar form) of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 169

5.4 Euler’s Formula (Exponential Form) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

5.5 De Moivre’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

5.6 Finding roots of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Bibliography 185

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 List of Symbols and Notations

Throughout this study guide the following symbols and notations will be used as defined below.

∀ for all

∃ there exists

∴ therefore

∈ element of

⇔ if and only if

⇒ implies

∧ and

∨ or

N natural numbers

Z integers

Q rational numbers

R real numbers

C complex numbers

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U the universal set

⊆ a subset of

⊂ a proper subset of
T
intersection
S
union

Ac complement of A

|A| cardinality of A

G group

e the identity element of G

0
a the inverse of a ∈ G

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 CHAPTER 1

MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

”Pure mathematics is, in its way, the poetry of logical ideas”. Albert Einstein

1.1. Introduction

We will engage in Mathematical reasoning in order to read, comprehend and construct Math-

ematical arguments. The main goal is to understand how to construct correct Mathematical

arguments. Our main goals in this text are to improve the students ability to think and write

in a mature mathematical fashion and to provide a solid understanding of the material most

useful for advanced courses. Student readers, take comfort from the fact that we do not aim

to turn you into theorem-proving wizards. Few of you will become research mathematicians.

Nevertheless, in almost any mathematically related work you may do, the kind of reasoning

you need to be able to do is the same reasoning you use in proving theorems. You must first

understand exactly what you want to prove (verify, show, or explain), and you must be familiar

with the logical steps that allow you to get from the hypothesis to the conclusion. Moreover,

a proof is the ultimate test of your understanding of the subject matter and of mathematical

reasoning.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

1.2. Propositional Logic

Definition 1.2.1. Proposition:Proposition is a declarative sentence that can be classified as

true or false, but not both.

We will use letter to denote the proposition e.g. P,Q,R etc.

Example 1.2.1. 1. 55 − 5(5) = 0

2. University of Limpopo is at Turfloop.

3. Robert Mugabe was the president of South Africa.

4. South Africa won the rugby world cup in 2019.

Proposition 2 and 4 are true, whereas 1 and 3 are false.

Sentences that are not propositions include questions and commands.

Example 1.2.2. 1. Come here!

2. Is Martin a boy?

3. x + y = 0

4. 5x = 10

Sentences 1 and 2 are not proposition since they are command and question respectively, where

as sentences 3 and 4 are not proposition since they are neither true nor false. If we assign values

on variables in 3 and 4, the sentences become proposition.

The truthfulness or falsity of a statement is called its truth value. “1” will stand for a true

statement and “0” for a false statement.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Definition 1.2.2. Compound statements are formed by combining two or more simple

sentences. We use connectives (or logical operators) to combine such sentences. These

connectives are “and”, “or”, “not”, “If. . . then . . . ” and “. . . if and only if . . . ”.

Definition 1.2.3. (Conjunction): Let P and Q be any two statements. The compound state-

ment “P and Q” is called the conjunction of the statement P and statement Q. Symbolically

we denote this by P ∧ Q.

Example 1.2.3. Let P and Q be statements:

(a) P : Trevor goes to Church.

Q: 8 × 2 − 6 = −10.

Then the conjunction of P and Q is

P ∧ Q: Trevor goes to Church and 8 × 2 − 6 = −10.

(b) P : Square root is defined in the domain of all real numbers.

Q: Lagos city is in France.

Then the conjunction of P and Q is

P ∧ Q: Square root is defined in the domain of all real numbers and Lagos is in France.

The truth value of P ∧ Q depends on the truth values of constituent statements P and Q. Note

that P may be 1 or 0 and for each of these Q may be 1 or 0. So there is a combination of four

possibilities. We will summarize the possibilities by using a truth table.

We can illustrate the truth table of P ∧ Q as follows:

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

P Q P ∧Q

1 1 1

1 0 0

0 1 0

0 0 0

NB:The conjunction P ∧ Q is 1 only if both P and Q are 1.

Definition 1.2.4. (Disjunction): Let P and Q be any two statements. The compound state-

ment “P or Q” is called the disjunction of the statement P and statement Q. Symbolically

we denote this by P ∨ Q.

Example 1.2.4. Let P and Q be statements:

(a) P : Trevor goes to Church.

Q: 8 × 2 − 6 = −10.

Then the disjunction of P and Q is

P ∨ Q: Trevor goes to Church or 8 × 2 − 6 = −10.

(b) P : Square root is defined in the domain of all real numbers.

Q: Lagos is in France.

Then the conjunction of P and Q is

P ∨ Q: Square root is defined in the domain of all real numbers or Lagos is in France.

The truth value of P ∨ Q also depends on the truth values of constituent statements P and Q.

We can illustrate the truth table of P ∨ Q as follows:

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

P Q P ∨Q

1 1 1

1 0 1

0 1 1

0 0 0

NB:

(i) The truth value of P ∨ Q is 0 only when P is 0 and Q is 0.

(ii) The truth value of P ∨ Q is 1 when at least one statement is true.

Definition 1.2.5. (Negation): Let P be any statement. The negation of statement P is the

statement “it is false that P” or “not P”. This is denoted by ¬P .

It is very clear that if P is 1, then ¬P is 0 and vice versa.

We can illustrate the truth table as follows:

P ¬P

1 0

0 1

Example 1.2.5. Let P and Q be statements:

(a) P : Trevor goes to Church.

¬P : Trevor does not go to Church.

(b) P : Gauteng is in Lesotho.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

¬P : Gauteng is not in Lesotho.

(c) P : 3 < 2 − 5.

¬P : 3 ≮ 2 − 5.

This is equivalent as saying 3 = 2 − 5 or 3 ≥ 2 − 5.

Quite often we will combine the compound statements to obtain more compound statements.

We will see more examples as we go on but we can first do the following examples:

Example 1.2.6. Construct the truth table of each of the following statements:

(a) (P ∨ ¬Q) ∧ ¬P

(b) ¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ ¬Q

(c) (P ∧ Q) ∨ ¬(P ∧ ¬R)

Solutions

P Q ¬P ¬Q P ∨ ¬Q (P ∨ ¬Q) ∧ ¬P

1 1 0 0 1 0

(a) 1 0 0 1 1 0

0 1 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 1 1

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

P Q ¬Q P ∧Q ¬(P ∧ Q) ¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ ¬Q

1 1 0 1 0 0

(b) 1 0 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 0 1 1

0 0 1 0 1 1

P Q R ¬R P ∧Q P ∧ ¬R ¬(P ∧ ¬R) (P ∧ Q) ∨ ¬(P ∧ ¬R)

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

(c) 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

Tutorial 1.2.1. Construct the truth table of the following statements:

(a) (P ∨ ¬Q) ∧ ¬Q

(b) (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ ¬(P ∨ ¬Q)

(c) ¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ ¬R.

(d) (P ∨ ¬R) ∧ ¬(Q ∨ R)

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

1.3. Conditional and Biconditional Statements

Definition 1.3.1. (Conditional Statement): Let P and Q be any two statements. The

compound statement “If P then Q” is called the conditional statement or an implication.

Symbolically we denote this by P ⇒ Q which will read “P implies Q”. P is called the

hypothesis and Q is called the conclusion.

Example 1.3.1. Let P and Q be statements:

(a) P : Trevor goes to Church.

Q: 8 × 2 − 6 = −10.

Then the conditional statement of P and Q is

P ⇒ Q: If Trevor goes to Church then 8 × 2 − 6 = −10.

(b) P : A function is continuous on [a, b].

Q: A function is differentiable on (a, b).

Then P ⇒ Q: If a function is continuous on [a, b] then it is differentiable on (a, b).

(c) P : 4 − 9 ≥ 2.

Q: University of Limpopo is in Cape Town.

Then P ⇒ Q: If 4 − 9 ≥ 2 then University of Limpopo is in Cape Town.

The truth value of P ⇒ Q also depends on the truth values of constituent statements P and

Q.

We can illustrate the truth table of P ⇒ Q as follows:

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

P Q P ⇒Q

1 1 1

1 0 0

0 1 1

0 0 1

NB: Implication is false only when P is true and Q is false. This means that it is not possible

to deduce a false statement from a true statement, while reasoning correctly. But it is possible

to deduce a true statement from a false statement.

Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse

We can form some new conditional statements starting with a conditional statement P ⇒ Q.

In particular, there are three related conditional statements that occur so often that they have

special names:

(a) Converse: Q ⇒ P is converse of P ⇒ Q,

(b) Contrapositive:¬Q ⇒ ¬P is the contrapositive of P ⇒ Q,

(c) Inverse:¬P ⇒ ¬Q is the inverse of P ⇒ Q.

We may try to find out which of the above implications have the same meaning. We will

construct the truth table to see this.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

P Q ¬P ¬Q P ⇒Q Q⇒P ¬Q ⇒ ¬P ¬P ⇒ ¬Q

1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1

Example 1.3.2. Find the (i) Converse, (ii) Contrapositive and (iii) Inverse of the following

statements:

If the function is differentiable, then it is integrable.

Solution

(i) If a function is integrable, then it is differentiable.

(ii) If a function is not integrable, then it is not differentiable.

(iii) If the function is not differentiable, then it is not integrable.

Definition 1.3.2. (Biconditional Statement): Let P and Q be any two statements. The

compound statement “P if and only if Q” is called the biconditional statement of statements

P and Q. Symbolically we denote this by P ⇔ Q. The “if and only if” can be abbreviated as

“iff”.

We can illustrate the truth table of P ⇔ Q as follows:

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

P Q P ⇔Q

1 1 1

1 0 0

0 1 0

0 0 1

1.4. Laws of Logic

Definition 1.4.1. (Logically Equivalent Statements): Two statements, P and Q, are said

to be logically equivalent if their truth values coincide. We denote this by P ≡ Q.

Example 1.4.1. Show the following logically equivalent statements using truth table.

(i) (P ⇒ Q) ≡ ¬P ∨ Q

(ii) ¬(P ∧ Q) ≡ ¬P ∨ ¬Q

(iii) ¬(P ∨ Q) ≡ ¬P ∧ ¬Q

(iv) ¬(P ⇒ Q) ≡ P ∧ ¬Q

Solutions

We will do (i) and the rest will be left as an exercise.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

P Q ¬P P ⇒Q ¬P ∨ Q

1 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1 1

As we can see the last two columns have the same truth values so the two statements are

logically equivalent.

Definition 1.4.2. (Tautology): Tautology is a statement that is always true.

Definition 1.4.3. (Contradiction): Contradiction is a statement that is always false.

Example 1.4.2. Determine whether the following statements are tautology, contradiction or

neither of the two.

(i) ((P ⇒ Q) ∧ ¬Q) ⇒ ¬P

(ii) ¬((P ∧ Q) ⇒ P )

(iii) P ⇔ (¬P ∧ (P ∨ Q))

Solution

(i) ((P ⇒ Q) ∧ ¬Q) ⇒ ¬P

P Q ¬P ¬Q P ⇒Q (P ⇒ Q) ∧ ¬Q ((P ⇒ Q) ∧ ¬Q) ⇒ ¬P

1 1 0 0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 1

0 0 1 1 1 1 1

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Last column shows the statement is always true, hence tautology.

(ii) ¬((P ∧ Q) ⇒ P )

P Q P ∧Q (P ∧ Q) ⇒ P ¬((P ∧ Q) ⇒ P )

1 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 0

Last column shows the statement is always false, hence contadiction.

(iii) P ⇔ (¬P ∧ (P ∨ Q))

P Q ¬P P ∨Q ¬P ∧ (P ∨ Q) P ⇔ (¬P ∧ (P ∨ Q))

1 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 1

From last column we can conclude the statement is neither tautology nor contradic-

tion.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Logically Equivalences

Equivalence Name

P ∧0≡0

P ∨1≡1 Domination law

P ∧1≡P

P ∨0≡P Identity law

P ∧P ≡P

P ∨P ≡P Idempotent law

¬(¬P ) ≡ P Double negation law

P ∧Q≡Q∧P

P ∨Q≡Q∨P Commutative laws

(P ∧ Q) ∧ R ≡ P ∧ (Q ∧ R)

(P ∨ Q) ∨ R ≡ P ∨ (Q ∨ R) Association laws

P ∧ (Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R)

P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R) Distributive laws

¬(P ∧ Q) ≡ ¬P ∨ ¬Q

¬(P ∨ Q) ≡ ¬P ∧ ¬Q De Morgan’s laws

P ∧ ¬P ≡ 0

P ∨ ¬P ≡ 1 Negation law

Tutorial 1.4.1. Determine whether the following statements are tautology, contradiction or

neither of the two.

(i) (P ∨ Q) ⇒ P

(ii) (P ∧ (P ⇒ Q)) ⇒ Q

(iii) ((¬Q) ∧ (P ⇒ Q)) ⇒ (¬P )

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

(iv) (P ∨ Q) ⇒ (P ∧ Q)

(v) (Q ∧ (P ⇒ Q)) ⇒ P

(vi) (P ⇒ Q) ⇔ (Q ⇒ P )

1.5. Arguments

Definition 1.5.1. (Valid Argument): An argument is called a valid argument if the con-

junction of hypotheses implies the conclusion. Otherwise the argument is said to be invalid

or also called fallacy.

We can prove the validity of the argument in two ways namely:

(a) By following the flow of the argument,

(b) by using truth tables.

Example 1.5.1. Investigate the validity of the following argument using

(a) Flow of the argument,

(b) by using truth tables.

(a)

P ⇒Q

R∨P

¬R

∴Q

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

(a) Flow of the argument,

If ¬R is true then R is false. If R is false and R ∨ P is true then P is true. If P is true

then for P ⇒ Q to be true then Q must be true. Then we deduce that the argument is

valid.

(b) by using truth tables,

we need to test whether the statement:

[(P ⇒ Q) ∧ (R ∨ P ) ∧ (¬R)] ⇒ Q

is tautology.

Let A ≡ (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (R ∨ P ) ∧ (¬R) in order to simplify our table.

P Q R ¬R P ⇒Q R∨P A ≡ (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (R ∨ P ) ∧ (¬R) A⇒Q

1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

Example 1.5.2. Investigate the validity of the following argument using

(a) Flow of the argument,

(b) by using truth tables.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

(a)

P ∨ ¬Q

R ⇒ Q

¬P

∴R

(a) Flow of the argument,

If ¬P is true then P is false. If P is false and P ∨ ¬Q is true then ¬Q is true. If ¬Q is

true, then Q is false. If Q is false and R ⇒ Q is true then R is false. Since the conclusion

is given R which in this instant we found it to be false, then we deduce that the argument

is invalid or it is a fallacy.

(b) by using truth tables,

we need to test whether the statement:

[(P ∨ ¬Q) ∧ (R ⇒ Q) ∧ (¬P )] ⇒ R

is tautology.

Let A ≡ (P ∨ ¬Q) ∧ (R ⇒ Q) ∧ (¬P ) in order to simplify our table.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

P Q R ¬P ¬Q P ∨ ¬Q R⇒Q A ≡ (P ∨ ¬Q) ∧ (R ⇒ Q) ∧ (¬P ) A⇒R

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0

Looking at the last column, we can clearly deduce the statement is not tautology, hence the

argument is not valid just as we expected.

Example 1.5.3. Investigate the validity of the following argument using

(a) Flow of the argument,

(b) by using truth tables.

(a) Mary plays netball or volleyball at school.

If Mary plays netball at school then she goes to Church.

Mary doesn’t go to Church.

∴ Mary plays volleyball.

Now let,

P : Mary plays netball at school.

Q : Mary plays volleyball at school.

R : Mary goes to church.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

P ∨ Q

P ⇒ R

¬R

∴Q

(a) Flow of the argument,

If ¬R is true then R is false. If P ⇒ R is true and R is false then P is false. If P ∨ Q is

true and P is false then Q is true. Therefore the argument is valid.

(b) We leave it as an exercise to students to verify using truth table that the argument is

valid by verifying the statement is tautology.

Example 1.5.4. Investigate the validity of the following argument using

(a) Flow of the argument,

(b) by using truth tables.

(a) If Mpho eats mangos then he lives in Venda.

Mpho either lives in Venda or Soweto.

Mpho does not live in Soweto.

∴ Mpho doesn’t eat mangos.

Now let,

P : Mpho eats mangos.

Q : Mpho lives in Venda.

R : Mpho lives in Soweto.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

P ⇒ Q

Q ∨ R

¬R

∴ ¬P

(a) Flow of the argument,

If ¬R is true then R is false. If Q ∨ R is true and R is false then Q is true. If P ⇒ Q

is true and Q is true then P is either true or false hence 6 P is also either true or

false. So we cannot affirm that 6 P is true. Therefore the argument is invalid.

(b) We again leave it as an exercise to students to verify using truth table that the argument

is invalid.

Tutorial 1.5.1. Test the validity of the following arguments using:

(a) Flow of the argument,

(b) by using truth tables.

1.

P ⇔ ¬R

Q ∨ R

¬P

∴Q

27
 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

2.

P ⇒ Q

(Q ∨ R) ⇒ S

¬S

∴ ¬P

3.

P ⇒ ¬Q

Q ⇔ R

∴ ¬P

4.

S ∨ ¬R

P → R

P ∧ ¬Q

∴ ¬S

5. Pretty either works in mine or University.

Pretty eats KFC if and only if she doesn’t work in mine.

Pretty doesn’t work in University.

∴ Pretty doesn’t eat KFC..

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

6. Maggie went to the park or overseas.

If Maggie went to park or cinema then she eats burger and chips.

Maggie didn’t eat burger.

∴ Maggie went overseas..

7. If Mpho goes to school, she won’t play netball.

Mpho plays netball or drives a car if and only if she will be a teacher.

Mpho won’t be a teacher and she hate maths.

∴ Mpho doesn’t go to school.

Law of Syllogisms: Let P , Q and R be any two statements. If P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ R then

P ⇒ R. This means the statement

((P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ R)) ⇒ (P ⇒ R).

is always true, i.e. observe that ((P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ R)) ⇒ (P ⇒ R) is tautology.

Chain Rule: If P1 , P2 , · · · , Pn are statements and P1 ⇒ P2 , P2 ⇒ P3 , · · · ,, Pn−1 ⇒ Pn then

P1 ⇒ Pn .

Example 1.5.5. If Finny cries then she is sick. If Finny is sick she won’t go to school. If

Finny doesn’t go to school she will fail the exam. If Finny fails the exam she will be poor.

The above conditional statements imply the following statement: If Finny cries then she will

be poor.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

1.6. Predicates

Definition 1.6.1. A predicate is a sentence which involves variables such that if the variables

are replaced by definite objects then a statement is obtained. We will denote such sentences

by: P (x), P (x, y), etc

Example 1.6.1. P (x) : 2 − x ≥ 5

P (x, y) : 3x + 5 = y.

Definition 1.6.2. (a) The symbol ∀ is called the universal quantifier and represents the

phrase “for all”, “for each”, or “for every”. The statement (∀ ∈ U )(P (x)) is read “for

all x ∈ U, P (x)”.

(b) The symbol ∃ is called the existential quantifier and represents the phrase “there ex-

ists”, “there is”, or “for some”. The statement (∃ ∈ U )(P (x)) is read “there exists an

x ∈ U , such that P (x)”.

Given a statement (∀x ∈ U )(P (x)) which is read “for all x in set A, then P (x)”. U in this

instance represent an unspecified set and P (x) is a statement on x,

E.g: P (x) : 2 − x ≥ 5 and U can be set of real number (R), integers(Z), natural numbers

(N), etc.

In some instance our statements may involve more than one variable, set and both two quan-

tifiers.

E.g: (∀x ∈ A)(∃y ∈ B)(P (x, y)) which reads “for all x in set A, there exists a y in B such

that P (x, y).

It is of our interest to find out whether the given statement is true or false. Lets look at some

examples.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Example 1.6.2. Determine which of the following statements is true or false. Justify your

answer in each case.

(a) ∀x ∈ Z : −x ∈ N

(b) ∃x ∈ Z : −x ∈ N

(c) (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R : xy = 1

(d) (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R : xy = 1

(e) (∀x ∈ Q)(∃y ∈ R : x + y = 0

(f) (∃x ∈ Z)(∀y ∈ N : xy = 0

(g) (∃y ∈ R)(∀x ∈ R : x + xy = 8x

(h) (∀x ∈ R) : x2 > x

Solutions:

(a) ∀x ∈ Z : −x ∈ N it reads as:

“for every integer x, negative x is a natural number”.

Since we are interested in the set of all integers, we are interested in finding out whether

the negative of all integers is a natural number or not. Such statement is false since for

all positive integer x, −x will give us negative integer which is not a natural number.

For example, if x = 2, −x = −2 ∈
/ N.

(b) ∃x ∈ Z : −x ∈ N it reads as:

“there exists an integer x, such that negative x is a natural number”.

The statement will be true since in this case we are only interested in finding out if there

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

is a particular integer which it’s negative is natural number. There are infinitely many

such x, actually we can only restrict ourselves to negative integer, since their negative is

positive integers which are natural numbers.

(c) (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R : xy = 1

False, if x = 0, then xy = 0.

(d) (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R : xy = 1

False, each real has it’s own unique multiplicative inverse or in particular if y = 0.

(e) (∀x ∈ Q)(∃y ∈ R : x + y = 0

True, every real x has its own additive inverse which is −x, i.e. y = −x.

(f) (∃x ∈ Z)(∀y ∈ N : xy = 0

True, when x = 0.

(g) (∃y ∈ R)(∀x ∈ R : x + xy = 8x

True, for y = 7.

(h) (∀x ∈ R) : x2 > x.

False, if x = 21 .

1.7. Negation of Quantified statements

Theorem 1.7.1. Let P (x) be an open statement in the variable x. Then ¬(∀x)(P (x)) is

equivalent to (∃x)(¬P (x)) and ¬(∃x)(P (x)) is equivalent to (∀x)(¬P (x)).

Example 1.7.1. Negate the following statements:

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

(a) (∀k ∈ Z)(∃r ∈ R)(r < k)

Negation will be

¬(∀k ∈ Z)(∃r ∈ R)(r < k) ≡ (∃k ∈ Z)(¬((∃r ∈ R)(r < k)))

≡ (∃k ∈ Z)(∀r ∈ R)(¬(r < k))

≡ (∃k ∈ Z)(∀r ∈ R)(r ≥ k)

(b) (∀ > 0)(∀n ∈ N)(∃m ∈ N)(|xn − xm | < )

Negation will be

¬[(∀ > 0)(∀n ∈ N)(∃m ∈ N)(|xn − xm | < )] ≡ (∃ > 0)¬[(∀n ∈ N)(∃m ∈ N)(|xn − xm | < )]

≡ (∃ > 0)(∃n ∈ N)¬[(∃m ∈ N)(|xn − xm | < )]

≡ (∃ > 0)(∃n ∈ N)(∀m ∈ N)¬[(|xn − xm | < )]

≡ (∃ > 0)(∃n ∈ N)(∀m ∈ N)(|xn − xm | ≥ )]

Tutorial 1.7.1. 1. Determine which of the following statements is true or false. Justify

your answer in each case.

(a) ∀x ∈ Z : 3x ∈ N

(b) ∃x ∈ N : x2 − x = 0

(c) (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ Z : xy = 0)

(d) (∃x ∈ Z)(∀y ∈ Z : 7y − xy = 3y)

(e) (∀x ∈ Z)(∃y ∈ N : x + y = x)

(f) (∃x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R : xy = x)

(g) (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R : xy = x)

(h) (∀ > 0)(∃n ∈ N : n > 1 )

2. Negate the following quantified statements.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

(a) (∀ > 0)(∃δ > 0)(∀n ∈ N)(|xn − δ| ≤ )

(b) (∃x ∈ Z)(∃y ∈ R)(∀z ∈ R(x + y + z = 0)

(c) (∀x ∈ Z)(∀y ∈ Z)(∃z ∈ R(|x + y| > 0)

1.8. Methods of Proof

In this section we discuss some of the common methods of proof and the standard terminology

that accompanies them. A mathematical system consists of axioms, definitions, and unde-

fined terms. An axiom is a statement that is assumed true. A definition is used to create

new concepts in terms of existing ones. A theorem is a proposition that has been proved to

be true. A lemma is a theorem that is usually not interesting in it’s own right but is useful

in proving another theorem. A corollary is a theorem that follows quickly from a theorem.

Methods of proofs to be discussed:

1. Direct proof

2. Indirect proof

• Proof by contradiction

• Proof by contrapositive

• Proof by counter-example.

3. Proof by cases.

Another important method of proof of great importance in mathematics is proof by Mathe-

matical Induction which we will reserve for the upcoming chapters.

The following definitions will be important in most of our discussions:

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Definition 1.8.1. • An integer n is even if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k. So

the set of even integers is

E = {2k : k ∈ Z} = {. . . , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, . . .}.

• An integer n is odd if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k + 1. So the set of odd

integers is

O = {2k + 1 : k ∈ Z} = {. . . , −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, . . .}.

1.8.1 Direct proof

In order to prove a conditional statement P ⇒ Q, we assume P and then deduce Q by using

some of axioms, definitions, rules or logical inferences, previously proven theorems.

Example 1.8.1. Use the direct proof to prove that:

If n is an even integer then n2 is also an even integer.

Proof. In this statement we can let

P : n is even integer

Q : n2 is even integer.

We need to assume P and deduce Q.

Assume n is even, i.e. n = 2k for some k ∈ Z. Then

n2 =n·n

= (2k)(2k)

= 4k 2

= 2(2k 2 )

= 2m

35
 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

for m = 2k 2 ∈ Z, hence n2 is even.

Example 1.8.2. Use the direct proof to prove that

If n is even integer and m is odd integer, then n + m an odd integer.

Proof. In this statement we can let

P : n is even integer.

Q : m is odd integer.

R : n + m is odd integer.

We need to assume P ∧ Q and deduce R, i.e. P ∧ Q ⇒ R.

Assume n is even integer and m is an odd integer, i.e. n = 2k and m = 2r +1 for some k, r ∈ Z.

Then

n + m = (2k) + (2r + 1)

= 2(k + r) + 1

= 2q + 1

for q = k + r ∈ Z, hence n + m is odd integer.

1.8.2 Indirect proof

Here we will look into three types of indirect proofs such as

• Proof by contradiction.

• Proof by contrapositive.

• Proof by counter-example.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Proof by Contradiction

In order to prove the statement P ⇒ Q using contradiction, we prove that the statement is

true by showing that it cannot possibly be false. That is, we assume a statement is false and

then arrive at some contradiction. It is easy to show that

(P ⇒ Q) ≡ ¬P ∨ Q.

For us to prove using contradiction we assume (P ⇒ Q) is false i.e. ¬(P ⇒ Q) is true. Also

we can show that

¬(P ⇒ Q) ≡ P ∧ ¬Q

So in order to prove that (P ⇒ Q) using contradiction, we must assume P ∧ ¬Q and therefore

arrive at some contradiction.

Example 1.8.3. Given that n is an integer. Prove by contradiction that if n2 is even, then n

is even.

Proof. We need to prove that P ⇒ Q where

P : n2 is even

Q : n is even.

Assume P ∧ ¬Q i.e. Let n2 be even and assume that n is odd. If n is odd, it can be written as

n = 2k + 1 where k ∈ Z. We then have n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1 = 2m + 1

where m = 2k 2 + 2k ∈ Z, showing that n2 is odd. This contradicts the fact that n2 is even,

hence n must be even.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Proof by contrapositive

To prove the statement P ⇒ Q by contrapositive, we must assume ¬Q and deduce ¬P , hence

¬Q ⇒ ¬P .

Example 1.8.4. Given that n is an integer. Prove by contrapositive that if n2 is even, then

n is even.

Proof. In this case we must show that ¬Q ⇒ ¬P where

P : n2 is an even integer.

Q : n is an even integer.

Suppose n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for some k ∈ Z. Then

n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1 = 2m + 1 where m = 2k 2 + 2k ∈ Z, which then

leads to n2 being an odd integer. Then by contrapositive if n2 is even, then n is even.

Proof by Counter-Example

It is common to prove a false statement by using counter-example. One may not use this

method to prove that a statement is true. For example, for a statement having big data, it

may take one a decade to ptove that the statement is true.

Example 1.8.5. Prove using counter-example that the following statement is not correct:

For a, b integers, if a divides b and b divides a, then a = b.

Proof. Let a = 1 and b = −1. Clearly a, b ∈ Z and

a 1 −1 b
= = −1 = = .
b −1 1 a

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

In this case we have a divides b and b divides a but a 6= b. So our statement is false by the

above counterexample.

1.8.3 Proof by cases

This type of proving involve us subdividing our proof into different cases.

Example 1.8.6. Prove by cases that if n is an integer, the n2 + n is an even integer.

Proof. We will prove this by cases by first assuming n is even and another case where we

assume n is odd.

Case 1:

Assume n is even integer. Hence n = 2k for some k ∈ Z. then

n2 + n = (2k)2 + 2k = 4k 2 + 2k = 2(2k 2 + k) = 2r,

where r = 2k 2 + k ∈ Z since k ∈ Z. Therefore n2 + n is an even integer.

Case 2:

Assume n is odd integer. Hence n = 2k + 1 for some k ∈ Z. then

n2 + n = (2k + 1)2 + 2k + 1 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 + 2k + 1 = 4k 2 + 6k + 2 = 2(2k 2 + 3k + 1) = 2p,

where p = 2k 2 + 3k + 1 ∈ Z since k ∈ Z. Therefore n2 + n is an even integer. We can conclude

that which ever integer n is, i.e. either even or odd, n2 + n is an even integer.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Tutorial 1.8.1. Prove the following using (i) Direct proof, (ii) Proof by contradiction,

(iii) Proof by contrapositive

1. Prove the following using Direct proof

(a) If n is odd integer then n2 + 2n is odd.

(b) If n is even integer then n2 + 1 is odd.

(c) If n is odd integer and m is odd integer then nm is odd.

(d) If n is odd integer and m is even integer then nm is even.

(e) If n is even integer and m is odd integer then n2 + m2 is odd.

2. Prove the following using proof by contradiction

(a) If n2 + 1 is odd then n is even.

(b) If m + n is even, then m and n are either both odd or both even.

(c) If mn is odd integer then both m and n are odd.

(d) If m is even integer then m + 1 is odd.

3. Prove the following using proof by contraposition

(a) If m is odd integer then m + 1 is even.

(b) If m + n is even, then m and n are either both odd or both even.

(c) If n2 + 1 is odd then n is even integer.

4. Use proof by cases to prove that

(a) For every integer n, n3 + n is even.

(b) For any a, b ∈ R, |ab| = |a| · |b|.

(c) For any n ∈ N, n(n + 1) is even.

40
 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES

AND LINEAR EQUATIONS

”A mathematical theory is not to be considered complete until you have made it so clear that

you can explain it to the first man whom you meet on the street”. David Hilbert

2.1. Introduction

We will begin our study of matrices. Recall that information in science, business, and math-

ematics is often organized into rows and columns to form rectangular arrays called matrices

(plural of matrix). Matrices often appear as tables of numerical data that arise from physical

observations, but they occur in various mathematical contexts as well. However, matrices are

not simply a notational tool for solving systems of equations. They can be viewed as math-

ematical objects in their own right, and there is a rich and important theory associated with

them that has a multitude of practical applications. It is the study of matrices and related

topics that forms the mathematical field that we call linear algebra.

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

2.2. Matrix Theory

In this section we investigate about the concept of matrix and some of it’s properties.

We will denote a matrix by capital letters A, B, C, D,etc.

Definition 2.2.1. A matrix A is a rectangular array of numbers represented in the form:

 
 a11 a12 . . . a1n 
 
 
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
 
 
 
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 
 
am1 am2 . . . amn

The number aij is called an entry or member, which is in row i and column j of the matrix.

A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m by n matrix, written m × n. The pair of

numbers m and n is called the order or size of the matrix.

Some Important Matrix Properties:

• A square matrix is one which has the same number of rows as columns i.e. m × n

matrix with (m = n).  

1 3 −1
 
0 8  
e.g. A =  B = 4 −7 1  where A is 2 × 2 and B is 3 × 3 matrices
   

12 −1
 
 
1 2 −5
respectively.

• A matrix with
 all entries
 equal to zero is called a zero matrix, and is denoted by 0m×n ;
0 0 0
e.g. 02×3 =  
0 0 0

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

• An identity matrix denoted by In , is a square matrix with aii = 1 for all i and zero

elsewhere;  
1 0 0 
 
1 0  
e.g. I2 =   and I3 = 0 1 0
   
 
0 1  
0 0 1

• A matrix with one row (m=1) is called a row matrix;

 
A = −8 5 4 2

• A matrix
  with one column (n=1) is called a column matrix;

1
 
B = −7
 
 
 
8

• Two 
matrices are 
equal if
their sizes and
 corresponding
 entries
 are equal;
 0 8 12  1 3 −1  0 8 12 
A= ; B =  ; C =  , then
−2 5 −1 4 −7 1 −2 5 −1

A 6= B; B 6= C; A = C.

• For an m × n matrix A = (aij ), the transpose of A is the n × m denoted by At = (aji )

whichis obtained
 by interchanging the row and columns of A;
5 8  
5 −2 7
 
A = −2 −1 then At =  .
 
8 −1 0
 
 
7 0
Note: If A is a m × n matrix, then At is an n × m matrix.

• A diagonal matrix is one with at least one non-zero entry in the leading (main) diagonal

and zeroes everywhere;

43
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

 
9 0 0 
 
A = 0 0 0 
 
 
 
0 0 −2

• A matrix
 A is symmetric
 if At =
A; 
5 8 −3 5 8 −3
   
A =  8 −1 −4 then At =  8 −1 −4.
   
   
   
−3 −4 0 −3 −4 0

• Scalar multiple: Given a matrix A and a real number k, then the matrix kA is a matrix

obtained by multiplying each entry of matrix A by k. The matrix kA is called a matrix

multiple of A. When dealing with matrices, real numbers are often called scalars hence

the scalar multiplication for multiplying A by k.

 
2 −3 3
E.g.: If A =  , then
 
0 −1 5
 
−6 9 −9
−3A = 
 

0 3 −15

and  
3 3
1 1 − 2 2
A=
2

0 −1
2
5
2

2.2.1 Matrix Addition and Subtraction

We can only add or subtract two matrices if they have the same order. The sum or difference

of two matrices is obtained by adding or subtracting the corresponding entries respectively. If

   
a11 a12 a13  b11 b12 b13 
A= ,B =  ,
a21 a22 a23 b21 b22 b23

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

then
     
a11 a12 a13  b11 b12 b13  a11 + b11 a12 + b12 a13 + b13 
A+B = + = 
a21 a22 a23 b21 b22 b23 a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a23 + b23

Similarly for subtraction

     
a11 a12 a13  b11 b12 b13  a11 − b11 a12 − b12 a13 − b13 
A−B = − = 
a21 a22 a23 b21 b22 b23 a21 − b21 a22 − b22 a23 − b23

Example 2.2.1.
   
−1 8   0 −1
   
1 3  9 0
   
A= 5 ;B =  ;C =  1 ;D =  .
   
0 0
4 −7 −3 −6
   
   
2 −3 −2 −5

       
−1 8   0 −1  −1 + 0 8 + (−1)  −1 7 
       
A+C = 5 + 1 = 5+1 = 6 .
       
 0   0   0 + 0   0 
       
2 −3 −2 −5 2 + (−2) −3 + (−5) 0 −8

      
1 3 9 0 1 − 9 3 − 0 −8 3
B−D = − = = .
       
4 −7 −3 −6 4 − (−3) −7 − 6 7 −13

A ± B; A ± D; B ± C or C ± D do not exist.

2.2.2 Matrix Multiplication

Consider m × n matrix A = (aij ) and p × q matrix B = (bij ). Then the matrix multiplication

AB is defined if and only if n = p. The product AB will be m × q matrix whose ij-entry is

obtained by multiplying the ith row of A by the jth column of B. i.e.

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
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    
 a11 a12 . . . a1n   b11 b12 . . . b1q   c11 a12 . . . a1q 
    
    
 a21 a22 . . . a2n   b21 b22 . . . b2q   a21 a22 . . . a2q 
=
    
  
    
 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
    
    
am1 am2 . . . amn bn1 bn2 . . . bnq am1 am2 . . . amq

Where cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + . . . + ain bnj = nk=1 aik bkj .
P

Note 2.2.1. • If AB exist, it does not mean that BA also exist.

• Also in general matrix multiplication is not commutative, i.e. AB 6= BA (although in

some cases it is possible).

• If both AB and BA exist, they may not be of the same order.

Example 2.2.2.
 
−3 4 0 
 
−1 −3 5  
A=  2 × 3 matrix; B =  1 5 −1 3 × 3 matrix.
   
0 −4
 
2  
2 0 3

AB exist since number of column in A is same as number of rows in B.

 
  −3 4 0
 
−1 −3 5  
 
AB = 

  1 5 −1
0 −4 
 
2 
2 0 3
 
(−1)(−3) + (−3)(1) + (5)(2) (−1)(4) + (−3)(5) + 5(0) (−1)(0) + (−3)(−1) + 5(3)
= 
2(−3) + 0(1) + (−4)(2) 2(4) + 0(5) + (−4)(0) 2(0) + 0(−1) + (4)(−3)
 
10 −19 18
=
 

−14 8 −12

Result of AB is 2 × 3 matrix. BA does not exist since the number of columns in B is not equal

to the number of rows in A.

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Verify that BAt exists and  

 −9 −6
 
BAt = −21 6  .
 
 
 
13 −8

Remark 2.2.1. If A is a matrix. Then An where n ∈ N, is a matrix obtained by multiplying

the matrix A by itself n times, e.g. A3 = AAA.

Check that this only occurs when A is a square matrix.

Some Properties of Matrices

(i) A + B = B + A

(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

(iii) A(B + C) = AB + AC

(iv) (AB)C = A(BC)

(v) k(A + B) = kA + kB

(vi) (A + B)t = At + B t

(vii) (AB)t = B t At

(viii) AB 6= BA

Tutorial 2.2.1.1. Consider the

 following
 matrices:  
−2 7  2 −1 5
   
2 −3 1   3 −3  
A =  ; B =  2 ; C =  ; D = 0 1 0; E =
       
0
5 −1 0 0 −6
   
   
3 −4 3 −1 5

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  
2 0 3 5 0 0  
   
−1 1 −1; F = 0 −3 0; G = 4 1 −2 ;
   
   
   
5 0 5 0 0 2
 
0
H =  ;
−3

(a) Which of the matrices above are: (i) Diagonal matrix; (ii) Square matrix; (iii)

Symmetric; (iv) Identity matrix; (v) Zero Matrix (vi) Column Matrix; (vi) Row

matrix.

(b) Which of the following matrices is matrix addition, subtraction and multiplication

possible?

(c) Which of the following operations are possible? Where the operations are possible

evaluate: AC; B 3 ; C t F ; DEB; At C − B; (3E t )B; (−3I3 − D)t ; HGB CGt .

(d) Write down the following entries: (i) b22 in B; (ii) e32 in E; (iii) a31 in A; (iv) f23

in F

2. Solve
 for a, b, c andd given
 that       
2a − b 3c − d 7 −3  a 3b  3 b − 3  2a b − a
(i)  =  (i) 5  + = 
c + d a + 4b 0 −4 2c −d 0 −4 3c + d 7d

3. If A is a 5 × 4 matrices and AI = A, what is the size of I, the identity matrix?

4. If AB = 0 and A is a non-zero matrix, can we conclude that B = 0?

 
x 2x xy 
 
5. Determine x and y such that the given matrix is symmetric: A = y −1 x  .
 
 
 
y x2 x
   
a b  1 0
6. Given that B =   . Show that B 2 = (a + b)B − (ad − bc)I, where I =  ,
c d 0 1

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

the 2 × 2 identity matrix.

   
2 1  x y 
7. Given that A =   and B =  , if AB = BA then show that x − y = 7y.
1 −5 y z

2.3. Echelon Matrices

• Row equivalence matrices: Let the ith row of a matrix A be denoted by Ri . The

following are called elementary row operations:

1. Inter-change any two rows, Ri ↔ Rj

2. Multiply a row by a non-zero constant k, Ri → kRi

3. Add a multiple of any row to another row, Ri → Ri + kRj .

• Let A and B be m × n matrices. Then A is said to be row equivalent to B if B can be

obtained from A by a finite sequence of elementary row operations.

We shall see how to apply this from next examples as well throughout the chapter.

Definition 2.3.1. A matrix is said to be in row echelon form if it satisfies then following

properties:

(a) Every non-zero row begin with a leading one.

(b) A leading one in a lower row is further to the right.

(c) Zero rows are at the bottom of the matrix.

Example 2.3.1. The following matrices are in a row echelon form:

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EQUATIONS

   
1 0 −2 3 1 8 −2 7 2
   
   
0 1 −1 −4 0 0 1 3 1
(a)   (b)  .
   
   
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
   
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Definition 2.3.2. A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form if it is a row echelon

form and furthermore it has additional property that:

• every column with a leading one has zeros elsewhere.

Example
 2.3.2.The following
 matrices
 are in a reduced row echelon form:
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3
   
   
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
(a)   (b)  .
   
   
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2
   
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Example 2.3.3. Reduce the following matrix and leave your answer in

(a) Row echelon form.

(b) Reduced row echelon form.

 
1 1 1 1 1 3
 
 
2 1 1 1 2 4
.
 

1 −1 −1 1
 
1 5
 
 
1 0 0 1 1 4

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Solution: (a)
 
1 1 1 1 1 3
 
 
2 1 1 1 2 4
 
 
1 −1 −1 1
 
1 5
 
 
1 0 0 1 1 4
 
1 1 1 1 1 3
 
 
0 −1 −1 −1 0 −2 R2 − 2R1
∼
 

0 −2 −2 0 0 2  R3 − R1
 
 
 
0 −1 −1 0 0 1 R4 − R1
 
1 1 1 1 1 3
 
 
 −R2
0 1 1 1 0 2
∼


0 −2 −2
 
0 0 2
 
 
0 −1 −1 0 0 1
 
1 1 1 1 1 3
 
 
0 1 1 1 0 2
∼
 

 
0 0 0 2 0 6 R3 + 2R2
 
 
0 0 0 1 0 3 R4 + R2

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EQUATIONS

 
1 1 1 1 1 3
 
 
0 1 1 1 0 2
∼
 

0 0 1 0 3 21 × R3
 
0
 
 
0 0 0 1 0 3
 
1 1 1 1 1 3
 
 
0 1 1 1 0 2
∼
 

 
0 0 0 1 0 3
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 R4 − R3

This matrix is now in a row echelon form.

(b) Now to obtain a reduced row echelon form, we continue from the last step in (a) to ensure

that all columns with leading one have zeros elsewhere as follows:
 
1 1 1 0 1 0  R1 − R3
 
 
0 1
 1 0 0 −1
 R2 − R3
 
 
0 0 0 1 0 3
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
 
1 0 0 0 1 0  R1 − R2
 
 
0 1 1 0 0 −1
∼
 

 
0 0 0 1 0 3
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0

Tutorial 2.3.1. Reduce the following matrix and leave your answer in

(a) Row echelon form.

(b) Reduced row echelon form.

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EQUATIONS

 
1 2 −3 −2 4 1
 
1. 2 5 −8 −1 6 4 .
 
 
 
1 4 7 5 2 8
 
1 2 1 2 1
2
 
 
2 4 3 5 5 7
2.  .
 
 
3 6 4 9 10 11
 
 
1 2 4 3 6 9

2.4. Determinant

Given any square matrix A, there is a special scalar called the determinant of A denoted by

det(A) or we make use of vertical bars |A|. This number is also important in determining

whether a matrix is invertible or not, which will be studied in the next section.

We will show how to evaluate determinant of square matrices of different orders.

(a): 1 × 1 matrix:

If A = (a), then we simply say det A = a.

Example 2.4.1. A = (2) gives det A = 2.

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EQUATIONS

(b): 2 × 2 matrix:

 
a b 
If A =  ;
c d
 
 
a b 
The determinant is defined by: det A =   = ad − bc
 
 
 c d
 
5 −1
Example 2.4.2. If A =  ,then
6 −3
 
 
5 −1
det A =   = (5)(−3) − 6(−1) = −15 + 6 = −9.
 
6 −3
 

Definition 2.4.1. The (i, j)-th minor of a matrix A, denoted by mij (A), is the determinant

obtained by 
deleting row i and
 column j of A.
a11 a12 a13 
 
 
  a11 a13 
e.g. If A = a21 a22 a23 , then m32 (A) =  .
   
   
  a21 a23 
a31 a32 a33

Definition 2.4.2. The (i, j)-th cofactor of a matrix A, denoted by cij (A), is the signed minor

given by cij (A) i+j

 = (−1) m ij (A) of A.

a11 a12 a13 

 
e.g. If A = a21 a22 a23 , then
 
 
 
a31 a32 a33
   
   
a11 a12  a11 a12 
c23 (A) = (−1)2+3   = − .
   
   
a31 a32  a31 a32 

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

(c): 3 × 3 matrix:

(i) Laplace expansion:

 
a11 a12 a13 
 
Given A = a21 a22 a23 ;
 
 
 
a31 a32 a33

 
 
a11 a12 a13 
 
 
det A = a21 a22 a23 
 
 
 
a31 a32 a33 
 

= a11 (−1)1+1 m11 + a12 (−1)1+2 m12 + a13 (−1)1+3 m13

     
     
a22 a23  a21 a23  a21 a22 
2 3 4
= a11 (−1)   + a12 (−1)   + a13 (−1)  .
  
     
a32 a33  a31 a33  a31 a32 

This is Laplace expansion along row one. This expansion can be done along any other

row or column without affecting the value of the determinant.

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

 
−2 3 −1
 
Example 2.4.3. A=  4 −7 1 
 
 
 
1 2 −5
 
 
−2 3 −1
 
 
det A =  4 −7 1 
 
 
 
1 2 −5
 
 

Expand along row 1

     
     
−7 1  4 1  4 −7
= (−2)(−1)1+1   + 3(−1)1+2   + (−1)(−1)1+3 
     

 2 −5 1 −5
     
1 2 

= (−2)(35 − 2) − 3(−20 − 1) − 1(8 + 7) = −66 + 63 − 15 = −18.

(ii) Sarrus scheme:

Another useful method which can be used to evaluate the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix is

what we call “Sarrus scheme” or also commonly referred to as “butterfly method”. To find

the det(A) using this method we follow the following steps:

(i) Rewrite the 1st and 2nd columns on the right (as Columns 4 and 5).

(ii) Add the products along the three full diagonals that extend from upper left to lower

right.

(iii) Subtract the products along the three full diagonals that extend from lower left to upper

right.

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

Let’s work the previous example, now using “Sarrus scheme”:

E.g. Find  
 
−2 3 −1
 
 
 
 4 −7 1 
 
 
1 2 −5
 

Solution:
 
 
−2 3 −1
 
 
det A =  4 −7 1 
 
 
 
1 2 −5
 
 
 
−2 3 −1 −2 3
 
 
=  4 −7 1  4 −7
 
 
 
1 2 −5 1 2
 

= (−2)(−7)(−5) + (3)(1)(1) + (−1)(4)(2) − (1)(−7)(−1) − (2)(1)(−2) − (−5)(4)(3)

= −70 + 3 − 8 − 7 + 4 + 60 = −18.

NB: Sarrus rule does not work for n × n matrices where n ≥ 4.

Properties of determinants:

1. The sign of a determinant changes if any two columns or rows are interchanged.

E.g. From an example, we saw that

 
 
−2 3 −1
 
 
 4 −7 1  = −18.
 
 
 
1 2 −5
 

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EQUATIONS

If we interchange row 1 and row 3, the new determinant;

 
 
1
 2 −5
 
−7 1  = 18.
 
4

 
−2 3 −1
 

Interchanging of columns has the same effect.

2. The determinant
 of a matrix with a zero column or zero row is zero.
 
 1 0 −5  
   
  1 2
E.g.  4 0 1  = 0 and   = 0.
   
   
  0 0
−2 0 −1
 

3. If any two rows or columns of a matrix

 are equal, its determinant
 is zero.
 
  1 2 4 1 
  
1 2 −5  
   
  −3 −5 5 −3
E.g.8 −5 −2 = 0 since R2 = R3 .   = 0 since C1 = C4 .
  
−4 0 −5 −4
   
 
8 −5 −2
   
 
2 1 −5 2 
 

4. If any row or column of a matrix is multiplied by a non-zero constant k, it’s determinant

is multiplied by k. E.g.If  
−2 3 −1
 
A =  4 −7 1  ,
 
 
 
1 2 −5

then if we multiply column 3 by -5, i.e. we have new matrix

 
−2 3 5
 
B =  4 −7 −5 ,
 
 
 
1 2 25

then det B = −5 det A = −5(−18) = 90.

Suppose we multiply the whole matrix A by 2, then each row will be multiplied by two.

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So

det 2A = 2 × 2 × 2 det A = 8 × (−18) = −144.

This is because each row or column is a multiplied by 2, hence the multiple of each row

multiplies the det A, in this case three 2’s since we have 3 rows or columns.

In general If A is an n × n matrix, then det(kA) = k n det A.

5. If any row or column of a matrix is multiplied by a non-zero constant k and the result is

added to another row or column, it’s determinant remains the same. We can show this

by performing row operation.

E.g.  
−2 3 −1
 
A =  4 −7 1 
 
 
 
1 2 −5

using row operation.

   
   
−2 3 −1 0 7 −11 R1 + 2R3
   
   
det A =  4 −7 1  = 0 −15 21  R2 − 4R3
   
   
   
1 2 −5 1 −5 −2 
   

Expanding along C1
 
 
 7 −11
=1×


−15 21 
 

= 7 × 21 − (−15)(−11) = 147 − 165 = −18.

Which still yields the same result.

NB: Care must be taken when performing row operation as to which row we multiply.

Performing row operation to find the determinant is quite helpful when we deal with

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

higher order square matrices, e.g. 4 × 4, 5 × 5, etc.

E.g. Consider a 4 × 4 matrix

 
1 3 5 7
 
 
3 1 3 5
D=
 

 
5 3 1 3
 
 
7 5 3 1

   
   
1 3 5 7 1 3 5 7 

   
   
3 1 3 5 0 −8 −12 −16 R2 − 3R1
=

 
3 0 −12 −24 −32 R3 − 5R1
   
5 3 1
   
   
7 5 3 1 0 −16 −32 −48 R4 − 7R1
   
 
 
 −8 −12 −16

 
= 1 × −12 −24
 
 −32
 
−16 −32 −48
 
 
 
2 3 4
 
 
= (−4)(−4)(−16) 3 6 8
 
 
 
1 2 3
 
 
 
0 −1 −2 R1 − 2R3
 
 
= −256 0 0 −1 R2 − 3R3
 
 
 
1 2 3
 
 
 
−1 −2
= −256 × 1 × 
 

 0 −1
 

= −256 × (1 − 0) = −256.

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

   
   
a b + c a2  a a + b + c a2 
   
   
 b c + a b2  =  b a + b + c b2 
   
   
   
 c a + b c2   c a + b + c c2 
   

C2 + C1
 
 
a 1
 a2 
 
= (a + b + c)  b 1 2
 
 b 
 
2
c 1 c 
 
 
 
 a
 1 a2

 
= (a + b + c) b − a 2 2
 
 0 b − a  R2 − R1
 
c − a 0 c2 − a2  R3 − 1R1
 

Expand along C2
 
 
b − a (b − a)(b + a)
= −(a + b + c) 
 

c − a (c − a)(c + a)
 
 
 
1 b + a 
= −(a + b + c)(b − a)(c − a) 
 

 
1 c + a

= −(a + b + c)(b − a)(c − a)(c + a − b − a)

= −(a + b + c)(b − a)(c − a)(c − b)

6. det(AB) = det A det B

7. det(A + B) 6= det A + det B.

8. det(A) = det(At )

1
9. det(A−1 ) =
det(A)

61
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

Tutorial 2.4.1. 1. Find the value of x such that:

 
 
x − 3 5 
(a)   = 45

 −3 x − 2
 
 
 
x −1 2x 
 
 
(b)  1 −1 0  = 12
 
 
 
 2 −1 −x
 

2. Use properties of determinants to evaluate:

 
 
3 −4 −2
 
 
(a) 6 −4 −1
 
 
 
9 2 3
 
 
 
1 k k 2 
 
 
(b) 1 k k 2 
 
 
 
1 k k 2 
 
 
 
3 3 0 5 

 
 
2 2 0 −2 
(c) 
 

4 1 −3 0 
 
 
 
2 10 3 2
 
 
 
4 0 0 1 0

 
3 3 3 −1 0
 
 
 
(d)  1
 2 4 2 3
 
 
2 2 4 2 3

 
 
−3 −1 2 0 9

62
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

3. Show that the value of the following determinant is independent of x.

 
 

 sin x cos x 0
 
 
 − cos x sin x 0 
 
 
sin x − cos x sin x + cos x 1
 

4. Suppose that A2 = A. Prove that det(A) = 0 or det(A) = 1.

5. Suppose A, B and C are 2 × 2 matrices such that det(A) = 3, det(B −1 and det(C t ) = 4.

Evaluate det(ABC).

6. Two matrices A and B are called SIMILAR if there exists an invertible matrix P such

that A = P BP −1 . If A and B are similar, then prove that det(A) = det(B).

2.5. Matrix Inversion

Definition 2.5.1. An n × n square matrix A is invertible (non-singular) if there exist a matrix

D such that AD = DA = In . We say D is an inverse matrix of A and D = A−1 .

Remark 2.5.1. The matrix A is invertible (non-singular) if the determinant of A is not zero.

Note 2.5.1. The following facts are important:

• If A−1 exists, then it is unique and square of the same order as A.

• An invertible matrix and its inverse commute with respect to matrix multiplication i.e.

AA−1 = A−1 A = In .

• A non-square matrix can never be invertible, and also among square matrices there are

infinitely many that are not invertible.

• There is a symmetric relationship between a matrix and it’s inverse; i.e. if B is the

inverse of A, then A is also an inverse of B.

63
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

• If A−1 exists, then the system of linear equations with A as a coefficient matrix ALWAYS

has a unique solution, whatever the right hand side. We can actually write the equation as

AX = B where X is the column matrix of variables x, y, z, etc and B is the column matrix

of the right hand side. Then AX = B implies A−1 AX = A−1 B, then In X = A−1 B,

hence X = A−1 B. This will yield the unique solution. (We’ll touch this in detail later).

We will study two methods of finding the inverse of a matrix. The first method involves

Gauss-Jordan operation and the second is the adjoint method.

A. Gauss-Jordan elimination method:

We will make use of the following algorithm called Matrix inversion algorithm in order

to evaluate the inverse using the Gauss-Jordan elimination.

NB: Matrix Inversion Algorithm:

If A is a (square) invertible matrix, there exists a sequence of elementary row operations

that carry A to the identity matrix I of the same size, written A → I. This same series

of row operations carries I to A−1 ; that is, I → A−1 . The algorithm can be summarized

as follows:

[A|I] → [I|A−1 ]

where the row operations on A and I are carried out simultaneously.

Example 2.5.1. Use the Gauss-Jordan elimination to find the inverse of the following

matrices:  
2 7 1 
 
−2 3  
(a) A =  ; (b) B =
   
1 4 −1
  
4 −5  
1 3 0

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

(a)
  

−2 3 1 0
(A|I) = 
  
 
4 −5 0 1


  

−2 3  1 0

=  

0 1  2 1 R2 + 2R1
  

−2 0  −5 −3 R1 − 3R2

=  

0 1 2 1
  
5 3 1
1 0  2 2  (− 2 ) × R1

=  

0 1 2 1

 
5 3
2 2
∴ A−1 =  .
2 1
(b)
  

2 7 1  1 0 0

  
(A|I) = 1 4 −1  0 1 0
  
  
  
1 3 0 0 0 1


65
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

First interchange row 1 and 2.

  

1 4 −1  0 1 0 R2 ↔ R1

  
∼ 2
  
 7 1  1 0 0 
  
1 3 0 0 0 1

  

1 4 −1  0 1 0
  
∼ 0
  
 −1 3  1 −2 0

 R2 − 2R1
  
0 −1 1  1 −1 1 R3 − R1

  

1 4 −1  0
 1 0
  
∼ 0
  
 1 −3  −1 2 0

 −R2
  
0 −1 1  0 −1 1

  

1 0 11  4 −7 0 R1 − 4R2

  
∼ 0
  
 1 −3  −1 2 0 
  
0 0 −2  −1 1 1 R3 + R2

  

1 0 11  4 −7 0 

  
∼ 0
  
 1 −3  −1 2 0  
  
0 1  2 − 2 − 2 − 12 R3
 1 1 1
0
  

3 3 11
1 0 11  − 2 − 2

2  R1 − 11R3
  
∼ 0
  1 1 3
 1 −3  2
 2 −2  R2 + 3R3
  
0 0 1  21 − 12 − 12


   
−3 −3 11
 2 2 2  −3 −3 11 
   
Hence A−1 = 1 1 −3 
= 1
 
 2 2 2  1
2 1 −3 
   
1 −1 −1
2 2 2 1 −1 −1

B. The Adjoint Method:

66
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

Definition 2.5.2. The adjoint of a matrix A, denoted by adjA, is the transpose of the

matrix of the cofactors of A.

For example if  
a11 a12 a13 
 
A = a21 a22 a23  ;
 
 
 
a31 a32 a33

then the matrix of cofactors of A, which we will denote by C is:

 
c11 (A) c12 (A) c13 (A)
 
C = c21 (A) ,
 
 c22 (A) c23 (A)

 
c31 (A) c32 (A) c33 (A)

then the adjoint matrix

 
c11 (A) c21 (A) c31 (A)
 
adjA = C T = c12 (A) c22 (A) c32 (A) ,
 
 
 
c13 (A) c23 (A) c33 (A)

Definition 2.5.3. If det A 6= 0 then the inverse of A is given by

1
A−1 = (adjA).
det A

Let again find the inverse of  

2 7 1 
 
B = 1 4 −1
 
 
 
1 3 0

67
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

using the adjoint method to verify that we will get the same answer.

To find the matrix of cofactors,

      
     
4 −1 1 −1 1 4
 −
     
   
     
 3 0  1 0  1 3

      
      
 7 1  2 1 27
     
C= − −
  
      
 3 0      
 1 0  13 
      
      
 7 1  2 1  2 7 
 −
     
    
4 −1 1 −1
     
1 4
   
 (0 + 3) −(0 + 1) (3 − 4)   3 −1 −1
   
= −(0 − 3) = 3
   
 (0 − 1) −(6 − 7)  −1 1 

   
(−7 − 4) −(−2 − 1) (8 − 7) −11 3 1

Now the adjoint matrix is the transpose of cofactor matrix, i.e.

 
3 3 −11
 
adjA = C T = −1 −1
 
 3 
 
−1 1 1

Now
 
 
2 1 1 
 
 
det A = 1 1 −1
 
 
 
1 0 0 
 

C2 − 3C1

Expanding along C1
 
 
1 1 
=1×
 

1 −1
 

= −1 − 1 = −2.

68
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

Now to find inverse,

   
3 3 −11 −3 −3 11 
1 1   1 
A−1 = (adjA) = = ,
   
−1 −1 3  2 1 1 −3
det A −2 
 

   
−1 1 1 1 −1 −1

hence we still obtain the same result.

Tutorial 2.5.1. By using the methods below, find the inverse of matrices below if they exist:

(i) Gauss-Jordan Elimination

(ii) Adjoint Method

 
−3 6
(a) A =  
4 5
 
−1 3 
(b) B =  
3 −2
 
3 4 −1
 
(c) C = 1 0 3 
 
 
 
2 5 −4
 
−1 3 −4
 
(d) D =  2 4 1 
 
 
 
−4 2 −9

2.6. System of Linear equations: Matrix method

System of linear equation plays a vital role in the subject of linear algebra. Many problems in

linear algebra reduces to finding the solution of a system of linear equations. The system of

69
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

linear equations involve constants (scalars) which may come from any field. In this chapter all

our constants (scalars) will come from the field of real numbers.

Definition 2.6.1. A linear equation over a field of real numbers with unknowns x1 , x2 , . . . , xn

is an equation that can be put in the standard form

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn = b

where a1 , a2 , . . . an , and b are constants (scalars) which comes from the field of real numbers

(R) and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are variables. The constant ak is called the coefficient of xk , and b is

called the constant term of the equation.

A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a finite collection of linear equations

in same variables. For instance, a linear system of m equations in n variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn

can be written as:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n x = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n x = b2

(2.1)
.. ..
. .

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm

Definition 2.6.2. A system of equations is consistent if it has at least one solution and it

is inconsistent if it has no solution.

Theorem 2.6.1. Given a system of linear equations in several unknowns, then the system of

linear equations will have one of the following:

(a) A unique (only one) solution (consistent)

(b) Infinitely many solutions

70
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

(c) No solution

In previous year, you were introduced to elimination method (simultaneous equation)

as a way of solving system of linear equations. We will now use the matrix method to solve

the system of linear equations.

2.6.1 Matrix Method

Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

Example 2.6.1. Solve for x, y and z using the Gauss-Jordan elimination method of the fol-

lowing system of linear equations.

2x + 7y + z = 4

x + 4y − z = 9

x + 3y = 3

   
2 7 1  4
   
A = 1 4 −1 ; B = 9
   
   
   
1 3 0 3
  

2 7 1  4

  
(A|B) = 1 4 −1  9
  
  
  
1 3 0 3


71
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

First interchange row 1 and 2.

  

1 4 −1  9 R2 ↔ R1
  
∼ 2
  
 7 1  4
  
1 3 0 3

  

1 4 −1  9 
  
∼ 0
  
 −1 3  −14

 R2 − 2R1
  
0 −1 1  −6 R3 − R1

  

1 4 −1  9 
  
∼ 0
  
 1 −3  14 
 −R2
  
0 −1 1  −6

  

1 0 11  −47 R1 − 4R2

  
∼ 0
  
 1 −3  14 

  
0 0 −2  8 R3 + R2

  

1 0 11  −47
  
∼ 0
  
 1 −3  14 

  
0 0 1  −4 − 21 R3

  

1 0 0  −3 R1 − 11R3
  
∼ 0
  
  R2 + 3R3
1 0  2 
  
0 0 1  −4


∴ the system has unique solution with solutions x = −3, y = 2 and z = −4.

Example 2.6.2. Solve for x, y and z using the Gauss-Jordan elimination method of the fol-

72
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

lowing system of linear equations.

2x − 3y + z = 5

−x + 2y − z = 0

−x + 3y − 2z = 4

  

 2 −3 1 5
 
  
(A|B) = −1 2 −1  0
  
  
  
−1 3 −2  4


First interchange row 1 and 2.

  

−1 2 −1  0 R1 ↔ R2

  
∼  2 −3 1  5
  
  
  
−1 3 −2  4

  

 1 −2 1  0 −R1

  
∼  2 −3 1  5
  
  
  
−1 3 −2  4

  

 1 −2 1 0
 
  
∼ 0 1 −1  5 R2 − 2R1
  
  
  
0 1 −1  4 R3 − R1

  

1 0 −1  10  R1 + 2R2

  
∼ 0 1 −1  5  R3 − R1
  
  
  
0 0 0  −1


73
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

From row 3, we see that we have equation 0x + 0y + 0z = −1 which is impossible; hence the

system will have a no solution.

Example 2.6.3. Solve for x, y and z using the Gauss-Jordan elimination method of the fol-

lowing system of linear equations.

x − 3y + 2z = −1

2x − 5y − z = 2

2x − 7y + 9z = −6
   
1 −3 2  −1
   
A = 2 −5 −1 ; B =  2 
   
   
   
2 −7 9 −6
  

1 −3 2  −1
  
(A|B) = 2
  
 −5 −1  2 
  
2 −7 9  −6

  

1 4 −1  9 

  
∼ 0
  
 −1 3  −14  R2 − 2R1
  
0 −1 1  −6 R3 − 2R1

  

1 −3 2  −1
  
∼ 0
  
 1 −5  4  −R2
  
0 −1 5  −4

  

1 0 −13  11 R1 + 3R2
  
∼ 0
  
 1 −5  4 
  
0 0 0 0 R3 + R1


74
 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

∴ the system has infinitely many solutions.

If we look in rows one and two, we see that coefficients of x and y are 1, we say x and y

are leading variables. The remaining variable z is called free vaiable. We then solve the

equation in terms of the free variable z.

From row 1, we get x = 13z + 11 and from row 2, we get y = 5z + 4.

From these we can see that we can treat z as a parameter, hence we let z = t, and our solution

will be in parametric equation as:

x = 13t + 11, y = 5t + 4 and z = t.

Inverse of Matrix Method

Matrix inverses can be used to solve certain systems of linear equations. The system of linear

equations can be written as a single matrix equation

AX = B.

where A and B are known matrices and X is to be determined. If A is invertible, we multiply

each side of the equation on the left by A−1 to get

A−1 AX = A−1 B, then In X = A−1 B, hence X = A−1 B. This will yield the unique solution

Theorem 2.6.2. Suppose a system of n equations in n variables is written in matrix form as

AX = B. If the n × n coefficient matrix A is invertible, the system has the unique solution

X = A−1 B.

We will verify this method again using the previous examples.

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

Example 2.6.4.

2x + 7y + z = 4

x + 4y − z = 9

x + 3y = 3
    
2 7 1  x 4
    
We can express as AX = B as follows 1 4 −1 y  = 9 .
    
    
    
1 3 0 z 3
We have already seen that  
−3 −3 11
 2 2 2 
 
A−1 = 1 1 −3 
.

 2 2 2 
 
1 −1 −1
2 2 2

Using inverse of matrix method to solve X = A−1 B, i.e.

    
−3 −3 11
x  2 2 2  4
    
   1
y  =  2 1 −3   
 9
   2 2  
    
1 −1 −1
z 2 2 2 3
 
−3 −3 11
( 2 )(4) + ( 2 )(9) + ( 2 )(3)
 
=  ( 1 )(4) + ( 1 ) + ( −3 )(3) 
 
 2 2 2 
 
( 12 )(4) + ( −1
2 )(9) + ( −1
2 )(3)
 
27 33
−6 − 2 + 2 
 
= 2+ 9 − 9 
 
 2 2 
 
2 − 92 − 32
 
−3
 
=  2 .
 
 
 
−4

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

Hence x = −3, y = 2 and z = −4.

Cramer’s Rule

This method uses determinant to solve the system of linear equations.

Consider the system of linear equation AX = B with unique solution. Then

• det A exist, say | A |= D.

• Let Dx =| Ax | where Ax is a matrix obtained by replacing the column of coefficients of

x by B.

Similarly Dy =| Ay | where Ay is a matrix obtained by replacing the column of coefficients

of y by B; Dy =| Ay | in similar fashion, etc.

• Then we can obtain unique solution

Dx Dy Dz
x= ; y= ; z= ; etc. where D 6= 0.
D D D

Example 2.6.5.

2x + 7y + z = 4

x + 4y − z = 9

x + 3y = 3
    
2 7 1  x 4
    
1 4 −1 y  = 9 .
    
    
    
1 3 0 z 3

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

Then
 
 
2 7 1 

 
D =| A | = 1
 
 4 −1
 
1 3 0
 
 
 
2 7 1

 
= 3
 
 11 0
 
13 0
 
 
 
3 11
=1×  = 3 × 3 − 11 × 1 = 9 − 11 = −2.

 
1 3

 
 
4
7 1 

 
Dx =| Ax | = 9
 
4 −1

 
3
3 0
 
 
 
4 7 1

 
= 13
 
 11 0
 
3 3 0
 
 
 
13 11
=1×  = 13 × 3 − 11 × 3 = 39 − 33 = 6.
 
 
3 3

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

 
 
2 4 1 

 
Dy =| Ay | = 1
 
 9 −1
 
1 3 0
 
 
 
2 4 1

 
= 3
 
 13 0
 
1 3 0
 
 
 
3 13
=1×  = 3 × 3 − 13 × 1 = 9 − 13 = −4.

 
1 3

 
 
2 7 4

 
Dz =| Az | = 1
 
 4 9
 
1 3 3
 
 
 
0
 1 −2
 
= 1
 
 4 9 
 
0−1 −6
 
 
 
 1 −2
= −1 ×   = −[1 × (−6) − (−1) × (−2)] = −(−6 − 2) = 8.
 
−1 −6
 

So

Dx 6
x= = = −3,
D −2
Dy −4
y= = = 2,
D −2
Dz 8
z= = = −4.
D −2

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

2.7. 3 × 3 systems with parameters

Consider the system of linear equations:

Example 2.7.1.

x + 3y + (2 − 3k)z = 3

2x + 7y + (4 − 7k)z = 7

2x + ky + (k + 2)z = 2k − 1

Determine the values of k ∈ R such that

(a) The system has no solution

(b) The system has infinitely many solutions

(c) The system has unique (only one) solution (consistent).

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

Solution:

We perform Gauss-Jordan elimination of the augmented matrix to obtain:

  

1 3 2 − 3k  3 

  
  
2 7 4 − 7k  7 
  
  
2 k k + 2  2k − 1

  

1 3 2 − 3k  3 

  
∼ 0
  
 1 −k  1 

 R2 − 2R1
  
0 k − 6 7k − 2  2k − 7 R3 − 2R1


  

1 0 2  0 

   R1 − 3R2
∼ 0 1
  
 −k  1 
 
  
0 0 k2 + k − 2  k − 1

R3 − (k − 6)R2
  

1 0 2  0
 
  
∼ 0 1
  
 −k 
 1 

  
0 0 (k + 2)(k − 1)  k − 1


Then

(a) The system has no solution if

(k + 2)(k − 1) = 0 and k − 1 6= 0, so k = −2 and k 6= 1, since for k = −2, we obtain

  

1 0 2  0 

  
  
0 1 2  1 
  
  
0 0 0  −3


which is clearly impossible.

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

(b) The system has infinitely many solutions if

(k + 2)(k − 1) = 0 and k − 1 = 0, thus k = 1.

(c) The system has unique solution if

(k + 2)(k − 1) 6= 0 thus k 6= −2 and k 6= 1.

Tutorial 2.7.1. 1. Use Gauss-Jordan Elimination to find values of x, y and z where possi-

ble and describe whether each type of solution is either unique, no solution or infinitely

many solutions.

(a)

x + 3y + 2z = 4

−2x − 7y + z = 9

3x + 10y + 9z = 19

(b)

x + 2y + z = 2

2x + 3y + 3z = 3

−3x − 4y − 5z = −5

(c)

x + 2y + 3z = 3

2x + 3y + 8z = 4

5x + 8y + 19z = 11

(d) From (a), (b) and (c) above, where you found a unique solution, use the inverse of

matrix method to confirm the solution.

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

2. In each of the following solve for x, y and z using

(i) Inverse of matrix method,

(ii) Cramer’s Rule

(a)

x + 2y + 3z = 3

2x + 3y + 8z = 4

5x + 8y + 19z = 11

(b)

x + y + 2z = 8

−x − 2y + 3z = 1

3x − 7y + 4z = 10

(c)

2x + 5y − z = −4

x + 2y + z = 3

3x − 2y − z = 5

3. For which value(s) of k will the following system of linear equations have

(i) No solution

(ii) Infinitely many solutions

(iii) Unique solution

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

(a)

x + 2y + z = 3

ky + 5z = 10

2x + 7y + kz = 4

(b)

y + 2kz = 0

x + 2y + 6z = 2

kx + 2z = 1

4. Find values of k and a such that the following system has

(i) No solution

(ii) Infinitely many solutions

(iii) Unique solution

x + 2y + 2z = 1

x + ky + 3z = 3

x + 11y + kz = a

2.7.1 Elementary Matrices and Test for Invertibility

Here we are going to look at a very important theorem which determines whether a matrix is

invertible or not.

Definition 2.7.1. An elementary matrix is an n × n matrix which can be obtained from

the identity matrix In by performing on In a single elementary row transformation.

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

Theorem 2.7.1. If R is the reduced row echelon form of an matrix A, then either R has a

row of zeros or R is the identity matrix In .

Theorem 2.7.2. If A is an matrix, then the following are equivalent:

(a) A is invertible.

(b) AX = 0 has only the trivial solution.

(c) The reduced row echelon form of A is In .

(d) A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices.

(e) AX = B is consistent for every matrix B.

(f ) AX = B has exactly one solution for every matrix B.

Theorem 2.7.3. Let E be an elementary matrix.

(a) If E results from multiplying a row of In by a nonzero number k, then det(E) = k.

(b) If E results from interchanging two rows of In , then det(E) = −1.

(c) If E results from adding a multiple of one row of to In another, then det(E) = 1.

Remark 2.7.1. If B is an n × n matrix and E1 , E2 , . . . , Er are n × n elementary matrices,

then

det(E1 E2 . . . Er B) = det(E1 ) det(E2 ) . . . det(Er ) det(B).

Theorem 2.7.4. A square matrix A is invertible if and only if det(A) 6= 0.

Proof. (⇒:) Assume A is invertible, i.e. A−1 exists. Then AA−1 = In and

1 = det(In ) = det(AA−1 ) = det(A) det(A−1 ).

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

From this it is clear that det(A) 6= 0.

(⇐:) Conversely, assume det(A) 6= 0. Let R be the reduced row echelon form of A. Then there

exists elementary matrices E1 , E2 , . . . , Er such that

R = E1 E2 . . . Er A

and from Remark 2.7.1,

det(R) = det(E1 ) det(E2 ) . . . det(Er ) det(A). (2.2)

Now by Theorem (2.7.3) the determinant of an elementary matrix is non-zero, and since

det(A) 6= 0, it then follows that det(R) 6= 0, which imply that R cannot have a row of zeros.

Then by Theorem (2.7.1), R = In and hence A is invertible by Theorem (2.7.2).

Tutorial 2.7.2. 1. Which of the following matrices are elementary matrices?

 
1 0 −8
 
(a) 0 1 0 
 
 
 
0 0 1
 
1 0 0
√
 
(b)  0 − 7 0
 
 
 
−3 0 1
 
1 0 0 0
 
 
0 0 1 0
(c) 
 

 
0 1 0 0
 
 
0 0 0 1
 
1 0 
(d)  
2
0 −3

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 CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

 
1 1 0
 
(e) 0 1 0
 
 
 
0 0 0

2. From question 5. above, show which operations where used to obtain those matrices

which are elementary matrices.

87
 CHAPTER 3

SET THEORY AND RELATION

”Mathematics is the most beautiful and most powerful creation of the human spirit”. Stefan

Banach

3.1. Introduction

In this chapter, the focus is on theory of sets. In 1902, when the theory of sets was new,

Bertrand Russell and others pointed out flaws in the then common assumption that for every

open sentence there corresponds a set. The resolution of Russells and other paradoxes involved

making a distinction between sets and arbitrary collections of objects. Sets may be defined

within a system of axioms for set theory, first developed by Ernst Zermelo and Abraham

Fraenkel. Their axioms assert, for example, that a collection of two sets constitutes a set

(Axiom of Pairing) and that the collection of all subsets of a set is a set (Axiom of Powers).

A second word of caution: Recall that the universe of discourse is a collection of objects

understood from the context or specified at the outset of a discussion and that all objects under

consideration must belong to the universe. Some ambiguity may arise unless the universe is

known. For example, membership in the set A = {x : x2 − 6x = 0} depends on an agreed upon

universe. For the universe of real numbers A is {0, 6}, but A is {6} for the universe of natural

88
 CHAPTER 3 – SET THEORY AND RELATION

numbers.

3.2. Sets

Sets play a major role in the foundation of Mathematics. Sets are used to group objects

together. Sets may or may not satisfy a certain property. For instance, we can take a collection

of all students enrolled in the University of Limpopo for year 2020 to form a set. Furthermore

we can also describe other sets within a particular bigger set like for instance taking a set of

students in faculty of Science and Agriculture, School of Mathematical and Computer Sciences,

Students studying SMTB000, etc. It is possible that certain individuals (or objects) may appear

in more than one set.

Definition 3.2.1. A set is an unordered collection of well defined objects called the elements

or members of the set.

“Member of” or “element of” is a relation between objects and sets. If a is an object and A is

a set, then a ∈ A means a is a member of A or ‘a is an element of A’. Then a ∈

/ A means a is

not a member of A or ‘a is not an element of A’

3.2.1 Listing of elements

There are two methods of representing a set which are:

1. Listing the elements in a roster: Here we list elements between the two curly brack-

ets (braces).

e.g. The notation {a, 1, e, 7} represents the set with four elements a, 1, e, and 7. We call

this a roster method.

89
 CHAPTER 3 – SET THEORY AND RELATION

Sometimes the roster method can be used to describe a set without listing all the mem-

bers. This is done by listing some of the members, and then ellipses (. . .) are used when

the general pattern of the elements is obvious.

e.g. D = {1, 4, 9, 16, . . . , 81, 100} which is clearly a set of all perfect square numbers

from 1 to 100. One can easily make note of obvious elements not listed, for example,

36 ∈ D and 40 ∈
/ D.

2. Set builder notation: We characterized the elements of that set by a specific property

or properties they must have in order to be a member of such set.

e.g. A = {x : x is a prime number between 6 and 15}.

We often use this method when it is impossible to list such elements, though in some

instances it can be easy to list such element. From our example it easy to list elements

in set A, i.e. A = {7, 11, 13}; but it is not possible to list elements of set B = {x : x =
a
b, where a and b are negative integers}, since there are infinite such number in set B.

3.2.2 Important sets of numbers:

1. Natural numbers: Natural numbers are also known as counting numbers, beginning

at 1. The set of natural numbers is denoted by N; i.e.

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.

N is an infinite set.

If we include a zero we obtain the set of whole numbers denoted by N0 . So

N0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}

2. Integers: Integers consist of natural numbers, negative natural numbers and a zero.

90
 CHAPTER 3 – SET THEORY AND RELATION

The set if integers is denoted by Z; i.e.

Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.

• Positive integers are integers greater than zero and represented as follows;

Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.

• Negative integers are integers less than zero and represented as follows;

Z− = {−1, −2, −3, −4, . . .}.

a
3. Rational numbers are numbers that can be written in the form b where a, b ∈ Z and

b 6= 0; i.e.
a
Q={ : a, b ∈ Z and b 6= 0}.
b

Note that all integers are rational numbers with b = 1.

4. Irrational numbers are the opposite of rational, i.e. those numbers that cannot be
a
written as b where a, b ∈ Z and b 6= 0. These can be represented as R \ Q or R − Q or

Qc (complement of Q), where R is the set of real numbers to be discussed next.

5. Real numbers consist of all the numbers in the sets discussed above, i.e. more specifi-

cally by combining the rational and irrational numbers we get the real numbers.

6. Complex numbers are numbers of the form a + ib where a, b ∈ R and i2 = −1. (See

Chapter 5)

Definition 3.2.2. A Universal set ia a set which contains all sets including itself. We

usually denote universal set by U .

We will assume all sets come from universal set.

91
 CHAPTER 3 – SET THEORY AND RELATION

3.2.3 Subsets

The set A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is also an element of B. We use

the notation A ⊆ B to indicate that A is a subset of B.

To show that A ⊆ B, we must show that if x ∈ A, then also x ∈ B.

E.g. If A = {1, 2, 3, a, b, c} and B = {2, 3, b}, then B ⊆ A, since every element in B is in A.

The statement A ⊆ B means that A may equal B, otherwise if A 6= B, we may write A ⊂ B

and we say A is a proper subset of B. From above example it should be clear that B ⊂ A.

3.2.4 Equal sets

Two sets are equal if they have the same element, and we write A = B if set A and B are

equal sets.

To show that two sets are equal, we must show that A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. Note that if

A = {1, a, 7} and B = {7, 1, a}, then A = B since both sets contain the same elements. So the

order in which the elements of a set are listed does not matter. Also set {1, 1, 1, a, a, 7, 7, 7}

and {1, a, 7} are equal since both contain same elements, so the repeat elements are just taken

as one element.

3.2.5 The empty set

An empty set is a set that contains no elements. It is also called the null set and is denoted

by ∅ or {}.

Singleton is a set that contains one element. Note that ∅ =

6 {∅}.The set {∅} is a singleton

since it is a set containing one element ∅.

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 CHAPTER 3 – SET THEORY AND RELATION

Definition 3.2.3. Cardinality of a set: The Cardinality of set represent the number of

elements in a given set. If set A has n elements, we say that A is a finite set and n is the

cardinality of A. The cardinality of A is denoted by |A|.

E.g. If A = {1, 2, 3, a, b, c}, then |A| = 6.

If X is a set of all letters in English alphabet, then |X| = 26.

3.2.6 Set Operations

Two or more sets may be combined in many different ways. Here we will discuss the different

ways of combining sets.

Definition 3.2.4. Let A and B be sets. The intersection of A and B denoted by A ∩ B, is

the set containing those elements in both A and B; i.e.

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} = {x : (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)}.

Definition 3.2.5. Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B denoted by A ∪ B, is the set

containing those elements that are in either A or B, or in both; i.e.

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} = {x : (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)}.

Definition 3.2.6. The difference or relative complement between sets A and B A \ B =

A − B is the set of elements of A that are not in B. i.e.

A \ B = A − B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B} = {x : (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈
/ B)}.

Note that B \A = B −A = {x : x ∈ B and x ∈

/ A} and A\B = A−B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}

are clearly not the same sets.

Note that A \ B = A ∩ B c

93
 CHAPTER 3 – SET THEORY AND RELATION

Example 3.2.1. Let A = {1, 3, 5, a, b, d, f }, B = {3, 4, 5, b, c, g} and C = {2, e, f }.

Intersection: A ∩ B = {3, 5, b}; A ∩ C = {f }; B ∩ C = ∅; A ∩ B ∩ C = ∅.

Union: A∪B = {1, 3, 4, 5, a, b, c, d, f, g}; A∪C = {1, 2, 3, 5, a, b, d, e, f }; B∪C = {2, 3, 4, 5, b, c, e, f, g};

A ∪ B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, a, b, c, d, e, f, g}.

Difference: A − B = {1, a, d, f }; C − A = {2, e}; check the rest.

19
Example 3.2.2. If A = {x : x is positive odd numbers less than or equal to 2 } and B =

{x ∈ Z : 0 ≤ x2 < 18}, then find:

(a) A ∩ B, (b) A ∪ B and (c) B − A.

Solution:

The first thing to do is to list the elements of set A and B so that we can easily see which

elements are common or not in both sets.

So A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.

(a) A ∩ B = {1, 3}.

(b) A ∪ B = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}.

(c) B − A = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 2, 4}.

Tutorial 3.2.1. 1. Given the following sets:

A = {x ∈ N : x2 ≤ 50}, B = {x ∈ Z : − 37 ≤ x < 4},

C = {x ∈ R : |x| < 2}, and

D = {x : x is prime numbers less than or equal to 30}.

Find

(i) A ∩ B

(ii) A ∪ B

(iii) A ∩ C

94
 CHAPTER 3 – SET THEORY AND RELATION

(iv) B ∩ D

(v) A ∪ D

(vi) (A − C) ∪ (D − B)

(vii) B − C

(viii) (A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ C)

(ix) C − B (challange)

2. Determine the cardinality of your answers from (i) to (ix) above.

3.3. Set Algebra

Theorem 3.3.1. Let A; B; C be sets. Then

(a) A ∪ ∅ = A

(b) A ∪ A = A

(c) A ∪ B = B ∪ A

(d) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).

Proof. We’ll prove (a) and (d).

(d) Remember that we are required to show both inclusions.

Now, let x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) or x ∈ C.

If x ∈ C then x ∈ B ∪ C, and so x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C).

On the other hand, if x ∈ A ∪ B, then either x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) or x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ B ∪ C

hence x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C).

So in all cases x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C).

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Hence (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ (B ∪ C).

We now prove the other inclusion.

Let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∪ C.

If x ∈ A then x ∈ A ∪ B, hence x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

If x ∈ B ∪ C, then either x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C or x ∈ C ⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

So in all cases x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C. Hence A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

So in conclusion A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

(b) and (c) is left as an exercise.

Theorem 3.3.2. Let A; B; C be sets. Then

(a) A ∩ ∅ = ∅

(b) A ∩ A = A

(c) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

(d) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).

Proof: Exercise

Theorem 3.3.3. If A, B, C be sets, then

(a) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

(b) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

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Proof. (a)

Let x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C)

⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∪ C

⇒ x ∈ A and (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)

⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) or (x ∈ A and x ∈ C)

⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ A ∩ C.

i.e. x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). Thus A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A C).

Conversely, let x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

If x ∈ A ∩ B then x ∈ A and x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∪ C

so x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C).

If x ∈ A ∩ C then x ∈ A and x ∈ C ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∪ C.

so x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C).

Hence (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⊆ A ∪ (B ∩ C).

Hence (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) = A ∪ (B ∩ C).

(b) Let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∩ C.

If x ∈ A then x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∈ A ∪ C.

So x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

If instead x ∈ B ∩ C then x ∈ B and x ∈ C. So x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∈ A ∪ C,

i.e. x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

Hence A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

Conversely, if y ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⇒ y ∈ A ∪ B and y ∈ A ∪ C,

i.e. y is in both unions. ⇒ (y ∈ A or y ∈ B) and (y ∈ A or y ∈ C). So either y ∈ A or

y∈
/ A.

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case 1: y ∈ A ⇒ y ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C),

Otherwise

case 2: y ∈ B ∩ C so A ∪ (B ∩ C) which proves that (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⊆ A ∪ (B ∩ C).

Proposition 3.3.4. If A and B are sets, then the following are equivalent (TFAE):

(a) A ⊆ B

(b) A ∩ B = A

(c) A ∪ B = B.

Proof. (a) ⇒ (b) :

Assume A ⊆ B, We will have to show that A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ⊆ A ∩ B.

Now A ⊆ B ⇒ ∀x ∈ A, x ∈ B, then x ∈ A ∩ B, hence A ⊆ A ∩ B.

But A ∩ B ⊆ A always.

So A = A ∩ B.

(b) ⇒ (a) :

Assume A ∩ B = A. We will show that A ⊆ B. Now Since A ∩ B = A

⇒ ∀x ∈ A, x ∈ A ∩ B ⇒ x ∈ B. So A ⊆ B.

(b) ⇒ (c):

Assume A ∩ B = A. We must show that A ∪ B ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ∩ B.

Let x ∈ A ∪ B. Then x ∈ A or x ∈ B.

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If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A ∩ B by hypothesis, which also imply that x ∈ B.

So either case we end up with x ∈ A ∪ B ⇒ x ∈ B, hence A ∪ B ⊆ B.

Also B ⊆ A ∪ B always.

(c) ⇒ (b) :

Assume A ∪ B = B. We show A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ⊆ A ∩ B.

Now, ∀x ∈ A, x ∈ B since A ∪ B = B ⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B, hence A ⊆ A ∩ B.

Now since A ∩ B ⊆ A always, we conclude that A = A ∩ B.

(a) ⇒ (c) : Assume A ⊆ B. We show A ∪ B ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B.

Let x ∈ A ∪ B ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B.

If x ∈ A then x ∈ B since A ⊆ B, so in either case x ∈ A ∪ B ⇒ x ∈ B.

So A ∪ B ⊆ B.

Also B ⊆ A ∪ B always. Hence A ∪ B = B.

(c) ⇒ (a) : Assume A ∪ B = B. We show A ⊆ B. Now A ⊆ A ∪ B always.

⇒ A ⊆ B since A ∪ B = B.

Definition 3.3.1. Let A be a set. Then the set of elements that do not belong to the set A is

called the complement of A, and this set is denoted Ac .

Proposition 3.3.5. Let A, B be sets. Then

(a) (Ac )c = A

(b) If A ⊆ B then B 0 ⊆ Ac

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(c) (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c

(d) (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c .

Proof. We’ll prove (a) and (c) and then (b) and (d) will be left for exercise.

(a) We must show that (Ac )c ⊆ A and A ⊆ (Ac )c .

Let x ∈ (Ac )c ⇔ x ∈
/ Ac

⇔ x ∈ A.

⇒ (Ac )c ⊆ A and A ⊆ (Ac )c , hence (Ac )c = A

(c)Here we prove that (A ∪ B)c ⊆ Ac ∩ B c and Ac ∩ B c ⊆ (A ∪ B)c .

Let x ∈ (A ∪ B)c

⇔x∈
/ (A ∪ B)

⇔x∈
/ A and x ∈
/B

⇔ x ∈ Ac and x ∈ B c

⇔ x ∈ Ac ∩ B c

⇒ (A ∪ B)c ⊆ Ac ∩ B c and Ac ∩ B c ⊆ (A ∪ B)c , hence (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .

Tutorial 3.3.1. 1. Let A, B and C be sets. Prove that

(i) (A − B) − C = (A − C) − (B − C) Use the fact that A − B = A ∩ B c .

(ii) If A ⊆ C and B ⊆ C then A ∪ B ⊆ C.

2. Let A and B be sets. Prove that

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(i) A ∩ B = ∅ ⇔ A ⊆ B c .

(ii) If A ∩ B = A ∪ B ⇔ A = B.

(iii) If B ⊆ C then A ∪ B ⊆ A ∪ C for any set A.

3.3.1 Cartesian Products

Definition 3.3.2. Given two sets A and B, the cartesian product of A and B, denoted by

A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B, hence

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

Example 3.3.1. If A = {3; 4} and B = {5, 7, 8}, then

A × B = {(3, 5), (3, 7), (3, 8), (4, 5), (4, 7), (4, 8)}.

and

B × A = {(5, 3), (5, 4), (7, 3), (7, 4), (8, 3), (8, 4)}.

Notice that cartesian product is in general not commutative i.e. A × B 6= B × A. From our

/ B × A. Note that (x, y) = (x0 , y 0 ) ⇒ x = x0

example, we see that (3, 5) ∈ A × B, but (3, 5) ∈

and y = y 0 . So take note of the fact (x, y) is different from {x, y}. If A, B are finite sets, then

cardinality |A × B| = |A| · |B| (verify!).

Note! (A × B) × C 6= A × (B × C). Why not? What does equality of sets mean? Observe!

((x, y), z) ∈ (A × B) × C and (x, (y, z)) ∈ A × (B × C) for all x ∈ A, y ∈ B, z ∈ C.

Proposition 3.3.6. If A, B, C are sets, then

(a) (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C)

(b) (A ∩ B) × C = (A × C) ∩ (B × C)

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Proof. (a) Let

(x, y) ∈ (A ∪ B) × C

⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B and y ∈ C

⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B and y ∈ C. ⇒ (x, y) ∈ (A × C) or (x, y) ∈ (B × C).

So (A ∪ B) × C ⊆ (A × C) ∪ (B × C).

Conversely, let

(p, q) ∈ (A × C) ∪ (B × C)

⇒ (p, q) ∈ A × C or (p, q) ∈ B × C

⇒ p ∈ A and q ∈ C or p ∈ B and q ∈ C

⇒ p ∈ A ∪ B and q ∈ C, i.e. (p, q) ∈ (A ∪ B) × C.

So (A × C) ∪ (B × C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) × C.

Hence (A × C) ∪ (B × C) = (A ∪ B) × C. (b) Exercise!

Theorem 3.3.7. Let A, B, C, D be sets. Then

(a) (A × B) ∩ (C × D) = (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D)

(b) (A × B) ∪ (C × D) ⊆ (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D)

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Proof. (a) Let (x, y) be an ordered pair. Then

(x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∩ (C × D)

⇔ (x, y) ∈ A × B and (x, y) ∈ C × D

⇔ (x ∈ A and y ∈ B) and(x ∈ C and y ∈ D)

⇔ x ∈ A ∩ C and y ∈ B ∩ D

⇔ (x, y) ∈ (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D).

So (A × B) ∩ (C × D) = (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D)

(b) Let (x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∪ (C × D). Then

(x, y) ∈ A × B OR (x, y) ∈ C × D

⇒ (x ∈ A and y ∈ B) OR (x ∈ C and y ∈ D)

⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ C) and (y ∈ B or y ∈ D)

⇒ x ∈ A ∪ C and y ∈ B ∪ D

⇒ (x, y) ∈ (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D)

⇒ (A × B) ∪ (C × D) ⊆ (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D).

The notion of an ordered pair generalizes to what is known as an ordered n-tuple. The n-

tuple of n objects a1 , a2 , . . . an ; an (given in that order) is an object (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) having the

property that (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = ((b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) iff a1 = b1 ; a2 = b2 ; . . . ; an = bn . For example

(1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (5, 4, 3, 2, 1), (5, 4, 3, 1, 2) are all different 5-tuple.

Tutorial 3.3.2. 1. Let A, B, C and D be sets. Prove that

(i) A × (B − C) = (A × B) − (A × C)

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(ii) If A × C = B × C, and C 6= ∅, then A = B (challange).

2. Use Question 1 in Tutorial 3.2.1 to find:

(i) A × B; (ii) (A × C) ∪ (B × C) and

(iii)also verify that (A ∩ B) × C = (A × C) ∩ (B × C).

For set C use C = {x ∈ Z : |x| < 2} instead.

3. Find cardinality of sets sets from (i) to (iii) in Question 2. above.

3.3.2 Power Set

Consider set A = {a, b, 3}. The list of all subsets of A is:

∅, {a}, {b}, {3}, {a, b}, {a, 3}, {b, 3}, {a, b, 3}.

The set which contains all these 8 elements is called the power set of A.

Definition 3.3.3. The power set P(A) of a set A is the collection of all subsets of A.i.e.

P(A) = {X : X ⊆ A} = set of all subsets of A.

Thus, for any set X, the statements X ⊆ A and X ∈ P(A) are equivalent.

Example 3.3.2. (a) P({3}) = {∅, {3}}

(b) Let A = {∅, {2}}. Then

P(A) = {∅, {∅}, {{2}}, {∅, {2}}}.

Proposition 3.3.8. P(∅) = {∅}.

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Proof. We must show that P(∅) ⊆ {∅} and {∅} ⊆ P(∅}. If A ∈ P(∅) ⇒ A ⊆ ∅ ⇒ A = ∅. For

if A 6= ∅; then A has a member x and the inclusion A ⊆ ∅, would force x ∈ ∅ which is absurd

since ∅ is an empty set. Thus we have A ∈ {∅}. Hence P(∅) ⊆ {∅}.

Conversely, ∅ ⊆ ∅ (since any set is a subset of itself). Hence ∅ ∈ P(∅), and therefore {∅} ⊆

P(A). consequently P(∅) = {∅}.

Observation: If A has n elements, then P(A) has 2n elements, i.e.

|P(A)}| = 2n .

In other words, a set with n elements has 2n subsets. This can be proved by induction. We

however omit the proof here since induction is the subject of another chapter.

Lemma 3.3.9. (a) If X ⊆ Z and Y ⊆ Z then X ∪ Y ⊆ Z.

(b) If Z ⊆ X and Z ⊆ Y then Z ⊆ X ∩ Y .

Proof. (a) If x ∈ X ∪ Y then either x ∈ X or x ∈ Y . In either case x ∈ Z since X ⊆ Z and

Y ⊆ Z. Therefore X ∪ Y ⊆ Z.

(b) If x ∈ Z then x ∈ X and x ∈ Y since Z ⊆ X and Z ⊆ Y . Thus x ∈ X ∩ Y and so

Z ⊆X ∩Y.

Theorem 3.3.10. Let A and B be sets. Then

(a) {∅, A} ⊆ P(A)

(b) A ⊆ B ⇔ P(A) ⊆ P(B)

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(c) P(A) ∪ P(B) ⊆ P(A ∪ B)

(d) P(A) ∩ P(B) = P(A ∩ B).

Proof. (a) We already know that ∅ ⊆ A and A ⊆ A ⇒ ∅ ∈ P(A) and A ∈ P(A). Hence

{∅, A} ⊆ P(A).

(b) (⇒) : Assume A ⊆ B, and let X ∈ P(A). We want to show that X ∈ P(B) which is

equivalent to showing that X ⊆ B.

Now, X ∈ P(A) ⇒ X ⊆ A ⊆ B by hypothesis. So X ⊆ B, that is X ∈ P(B). Hence

P(A) ⊆ P(B).

(⇐): Conversely, assume P(A) ⊆ P(B). We have x ∈ A ⇒ {x} ⊆ A ⇒ {x} ∈ P(A) ⇒

{x} ∈ P(B), since P(A) ⊆ P(B) ⇒ {x} ⊆ B ⇒ x ∈ B, and thus A ⊆ B. The result is

therefore proved.

(c) Since A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B, then by part (b) we have that P(A) ⊆ P(A ∪ B) and

P(B) ⊆ P(A ∪ B), and by lemma (1.1 3.3.9 we have P(A) ∪ P(B) ⊆ P(A ∪ B).

OR

Let X ∈ P(A) ∪ P(B), then X ∈ P(A) or X ∈ P(B). This implies that X ⊆ A or

X ⊆ B, hence X ⊆ A ∪ B. So X ∈ P(A ∪ B), hence our result.

(d) (⇒) Since A∩B ⊆ A, we have P(A∩B) ⊆ P(A) by part (b). Similarly P(A∩B) ⊆ P(B).

So lemma (3.3.9 (b)) gives P(A ∩ B) ⊆ P(A) ∩ P(B).

(⇐) : Conversely, if X ∈ P(A) ∩ P(B) then X ∈ P(A) and X ∈ P(B), ⇒ X ⊆ A and

X ⊆ B. So X ⊆ A ∩ B ⇒ X ∈ P(A ∩ B). Therefore P(A) ∩ P(B) ⊆ P(A ∩ B) and we

have proved the desired equality.

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Tutorial 3.3.3. 1. Find power sets of the following sets:

A = {0, b}; B = {{7}}; C = {∅, {3}, d} and D = P({5}).

2. Consider sets A = {x ∈ N : −3 ≤ x < 72 }, B = {x ∈ R : x is prime number less than 25},

Find P(A ∩ B) and P(A − B) and hence determine their cardinality as well.

3.3.3 Symmetric difference

Definition 3.3.4. We define symmetric difference to be

A ⊕ B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A).

Prove that

(i) A ⊕ A = ∅

(ii) A ⊕ ∅ = A

(iii) (A ⊕ B) − (A − B) = B − A

(iv) A ⊕ B = ∅ ⇒ A = B

3.4. Relations

Definition 3.4.1. A relation R from a set A to a set B is simply any subset of the cartesian

product A × B, i.e. a collection of ordered pairs (x, y) : x ∈ A and y ∈ B.

Example 3.4.1. Let A = {1, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4}. Then we can define the following relations

from A to B:

1. R1 = {(1, 4)}

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2. R2 = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 4)}

3. R3 = {(1, 2), (3, 3)}

4. R4 = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4)}

Observe that in each case Ri ⊆ A × B, i = 1, 2, 3, 4.

Definition 3.4.2. Suppose R is a relation from A to B. Then for (a, b) ∈ R we say that a

relates to b under R or a is related to b under R written aRb.

Example 3.4.2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.Define relation R = {(a, b) : a divides b}.

Solution:

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.

Example 3.4.3. Let A = R and B = R. We define the relation on R from R to R by aRb iff

a2 − b2 = 1, i.e.

R = {(a, b) : a2 − b2 = 1}.
√
The set R contains infinitely many elements, e.g. (2, 3), (1, 0),etc.

3.4.1 Types of Relations

There are several properties that are used to classify relations on a set. We will introduce the

most important of these here. Let R be a relation from a set A to the set A itself so that

R ⊆ A × A. Then

1. R is called a reflexive relation if for all a ∈ A, (a, a) ∈ R, i.e. aRa.

2. The relation R from A to A is called a symmetric relation if whenever (a, b) ∈ R,

(b, a) ∈ R and a, b ∈ A, i.e. aRb ⇒ bRa.

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3. R is called an antisymmetric relation if for any a, b ∈ A, (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R

means that a = b, i.e. aRb and bRa ⇔ a = b.

4. The relation R from A to A is called a transitive relation if for any a, b, c ∈ A,

(a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R, i.e. aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc.

Example 3.4.4. The relation R from Z to Z defined by xRy iff x = y:

• R is reflexive since for any x ∈ Z, x = x.

• If xRy ⇒ x = y hence since equality has commutative property in Z, y = x ⇒ yRx, so

R is symmetric.

• Since xRy and yRx ⇒ x = y, then R is antisymmentric.

• Let xRy and yRz; then x = y and y = z. By equality property, x = z as well. So R is

transitive.

Example 3.4.5. The relation R from R to R defined by xRy iff x ≥ y:

• R is reflexive since for any x ∈ R, x = x, i.e. x ≥ x..

• If xRy ⇒ x ≥ y, then −y ≥ −x ⇒ y ≤ x, hence not y ≥ x. So R is not symmetric.

• Since xRy ⇒ x ≥ y and yRx ⇒ y ≥ y, then x = y, hence R is antisymmentric.

• Let xRy and yRz; then x ≥ y and y ≥ z.Then x ≥ z as well. So R is transitive.

Definition 3.4.3. A relation on a set A is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,

symmetric, and transitive.

Example 3.4.6. Let A = {a, b, c}. Then we can define the following relations from A to B:

1. R1 = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, c)}

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2. R2 = {(a, b), (b, a), (a, c), (c, a)}

3. R3 = {(a, a), (b, b), (a, b), (a, c), (b, c), (b, a)}

4. R4 = {(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (b, c), (c, b), (b, b), (c, c), (b, a), (c, a)}

Which of the following is (are) reflexive, symmetric or transive?

Solution:

1. For R1 to be reflexive, for each x ∈ A, (x, x) ∈ R1 , i.e. (a, a), (b, b), (c, c) ∈ R1 . But in

our case only (a, a) ∈ R1 . So R1 is not reflexive.

For R1 to be symmetric, we must have that for every (x, y) ∈ R1 , also (y, x) ∈ R1 . We

(a, b) ∈ R1 but (b, a) ∈

/ R1 . This is enough to conclude that R1 is not symmetric. Or

(b, c) ∈ R1 but (c, b) ∈

/ R1 . (you may not show both situations unless specified).

For transitive, we must have for (x, y) ∈ R1 , (y, z) ∈ R1 then (x, z) ∈ R1 . We have

(a, b) ∈ R1 and (b, c) ∈ R1 , so for transitivity, we need (a, c) ∈ R1 . But in this case,

(a, c) ∈
/ R1 . So R1 is not transitive.

2. R2 is not reflexive since (a, a), (b, b), (c, c) ∈

/ R2 .

We have (a, b) ∈ R2 as well as (b, a) ∈ R2 and (a, c) ∈ R2 as well as (c, a) ∈ R2 , hence

R2 is symmetric.

(b, a) ∈ R2 and (a, c) ∈ R2 , but (b, c) ∈

/ R2 , hence R2 is not transitive.

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3. R3 is not reflexive since (c, c) ∈

/ R3 , even though (a, a) ∈ R3 and (b, b) ∈ R3 . R3 is not

symmetric since (a, c) ∈ R3 but (c, a) ∈

/ R3 , even though (a, b), (b, a) ∈ R3 .

Since (a, b) ∈ R3 , (b, c) ∈ R3 and (a, c) ∈ R3 , then R3 is transitive.

4. Show that R4 is both reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Hence, only R4 is equivalence relation.

Example 3.4.7. Let R be a relation from R to R defined by xRy iff x − y is divisible by

(multiple of) 10,i.e.

R = {(x, y) : x − y = 10k, for k ∈ Z}.

Show that R is an equivalence relation.

Solution:

(a) Reflexive:

We must show that xRx. Now x − x = 0 = 10 · 0, hence divisible by 10. So R is reflexive.

(b) Symmetric:

We must show that if xRy, then yRx. Suppose xRy, then

x − y = 10k, for k ∈ Z

−(y − x) = 10k

y − x = 10(−k)

But −k ∈ Z if k ∈ Z, hence y − x is also divisible by 10.

So R is symmetric.

(c) Transitive:

We must show that if xRy, and yRz, then xRz. If xRy, and yRz, then x − y = 10k and

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y − z = 10h for some k, h ∈ Z.

Now,

x − z = (x − y) + (y − z)

= 10k + 10h

= 10(k + h)

Since k ∈ Z and h ∈ Z, then k + h ∈ Z. So x − z is divisible by 10.

3.4.2 Equivalence Classes and Partitions

Definition 3.4.4. Let R be an equivalence relation on the nonempty set A. For a ∈ A, the

equivalence class of a determined by the relation R is the set

[a] = {b ∈ A : aRb}.

Example 3.4.8. Suppose A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Let R be a relation on A defined by aRb

iff a − b = 2k for k ∈ Z. It is easy to show that R is equivalence relation. Now for any a ∈ A,

[a] = {b ∈ A : aRb} is an equivalence class under R. For instance

[0] = {b ∈ A : 0Rb} = {b ∈ A : 0 − b = 2k, k ∈ Z} = {b ∈ A : b = 2(−k), k ∈ Z} = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8};

[1] = {b ∈ A : 1Rb} = {b ∈ A : 1 − b = 2k, k ∈ Z} = {b ∈ A : b = 1 − 2k, k ∈ Z} = {1, 3, 5, 7};

[2] = {b ∈ A : 2Rb} = {b ∈ A : 2 − b = 2k, k ∈ Z} = {b ∈ A : b = 2 − 2k, k ∈ Z} = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8};

[3] = {b ∈ A : 3Rb} = {b ∈ A : 3 − b = 2k, k ∈ Z} = {b ∈ A : b = 3 − 2k, k ∈ Z} = {1, 3, 5, 7};

[4] = {b ∈ A : 4Rb} = {b ∈ A : 4 − b = 2k, k ∈ Z} = {b ∈ A : b = 4 − 2k, k ∈ Z} = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8};

[5] = {b ∈ A : 5Rb} = {b ∈ A : 5 − b = 2k, k ∈ Z} = {b ∈ A : b = 5 − 2k, k ∈ Z} = {1, 3, 5, 7};

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[6] = {b ∈ A : 6Rb} = {b ∈ A : 6 − b = 2k, k ∈ Z} = {b ∈ A : b = 6 − 2k, k ∈ Z} = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8};

[7] = {b ∈ A : 7Rb} = {b ∈ A : 7 − b = 2k, k ∈ Z} = {b ∈ A : b = 7 − 2k, k ∈ Z} = {1, 3, 5, 7};

[8] = {b ∈ A : 8Rb} = {b ∈ A : 8 − b = 2k, k ∈ Z} = {b ∈ A : b = 8 − 2k, k ∈ Z} = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8};

3.4.3 Congruence Modulo

Let R be an equivalence relation, if xRy we say “x is congruent to y modulo n” whenever

n ∈ N is a divisor of x − y.We write x ≡ y( mod n).

Example 3.4.9. Solve for x if

x ≡ 5( mod 3).

Solutions:

x ≡ 5( mod 3) ⇒ x − 5 = 3k for k ∈ Z.

Then x = 3k + 5. So for k ∈ {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}, we get

x = {. . . , −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . .}.

This problem is a consequence of finding [5] when we define relation R to by xRy iff x − y = 3k

for k ∈ Z, hence

[5] = {b ∈ Z : bR5} = {b ∈ A : b − 5 = 3k, k ∈ Z}

= {b ∈ Z : b = 3k + 5, k ∈ Z}

= {. . . , −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . .}.

Example 3.4.10. Given R on Z. Define xRy by x + y is even integer.

(a) Show that R is an equivalence relation on Z.

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(b) Find [0] and [3].

Solutions:

(a)

(i) Since x + x = 2x and since x ∈ Z then 2x is even, hence xRx hence R is reflexive.

(ii) If xRy, then x + y is even hence y + x is still even since addition in Z is commutative,

so yRx, hence R is symmetric.

(iii) Let xRy and yRz, so x + y = 2k and y + z = 2r for k, r ∈ Z. Adding the two equations

we get

(x + y) + (y + z) = 2k + 2r

x + z = 2k + 2r − 2y

= 2(k + r − y)

hence even since k+r−y ∈ Z. So xRz is also satisfied hence R is transitive. In conclusion

R is an equivalence relation.

(b)

[0] = {y ∈ Z : 0Ry} = {y ∈ Z : 0 + y = 2k k ∈ Z}

= {y ∈ Z : y = 2k k ∈ Z}

= {. . . , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, . . .}

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[3] = {y ∈ Z : 3Ry} = {y ∈ Z : 3 + y = 2k, k ∈ Z}

= {y ∈ Z : y = 2k − 3, k ∈ Z}

= {. . . , −7, −5, −3, −1, 1, . . .}

Example 3.4.11. Define a relation R on R × R by:

(x, y)R(u, v) iff x2 + y 2 = u2 + v 2 .

(a) Prove that R is an equivalence relation on R × R.

(b) Give a description of the members of each of the following equivalence classes:

[(0, 0)]; [(1, 1)]; [(3, 4)].

(c) Describe [(a, b)] for any fixed values a, b both in set-theoretic terms as well as geometri-

cally.

Solution:

(a) reflexive:

(x, y)R(x, y) By definition x2 + y 2 = x2 + y 2 , so R is clearly reflexive.

symmetric:

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(x, y)R(u, v) ⇒ x2 + y 2 = u2 + v 2

x2 − u2 = −y 2 + v 2

−u2 − v 2 = −x2 − y 2

−(u2 + v 2 ) = −(x2 + y 2 )

u2 + v 2 = x2 + y 2

⇒ (u, v)R(x, y)

Therefore R is symmetric. transitive:

Let (x, y)R(u, v) and (u, v)R(s, t). We need to show that (x, y)R(s, t)

Now, (x, y)R(u, v) iff x2 + y 2 = u2 + v 2 and (u, v)R(s, t) iff u2 + v 2 = s2 + t2 . By the

property of “=” we deduce that x2 +y 2 = s2 +t2 ⇒ (x, y)R(s, t) and thus R is transitive.

Hence R is an equivalence relation.

(b)

[(0, 0)] = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : (x, y)R(0, 0)}

= {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x2 + y 2 = 02 + 02 }

= {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x2 + y 2 = 0}

which is a circle with centre origin and radius 0.

[(1, 3)] = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : (x, y)R(1, 3)}

= {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x2 + y 2 = 12 + 32 }

= {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x2 + y 2 = 10}

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√
which is a circle with centre origin and radius 10.

[(8, 6)] = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : (x, y)R(8, 6)}

= {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x2 + y 2 = 82 + 62 }

= {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x2 + y 2 = 100}

which is a circle with centre origin and radius 10.

(c)

[(a, b)] = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : (x, y)R(a, b)}

= {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x2 + y 2 = a2 + b2 }

which is a family of concentric circles centred at the origin.

which is a family of concentric circles centred at the origin.

Tutorial 3.4.1. 1. Determine whether the following relations are (i) reflexive, (ii) sym-

metric, (iii) transitive.

(a) Let A = {a, b, c} define a relation or R, where

R = {(b, b), (c, a), (a, b), (a, c), (b, c), (b, a), (c, b), (c, c)}.

(b) Relation R defined on Z where (x, y) ∈ R iff x − y = 4.

(c) Relation R defined on N where (m, n) ∈ R iff m divides n.

(d) Relation R defined on R where xRy iff x < y.

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(e) Let R be a relation on cartesian product N × N where (x, y)R(u, v) iff xv − yu = 1

2. From the previous question above, which of (a) to (d) are equivalence relation? Give

reasons based on on what you shown above.

3. Show that the following are equivalence relation.

(a) Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} define a relation or R, where

R = {(b, a), (b, b), (e, a), (a, a), (e, d), (a, d), (a, e), (b, d)(c, c), (d, a), (e, e), (c, b),

(d, d), (a, b), (d, e)},

(b) Relation R defined on Z − {0} where (x, y) ∈ R iff xy > 0.

(c) Relation R defined on Z where (x, y) ∈ R iff x − y = 7k for k ∈ Z.

(d) Let R be a relation on cartesian product N × N where (x, y)R(u, v) iff xv = yu

4. Find the equivalence classes of the following using question 3 above

(a) [b] and [e] in (a).

(b) [3] and [7] in (b).

(c) [0] and [5] in (c).

(d) [(3, 5)] and [(1, 1)] in (d).

3.5. Algebraic structures

A binary operation ? on a set A is a map ? : A × A → A. Using such an operation we shall

often write a ? b (or a ? b) instead of ?(a, b): Note the difference:

• when R : A → B is a relation, aRb is an assertion that is true if and only if (a; b) is in R;

• when ? : A × A → A is an operation and a and b are in A, a ? b is an element in A.

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Remark 3.5.1. • N is the set of natural numbers, the most familiar classical operations

on it are addition + and multiplication ×, more often written as ·, and one even writes

ab instead of a · b:

• Z is the set of integers; apart from the addition and multiplication, denoted by the same

symbols as for natural numbers, one of the most important binary operations on it is

subtraction −: Note that here we use ”minus” as a binary operation, although it can

also be used as a unary operation, that is, a map A → A.

• The set Q of rational numbers, the set R of real numbers, and the set C of complex

numbers all have addition, multiplication, and subtraction defined on them, and denoted

by the same symbols as for integers.

3.5.1 Associativity, Commutativity and idempotency

Many binary operations ? : A × A → A satisfy one or more of the following identities:

• x ? (y ? z) = (x ? y) ? z (associativity),

• x ? y = y ? x (commutativity),

• x ? x = x (idempotency); for all for all x, y, z ∈ A, and called associative, commutative,

idempotent respectively.

Example 3.5.1. (1) Which of the followings define a binary operations on the set of integers?

Of those that do, which are associative? Which are commutative? Which are idempotent?
m+n
(a) m ? n = ,
3
(b) m ? n = 10,

(2) Let m be a binary operation on the set of real numbers defined by x ? y = ax + by + c.

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Find the set of all triples (a, b, c) of real numbers, for which ? is idempotent.

Solutions
−1 + 2 1
1. (a) By counter example −1 ? 2 = = ∈/ Z. Since ? is not a binary operation on Z,
3 3
we don’t have to check associativity, commutatuvity and idempotency.

(b) Since ∀m, n ∈ Z, we have m ? n = 10 ∈ Z then ? is a binary operation on Z.

Now (m ? n) ? p = 10 ? p = 10 and m ? (n ? p) = m ? 10 = 10. Since (m ? n) ? p = m ? (n ? p) = 10,

then ? is associative.

Commutativity follows immediately from the fact that m ? n = 10 = n ? m.

The binary operation ? is not idempotent because m ? m = 10 6= m if m 6= 10. Note that this

can still be solved by using a counter example. (Left for students as an exercise).

(2) We have x = x ? x = ax + bx + c = x(a + b) + c. It follows that a + b = 1 and c = 0. So,

the set of all triples (a, b, c) = (a, 1 − a, 0) or (a, b, c) = (1 − b, b, 0).

Tutorial 3.5.1. (1) Which of the followings define a binary operations on the set of integers?

Of those that do, which are associative? Which are commutative? Which are idempotent?

(a) m ? n = mn + 1,
m+n
(b) m ? n = ,
2
(c) m ? n = m,

(d) m ? n = mn2 ,

(e) m ? n = m2 + n2 ,

(f) m ? n = 3,

(g) m ? n = mn .

(2) Let m be a binary operation on the set of real numbers defined by x ? y = ax + by + c.

(a) Find the set of all triples (a, b, c) of real numbers, for which ? is associative.

(b) Find the set of all triples (a, b, c) of real numbers, for which ? is commutative.

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3.5.2 Algebraic structures

There are various examples of algebraic structures. We are going to give more attention on

Groups. First we give the following definitions:

Definition 3.5.1. An element e of the set S is an identity (an identity element) for the binary

operation ? on S if e ? a = a ? e = a, ∀a ∈ S.

Example 3.5.2. 0 is the identity element with respect to addition in the sets N0 , N, Z, and

many more.

1 is the identity element with respect multiplication in various sets.

Definition 3.5.2. If ? is a binary operation on a set S, e an identity inverse for ?, for a ∈ S

then ∈ S is an inverse of a relative to ? if a ? b = b ? a = e.

a+b
Example 3.5.3. Define ? on R by a ? b = for all a, b ∈ R. Find the identity e and the
4
0 0
inverse a with respect to ?, for all e, a ∈ R.
a+e
Solution : We have a = a ? e = . We then obtain that a + e = 4a and hence e = 3a.
4
That is, the identity here is 3a.
0
0 0 a+a
For the inverse, we obtain that a ? a = e. We then have a ? a = 3a. That is = 3a, so
4
0 0
that a + a = 12a and hence a = 11a.

Tutorial 3.5.2. Which of the followings define a binary operations on the set of integers? Of

those that do, find the identity and the inverse with respect to ?

(a) m ? n = mn + 1,
m+n
(b) m ? n = ,
2
(c) m ? n = m,

(d) m ? n = mn2 ,

(e) m ? n = m2 + n2 ,

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(f) m ? n = 3,

(g) m ? n = mn .


Definition 3.5.3. A group G, ? is a set G together with a binary opeartion ? sastisfying the

following three conditions

G1 : the binary operation ? is associative on the set G,

G2 : there exists a unique identity element e ∈ G such that e ? a = a ? e = a, ∀a ∈ G,

0 0 0
G3 : ∀a ∈ G there exists an identity element a such that a ? a = a ? a = e.

Remark 3.5.2. An abelian group is a group which is commutative.

Example 3.5.4. The set Z of integers is a group with respect to addition and subtraction,

but this set is not a group with respect to multipucation because there is no identity element,

again the set Z of ingetrs is not a group with respect to division because division is not a

binary operation in Z.

3.5.3 Boolean algebras

A Boolean algebra is a mathematical structure (B, 0, ∨, 1, ∧, ¬), in which B is a set, 0 and

1 are elements of B, ¬ is unary operation on B, and ∨ and ∧ are binary operations on B;

satisfying the following equalities

a ∨ (b ∨ c) = (a ∨ b) ∨ c

a ∨ b = b ∨ a,

a ∨ a = a,

a ∧ (b ∧ c) = (a ∧ b) ∧ c,

a ∧ b = b ∧ a,

a ∧ a = a,

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a ∧ (a ∨ b) = a,

a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a,

a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)

a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)

a ∧ (¬a) = 0,

a ∨ (¬a) = 1,

0 ∨ a = a = a ∨ 0,

and 1 ∧ a = a = a ∧ 1,

for all a, b, c ∈ B.

Example 3.5.5. 1. Let (B, 0, ∨, 1, ∧, ¬) be a Boolean algebra and x, y ∈ B. Prove the

following equalities: (a) ¬0 = 1.

(b) ¬(x ∧ y) = ¬x ∨ ¬y.

(c) x ∧ (¬x ∨ y) = x ∧ y.

Solutions (a) Clearly 0 ∨ 1 = 1 and 0 ∧ 1 = 0, hence ¬0 = 1.

(b) It is sufficient to prove that (x ∧ y) ∨ (¬x ∨ ¬y) = 1 and (x ∧ y) ∧ (¬x ∨ ¬y) = 0. Now

(x ∧ y) ∨ (¬x ∨ ¬y) = (¬x ∨ ¬y) ∨ (x ∧ y)

= [(¬x ∨ ¬y) ∨ x] ∧ [(¬x ∨ ¬y) ∨ y]

= [(¬x ∨ x) ∨ ¬y] ∧ [¬x ∨ (¬y ∨ y)]

= (1 ∨ ¬y) ∧ (¬x ∨ 1)

= 1∧1

= 1

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and

(x ∧ y) ∧ (¬x ∨ ¬y) = [(x ∧ y) ∧ ¬x] ∨ [(x ∧ y) ∧ ¬y]

= [(x ∧ ¬x) ∧ y] ∨ [x ∧ (y ∧ ¬y)]

= (0 ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ 0)

= 0∨0

= 0,

hence the proof is complete.

(c) This is a straight forward calculation, since x∧(¬x∨y) = (x∧¬x)∨(x∧y) = 0∨(x∧y) = x∧y.

Tutorial 3.5.3. Let (B, 0, ∨, 1, ∧, ¬) be a Boolean algebra and x, y ∈ B. Prove the following

equalities: (a) ¬(x ∨ y) = ¬x ∧ ¬y.

(b) x ∨ y = ¬(¬x ∧ ¬y).

(c) x ∧ y = ¬(¬x ∨ ¬y).

(d) ¬1 = 0.

(e) x ∨ (¬x ∧ y) = x ∨ y.

(f) ¬(¬x) = x.

3.6. Functions

Definition 3.6.1. Let A and B be sets. A function f from A to B, denoted by f : A → B,

is a relation from A to B such that

(a) Domain of f is A

(b) If (a, b) ∈ f and (a, c) ∈ f , then b = c.

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The domain of f from A to B is the set

Dom(f ) = {x ∈ A : (∃y ∈ B)((x, y) ∈ f )}

The codomain of the function from A to B is the set B.

The range of a function f from A to B is the set

Rng(f ) = {y ∈ B : (∃x ∈ A)((x, y) ∈ f )}

3.6.1 One-to-One and Onto functions

Onto(Surjective) Functions

Definition 3.6.2. Let A and B be sets. A function f : A → B is onto if and only if

∀y ∈ B, ∃x ∈ A such that f (x) = y.

Example 3.6.1. (a) Show that function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 5x − 2 is onto.

Solution:

Let y ∈ R be the codomain R. We must find an x in the domain R such that

f (x) = 5x − 2 = y. By solving for x we find,

5x − 2 = y

5x = y + 2
y+2
x= ∈ R for any y ∈ R.
5

(b) Show that function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 + 4 is not onto.

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Solution:

Since the codomain is any y ∈ R, we can prove by using counter-example that x cannot

exist for all R. Let y = 2, then

x2 + 4 = 2 ⇒ x2 = −2.

It is clear from this that there is no solution of x which satisfies such expression.

Actually x2 + 4 ≥ 4 i.e. the minimum value is 4.

One-to-One(Injective) Functions

Definition 3.6.3. Let A and B be sets. A function f : A → B is one-to-one (injective) if and

only if for

f (x) = f (y) ⇒ x = y, for x, y ∈ A or if x 6= y ⇒ f (x) 6= f )y).

Example 3.6.2. (a) Show that function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 5x − 2 is one-to-one.

Solution:

Assume that f (x) = f (y). We must check if x = y. Then

f (x) = f (y) ⇒ 5x − 2 = 5y − 2

5x = 5y

x = y.

(b) Show that function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 + 4 is not one-to-one.

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Solution:

Let’s attempt to prove that f (x) is one-to-one. Then

f (x) = f (y) ⇒ x2 + 4 = y 2 + 4

x2 = y 2 .

But the last expression doesn’t mean that x = y, for example, if x = 3 and y = −3. It

is clear that x2 = y 2 = 9. So f (x) = f (y) = 13 but 3 = x 6= y = −3, hence f is not

one-to-one.

Tutorial 3.6.1. Check whether the following functions are onto or one-to-one. Show your

steps clearly.

(i) f : R → R defined by f (x) = −3x + 2

(ii) f : R → R defined by f (x) = −x2 − 5

(iii) f : R+ → R+ defined by f (x) = x2

(iv) f : R → [−1, 1] defined by f (x) = cos x

3.6.2 Composite Functions

Definition 3.6.4. Let A, B and C be sets. Given relations f : A → B and g : B → C the

composite function gf : A → C of the relations f and g is given by

gf (a) = c, ∃b ∈ B | ((f (a) = b) ∧ (g(b) = c)),

for all a ∈ A and c ∈ C.

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Example 3.6.3. Suppose f (x) = 2x2 + 4 and g(x) = 3x − 1. Find the composite functions

f g and gf .

Solution

f g(x) = f (3x − 1) (3.1)

= 2(3x − 1)2 + 4 (3.2)

= 2(9x2 − 6x + 1) (3.3)

= 18x2 − 12x + 2 (3.4)

gf (x) = g(2x2 + 4) (3.5)

= 3(2x2 + 4) − 1 (3.6)

= 6x2 + 12 − 1 (3.7)

= 6x2 + 11 (3.8)

Note 3.6.1. The identity function is a function f (x) such that f (x) = x for all x.

Remark 3.6.1. If gf = f g then we have f g(x) = gf (x) = x called the identity function. In

this case g = f −1 and f = g −1 , where f − and g −1 are called inverse functions.

Example 3.6.4. Given f (x) = 4x − 9. Find

1. f −1 ;

2. f (f −1 ) and f −1 f .

Solutions

x+9
1. To obtain f −1 , we put x = 4y − 9 and solve for y. That is y = . Thus f −1 (x) =
4
x+9
.
4

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x+9 x+9
2. f (f −1 (x)) = f ( ) = 4( ) − 9 = x. Similarly f −1 f = x.(TRY IT)
4 4

Theorem 3.6.1. Let f : A → B and g : B → C be functions. Then

1. if f and g are injective, then so is gf ;

2. if gf is injective, then so is f ;

3. if f and g are surjective, then so is gf ;

4. if gf is surjective, then so is g;

5. if gf is bijective, then f is injective and g is surjective;

6. if gf is bijective and f is surjective, then g is bijective;

7. if gf is bijective and g is injective, then f is bijective;

0 0
Proof. 1. Let a, a ∈ A. If g is injective, then it means that g(f (a)) = g(f (a )) implies
0 0 0
f (a) = f (a ). Since f is also injective then f (a) = f (a ) implies a = a . Hence g(f (a)) =
0 0
g(f (a )) resulted in a = a implies that gf is injective.

0 0
2. Suppose f (a) = f (a ), we then obtain that g(f (a)) = g(f (a )) and since gf is injective,
0 0
it follows that a = a , ∀a, a ∈ A. Hence f is injective.

3. Let c ∈ C, since g is surjective, there exists b ∈ B with g(b) = c. Since f is surjective,

there exists a ∈ A with f (a) = b. Hence g(f (a)) = g(b) = c., proving that gf is surjective.

4. Since gf is surjective, there exists a ∈ A with g(f (a)) = c, and we can take b = f (a).

5. follows from 2 and 3.

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0 0
6. Suppose gf is bijective, f is surjective, and b and b be elements in B with g(b) = g(b ).
0 0 0
Since f is surjective, we have b = f (a) and b = f (b ) for some a and a in A. Since gf is
0 0 0
injective, this gives a = a , and so b = f (a) = f (a ) = b . This proves that g is injective.

On the other hand, g is surjective by 5.

7. Suppose gf is bijective, g is injective, and b be elements in B. Since gf is surjective, we

have g(b) = g(f (a)) for some a in A. Since gf is injective, this gives b = f a. This proves

that f is surjective. On the other hand, f is sinjective by 5.

3.6.3 Inequalities and absolute value

Example 3.6.5. Solve for x: 3x2 + 10x ≤ 5x + 2.

3x2 + 10x ≤ 5x + 2

3x2 + 10x − 5x − 2 ≤ 0

3x2 + 5x − 2 ≤ 0

(3x − 1)(x + 2) ≤ 0

1
Critical values are: x = 3 and x = −2.

We can use the table or number line method to find our solution:

1
−2 3

3x − 1 − − − 0 + +

x+2 − 0 + + + +

(3x − 1)(x + 2) + 0 − 0 + +

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From this table it is clear that

1
−2 ≤ x ≤ .
3
3x−1
Example 3.6.6. Solve for x in x+2 ≥ 2.

3x − 1
≥2
x+2
3x − 1
−2≥0
x+2
3x − 1 − 2(x + 2)
≥0
x+2
3x − 1 − 2x − 4
≥0
x+2
x−5
≥ 0 (x 6= −2)
x+2

Critical values are: x = 5 and x = −2.

We can use the table or number line method to find our solution:

−2 5

x−5 − − − 0 +

x+2 − 0 + + +
3x−1
x+2 + ∞ − 0 +

From the table we have solution:

x < −2 or x ≥ 5, i.e.(−∞, −2) ∪ [5, ∞).

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 CHAPTER 3 – SET THEORY AND RELATION

Example 3.6.7. Solve for x: |3x − 4| > x + 1.

⇒ 3x − 4 > x + 1 or − (3x − 4) > x + 1

⇒ 3x − x > 1 + 4 or − 3x + 4 − x > 1

⇒ 2x > 5 or − 4x > −3
5 3
⇒x> or x <
2 4

So from this we conclude

3 5
(−∞, ) ∪ ( , ∞).
4 2
|x| − 3
Example 3.6.8. Solve for x in < 2. If x > 2.
x−2

|x| − 3 x−3 −x − 3
<2⇒ < 2 or <2
x−2 x−2 x−2
x−3 −x − 3
⇒ − 2 < 0 or −2<0
x−2 x−2
−x + 1 −3x + 1
⇒ < 0 or <0
x−2 x−2
x−1 3x − 1
⇒ > 0 or >0
x−2 x−2

By the table method, we have the following solution : x < 1 or x > 2.

4x + 1
Tutorial 3.6.2. In each of the following, solve for x. (a) (x + 2)2 < 4 (b) ≥ 1 (c)
x−1
 x+3  |x| + 5
|5x − 1| ≤ 2x − 3 (d)   < 1 (e) <2
 
2x − 1 x−3

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 CHAPTER 4

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION,

BINOMIAL THEOREM AND

COMBINATORICS

”God used beautiful mathematics in creating the world”. Paul Dirac

4.1. Mathematical Induction

Definition 4.1.1. Natural numbers are the numbers used in counting. Thus we denote the

set of natural numbers as: N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.

The Principle of Mathematical Induction is a method of proving results about the natural

numbers or positive integers. This is based on the fact that the natural numbers can be

arranged in a sequence, with a definite starting point 1, and in such case, each natural number

has a unique successor.

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The Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI):

Let P (n) be a predicate on the set of natural numbers N satisfying:

(i) P (1) is a true statement;

(ii) If P (k) is true ⇒ P (k + 1) is also true for some k ∈ N,

then P (n) is true for all natural numbers.

To see how this works, let’s go through some examples.

Example 4.1.1. Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction to prove that:

n2 (n + 1)2
13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + n3 = ∀n ∈ N.
4

Solution:
n2 (n+1)2
Let P (n) be the statement 13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + n3 = 4 ∀n ∈ N.
12 (1+1)2 4
P (1) : LHS = 13 = 1 and RHS = 4 = 4 = 1,

hence P (1) is true.

k2 (k+1)2
Assume P (k) is true i.e. 13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + k 3 = 4 for some k ∈ N. Then we need to

deduce that P (k + 1) is also true, i.e.

(k + 1)2 [(k + 1) + 1]2

13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + k 3 + (k + 1)3 =
4
(k + 1)2 (k + 2)2
=
4

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AND COMBINATORICS

Now

LHS = 13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + k 3 + (k + 1)3
k 2 (k + 1)2
= + (k + 1)3 (by assumption),
4
k2
= (k + 1)2 [ + (k + 1)] (taking common factor of (k + 1)2 ),
4
k 2 + 4k + 4
= (k + 1)2 [ ]
4
(k + 2)(k + 2)
= (k + 1)2 [ ]
4
(k + 1)2 (k + 2)2
=
4
= RHS.

Thus P (k + 1) is also true.

Hence P (n) is true ∀n ∈ N.

Example 4.1.2. Use the Principle Mathematical Induction to prove that 7n+2 + 82n+1 is

divisible by 57 for every non-negative integer, i.e. n ≥ 0.

Solution:

Let P (n) be the statement: 7n+2 + 82n+1 is divisible by 57 for every non-negative integer.

P (0) : 70+2 + 82(0)+1 = 49 + 8 = 57 which is divisible by 57.

Hence P (0) is true.

Assume P (k) is true for some k ≥ 0.i.e. 7k+2 + 82k+1 = 57p for p ∈ Z and k ≥ 0.

Also

7k+2 = 57p − 82k+1 .

Then we need to deduce that P (k + 1) is also true, i.e.

7(k+1)+2 + 82(k+1)+1 = 7k+3 + 82k+3 = 57r for r ∈ Z

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LHS = 7k+3 + 82k+3 ,

= 7(k+2)+1 + 8(2k+1)+2

= 7k+2 · 7 + 82k+1 · 82

= (57p − 82n+1 ) · 7 + 64 · 82k+1 by substituting 7k+2 = 57p − 82n+1 from assumption.

= 399p − 7 · 82k+1 + 64 · 82k+1 ,

= 399p + 57 · 82k+1

= 57(7p + 82k+1 )

= 57r with r = 7p + 82k+1 ∈ Z.

Thus P (k + 1) is also true.

Hence P (n) is true ∀n ≥ 0.

Definition 4.1.2. Factorial: For a natural number n, n factorial, written n!, is defined as

the product of the first n natural number, i.e.

n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) . . . (3)(2)(1).

We also define 0! = 1

e.g. 7! = (7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) = 5040.

From the definition we can easily deduce that:

n! = n(n − 1)! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)!

etc

Example 4.1.3. Use mathematical induction to prove that 2n < n! for n ≥ 4.

Solution:

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AND COMBINATORICS

Let P (n) be the statement:2n < n! for n ≥ 4.

P (4) : 24 = 16 < 4! = 24.

Hence P (4) is true.

Assume P (k) is true for some k ≥ 4.i.e. 2k < k! for k ≥ 4.

Then we need to deduce that P (k + 1) is also true, i.e. 2k+1 < (k + 1)!

From assumption

2 · 2k < 2k!

2k+1 < 2k!

< (4 + 1)k! since 2 < 4 + 1

≤ (k + 1)k! since it is given that 4 ≤ k

= (k + 1)!.

Thus P (k + 1) is also true.

Hence P (n) is true ∀n ≥ 4.

Tutorial 4.1.1. Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction to prove that:

(a) 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 for all n ∈ N.

n(n+1)(2n+1)
(b) 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = 6 for all n ∈ N.

n(n+1)(n+2)
(c) 1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + · · · + n(n + 1) = 3 for all n ∈ N.

1 2 3 n 1
(d) 2! + 3! + 4! + ··· + (n+1)! =1− (n+1)! for all n ∈ N.

1 1 1 1 n−2
(e) 2·3 + 3·4 + 4·5 + ··· + (n−1)n = 2n for all n ≥ 3, n ∈ N.
h  n i
(f) 1 + 5−1 + 5−2 + · · · + 5−n+1 = 5
4 1− 1
5 ∀n ∈ N.

(g) 5n − 4n − 1 is divisible by 16 ∀n ∈ N.

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AND COMBINATORICS

(h) 4n+1 + 52n−1 is divisible by 21 ∀n ∈ N.

(i) n2 + n is even ∀n ∈ N.

(j) 2n > n2 for all n > 4.

(k) 3n < n! for all n > 6.

(l) 1 + 2n ≤ 3n for all ∀n ∈ N.

(m) n7 − n is divisible by 7 ∀n ∈ N (Hint: Use Binomial theorem to expand.)

4.2. Factorials and Binomial Expansions

Recall the factorial of the natural number n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) . . . (3)(2)(1).

Example 4.2.1. Simplify the following:

24! (24)(23)(22)(21)20!
(a) 20! = 20! = (24)(23)(22)(21) = 255024.

(n+1)! (n+1)n(n−1)!
(b) (n−1)! = (n−1)! = n(n + 1) = n2 + n

4.2.1 Binomial expansions and Binomial theorem

Definition 4.2.1. Binomial coefficient: Let n, r ∈ N, such that 0 ≤ r ≤ n. Then

 
n n!
= ;
r r!(n − r)!
n
is called the combinatorial symbol which can also be written as n Cr . nr is read as



where r

“n choose r”. We interpret nr as a number of ways of choosing r objects from the total of n

objects.

9 9! 9! 9·8·7·6!


Example 4.2.2. 3 = 3!(9−3)! = 3!6! = 3·2·1·6! = 84.

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AND COMBINATORICS

Theorem 4.2.1. For n, r ∈ N and 0 ≤ r ≤ n. The following condition holds:

n n



(i) 0 = n = 1.

n n



(ii) 1 = n−1 = n.

n n



(iii) r = n−r .

n n! n!


Proof. (i) 0 = 0!(n−0)! = n! = 1. We used the fact that 0! = 1.
n n! n!


n = n!(n−n)! = n!0! =1

n

n! n(n−1)!
(ii) 1 = 1!(n−1)! = (n−1)! = n.
n

n! n(n−1)!
n−1 = (n−1)![n−(n−1)]! = (n−1)!1! = n.

(iii) By definitions we obtain that

n n! n! n



RHS = n−r = (n−r)![n−(n−r)]! = (n−r)!r! = n−r = LHS.

Lemma 4.2.2. Pascal Rule: For n, r ∈ N and 0 ≤ r ≤ n;

     
n n n+1
+ =
r r−1 r

or
     
n n n+1
+ = .
r r+1 r+1

n n n+1




Proof. We will show the proof of r + r−1 = r .

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 CHAPTER 4 – MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, BINOMIAL THEOREM
AND COMBINATORICS

   
n n n! n!
+ = +
r r−1 r!(n − r)! (r − 1)![n − (r − 1)]!
n! n!
= +
r!(n − r)! (r − 1)!(n − r + 1)!
n! n!
= +
r(r − 1)!(n − r)! (r − 1)!(n − r + 1)(n − r)!
n! h1 1 i
= +
(r − 1)!(n − r)! r n − r + 1
n! hn − r + 1 + ri
=
(r − 1)!(n − r)! r(n − r + 1)
n!(n + 1)
=
(r − 1)!r(n − r)!(n − r + 1)
(n + 1)!
=
r!(n − r + 1)!
 
n+1
=
r

Example 4.2.3. Evaluate (a) 15 15 24 23

7 + 8 and (b) 10 − 9 .

Solution: (a) 15 15 15+1

= 16 16! 16!





7 + 8 = 8 8 = 8!(16−8)! = 8!8! = 12 870.

(b) First note that 23 23 24

9 + 10 = 10 , hence
24 23 23 23! 23!




10 − 9 = 10 = 10!(23−10)! = 10!13 = 1 144 066.

Pascals rule is used to generate the coefficients in binomial expansions. Consider the patterns

that follows below where each row has a value of n starting from row 1 with n = 0.

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 CHAPTER 4 – MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, BINOMIAL THEOREM
AND COMBINATORICS

 
0
0
   
1 1
0 1
     
2 2 2
0 1 2
       
3 3 3 3
0 1 2 3
         
4 4 4 4 4
0 1 2 3 4
           
5 5 5 5 5 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
             
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
               
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
..
.

The coefficients give rise to a special pattern which is called the Pascal’s Triangle (after

French mathematician Blaise Pascal).

1 1

1 2 1

1 3 3 1

1 4 6 4 1

1 5 10 10 5 1

1 6 15 20 15 6 1

1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

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 CHAPTER 4 – MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, BINOMIAL THEOREM
AND COMBINATORICS

..
.

We can use this to get coefficient of a binomial expression.

(x + y)0 = 1

(x + y)1 = x + y

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2

(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3

..
.

(x + y)7 = x7 + 7x6 y + 21x5 y 2 + 35x4 y 3 + 35x3 y 4 + 21x2 y 5 + 7xy 6 + y 7 ,

and so forth.

Theorem 4.2.3. Binomial Theorem: Let x and y be variables, and let n, r ∈ N such that

0 ≤ r ≤ n. Then
n  
n
X n n−r r
(x + y) = x y
r
r=0
       
n n n n−1 n n−1 n n
= x + x y + ... + xy + y .
0 1 n−1 n

Proof. We prove our result by using the principle of mathematical induction. We let P (n) :

(x + y)n = nr=0 nr xn−r y r for n, r ∈ N and x, y ∈ R.

P

P (1) : (x + y)1 = 1r=0 1r xn−r y r = 10 x + 11 y = x + y, which is true. Suppose the result is

P

true for some n = k, i.e. we assume

k  
X k k−r r
P (k) : (x + y)k = x y is true.
r
r=0

We must now deduce that P (k + 1) is also true, i.e. we must show that
k+1  
k+1
X k+1
P (k + 1) : (x + y) = x(k+1)−r y r is also true.
r
r=0

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AND COMBINATORICS

(x + y)k+1 = (x + y)(x + y)k

k  
X k k−r r
= (x + y) x y by inductive hypothesis
r
r=0
k   k  
X k k−r r X k k−r r
=x x y +y x y
r r
r=0 r=0
k   k  
X k k−r+1 r X k k−r r+1
= x y + x y
r r
r=0 r=0
k   k+1  
X k k−r+1 r X k
= x y + xk−r+1 y r
r r−1
r=0 r=1
k
X k   k  
X k
= xk+1 + xk−r+1 y r + xk−r+1 y r + y k+1
r r−1
r=1 r=1
k h   i
X k k
= xk+1 + + xk−r+1 y r + y k+1
r r−1
r=1
k h 
k+1
X k + 1 i k−r+1 r
=x + x y + y k+1 , (Pascal Rule)
r
r=1
k+1
X k + 1

= xk−r+1 y r
r
r=0

So P (k + 1) is also true, hence our result is true.

Example 4.2.4. Use the Binomial theorem to expand

(a) (a + b)6 and (b) (2x − 3y 2 )5 .

Solution:

6  
6
X 6 6−r r
(a) (a + b) = a b
r
r=0
             
6 6 6 5 6 4 2 6 3 3 6 2 4 6 5 6 6
= a + a b+ a b + a b + a b + ab + b
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

= a6 + 6a5 b + 15a4 b2 + 20a3 b3 + 15a2 b4 + 6ab5 + b6 .

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 CHAPTER 4 – MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, BINOMIAL THEOREM
AND COMBINATORICS

(b) (2x − 3y 2 )5
5  
X 5
= (2x)5−r (−3y 2 )r
r
r=0
       
5 5 5 4 2 5 3 2 2 5
= (2x) + (2x) (−3y ) + (2x) (−3y ) + (2x)2 (−3y 2 )3
0 1 2 3
   
5 2 4 5
+ (2x)(−3y ) + (−3y 2 )5
4 5

= 32x5 + 5(16)(−3)x4 y 2 + 10(8)(9)x3 y 4 + 10(4)(−27)x2 y 6 + 5(2)(81)xy 8 + (−243)y 10

= 32x5 − 240x4 y 2 + 720x3 y 4 − 1080x2 y 6 + 810xy 8 − 243y 10 .

n
For a binomial expression (x + y)n , the r-th term is given by xn−r+1 y r−1 .


r−1

Example 4.2.5. Expand (1, 04)5 by the binomial formula and find its value to two decimal

places.

Solution:

We obtained that

(1, 04)5 = (1 + 0, 04)5

       
5 5 4 5 3 2 5 2 3 5
= 1 + (1) (0, 04) + (1) (0, 04) + (1) (0, 04) + (1)1 (0, 04)4 + (0, 04)5
1 2 3 4
= 1 + 0, 2 + 0, 016 + 0, 00064 + 0, 000128 + 0, 0000001024

= 1, 22

3y 10
Example 4.2.6. Find the 8th term of (x2 − x) without expanding the expression.

Solution:

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 CHAPTER 4 – MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, BINOMIAL THEOREM
AND COMBINATORICS

3y 10
8th term of (x2 − x) is
   
10 2 10−8+1 3y 8−1 10 3y
(x ) (− ) = (x2 )3 (− )7
8−1 x 7 x
10! y7
= (x6 )(−3)7 ( 7 )
7!(10 − 7)! x
10 · 9 · 8 · 7! 6−7
= x (−2187)y 7
7!3!
y7
= −262 440 .
x
Example 4.2.7. Without expanding the expression, find the coefficient of x5 from the binomial

expression (x2 − x2 )10 .

Solution:
P10 10
Using the Binomial theorem, (x2 − x2 )10 = (x2 )10−r (− x2 )r .


r=0 r

We then simplify the general term:

   
10 2 r 10 20−2r
2 10−r
(x ) (− ) = x (−2)r x−r
r x r
 
10
= (−2)r x20−3r
r

Now to find the coefficient of x5 ,

x5 = x20−3r

5 = 20 − 3r

3r = 15

∴r=5

Therefore substituting r = 5, the coefficient of x5 is:

 
10 10!
(−2)5 = (−32) = −8 064.
5 5!5!
1 9
Example 4.2.8. Find the constant term of the binomial expression (2x + x2
) .

Using the Binomial theorem, (2x + x12 )9 = 9r=0 9r (2x)9−r ( x12 )r .

P

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 CHAPTER 4 – MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, BINOMIAL THEOREM
AND COMBINATORICS

   
9 9−r 1 r 9 9−r 9−r −2r
(2x) ( 2 ) = 2 x x
r x r
 
9 9−r 9−3r
= 2 x
r
Now the constant term is term independent of x hence the coefficient of x0 ,

x0 = x9−3r

0 = 9 − 3r

3r = 9

∴r=3
Therefore substituting r = 3, the constant term is:

 
9 9−3 9! 6
2 = 2 = 5 376.
3 6!3!

Another way of obtaining terms is by expressing each term as follows:

Example 4.2.9. Expand (a + b)8 .

T1 = xn = a8

T2 = nxn−1 y = 8a7 b
n(n − 1) n−2 2 8 · 7 6 2
T3 = x y = a b = 28a6 b2
2! 2·1
n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3 8 · 7 · 6 5 3
T4 = x y = a b = 56a5 b3
3! 3·2·1
n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) n−4 4 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 4 4
T5 = x y = a b = 70a4 b4
4! 4·3·2·1
n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)(n − 4) n−5 5 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 3 5
T6 = x y = a b = 56a3 b5
5! 5·4·3·2·1
n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)(n − 4)(n − 5) n−6 6 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 2 6
T7 = x y = a b = 28a2 b6
6! 6·5·4·3·2·1
n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)(n − 4)(n − 5)(n − 6) n−7 7 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 7
T8 = x y = ab = 8ab7
7! 7·6·5·4·3·2·1
n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)(n − 4)(n − 5)(n − 6)(n − 7) n−8 8 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 0 8
T9 = x y = a b = b8
8! 8·7·6·5·4·3·2·1

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AND COMBINATORICS

Therefore, putting everything together we obtain:

(a + b)8 = a8 + 8a7 b + 28a6 b2 + 56a5 b3 + 70a4 b4 + 56a3 b5 + 28a2 b6 + 8ab7 + b8 .

4.2.2 Middle Term(s) in the Expansion (a + b)n

We have (n + 1) terms in the expansion (a + b)n . That is n can either be odd or even. We look

at the following two cases

Case 1: If n is even.
n

If n is even then (n + 1) will be odd, then we obtain that + 1 th term will be the only one
2
middle term in the expansion.
10
+ 1 = 6th will


For example, if n = 10, number of terms will be 10 + 1 = 11, therefore
2
be the middle term.

Case 2: If n is odd.

If n is odd then (n + 1) will be even, in this case there will not be a single middle term, thus
n + 1
n+1

and + 1 are the two middle terms. For example, if n = 11, number of terms
2 2
11 + 1
11 + 1
= 6th and + 1 = 7th are the two middle terms.


will be 11 + 1 = 12, therefore
2 2
x2
14
Example 4.2.10. Find the middle term of 1 − .
2
Solution: We have n = 14, then the number of terms is 15.
14
+ 1 = 8th term will be the middle term.


∴
2
2
Thus, a = 1, b = − x2 , n = 14, r = 7 and T8 =?.

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AND COMBINATORICS

 
n n−r r
From the general term Tr+1 = a b , we obtain
r

T7+1 = T8
x2
 
14
= (1)14−7 (−
7 2
14! x 14
= (−1)7 7
7!7! 2
14 · 13 · 12 · 11 · 10 · 9 · 8 · 7! −1
= · x14
7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 · 7! 128
1
= (−2 · 13 · 13 · 11 · 2 · 3) · x14
128
429 14
= − ·x .
16

4.2.3 Expansion of (a + b)n when n negative integer

If n is negative, the expansion of (a + b)n is infinite.

1
Example 4.2.11. Expand the first three terms of (2x− x3 )3

Solution:

We rewrite the expression as 1

(2x− x3 )3
= (2x − x3 )−3

Comparing this with the binomial expansion (a + b)n , we substitute a = 2x, b = − x3 and

n = −3. We then obtain:

T1 = an = (2x)−3 = 1
8x3
..

T2 = nan−1 b = (−3)(2x)−3−1 (− x3 ) = 9
16x4 x
= 9
16x5
.
n(n−1) n−2 2 (−3)(−3−1) (−3)(−4)(3)2
T3 = 2! a b = 2×1 (2x)−3−2 (− x3 )2 = 2×25 x5 x2
= 27
16x7
.

So
1 3 1 9 27
= (2x − )−3 = 3 + + + ...
(2x − x3 )3 x 8x 16x5 16x7

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AND COMBINATORICS

4.2.4 Expansion of (a + b)n when n is a fraction

If n is a fraction, the expansion of (a + b)n is infinite.

q
Example 4.2.12. Expand the first four terms of 3
8x3 − xy .

Solution:
q 1
y
We rewrite the expression as 3
8x3 − x = (8x3 − xy ) 3 .

Comparing this with the binomial expansion (a + b)n , we substitute a = 8x3 , b = − xy and

n = 13 . We then obtain:
1
T1 = an = (8x3 ) 3 = 2x.
1
T2 = nan−1 b = 13 (8x3 ) 3 −1 (− xy ) = − y
2
y
= − (3)(4x y
2 )x = − 12x3 .
(3)(23 x3 ) 3 x
1 1
n(n−1) n−2 2 ( −1) 1 y2 2
T3 = 2! a b = 3 3
2·1 (8x3 ) 3 −2 (− xy )2 = − 19 5
y
= − 288x 7.
(23 x3 ) 3 x2
1 1
n(n−1)(n−2) n−3 3 ( −1)( 13 −2) 1 10
y3 3
T4 = 3! x y = 3 3
3·2·1 (8x3 ) 3 −3 (− xy )3 = − 27
6 8
5y
= − 20 736x 11 .
(23 x3 ) 3 x3

So
y2 5y 3
r
y y 1 y
3
8x3 − = (8x3 − ) 3 = 2x − − − − ...
x x 12x3 288x7 20 736x11

Tutorial 4.2.1. Show your workings in each of the following questions:

1. Give the following answers in binomial form.

77 77



(a) 31 + 32

92 91



(b) 22 − 21

k+7 k+7



(c) 10 + 9

2. Use the binomial theorem to expand:

(a) (x + 3y)5

(b) (2x − y)6

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AND COMBINATORICS

 7
1
(c) x + 2x

3. Find the coefficient of x7 of the following expressions;

(a) (x − 2)10
 6
(b) x22 − x3
 7
(c) x14 − 2x

4. From the questions in 3. above, find the forth term of each in (a) to (c).
 5
2
5. Find the constant term of x2
− x3 .

6. Expand the first four terms of:

1
(a) (x−2)3
 1
2 3
(b) x2
− x3
 −2
y
(c) x − 2x2

2
(c)   21
2
x2 − yx

4.3. Combination and Permutations

4.3.1 Permutations

Suppose five people are standing in an ATM queue. the question is how many possible orders

are there of their standing position. To answer this, we must first observe that there are five

people, and the first person will be chosen in five different ways. After choosing the first person

we remain with four more people and the second person will be chosen in four different ways.

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AND COMBINATORICS

Continuing in the same way we choose the third, fourth and fifth person in three, two and one

way(s) respectively. This gives us a total of

5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 ways.

Suppose we were to select a team of 5 best athletes from 10 depending to their finishing

positions in a trial race. So the first runner will be selected in 10 ways, the second in 9 ways,

third in 8 ways, fourth in 7 ways and the fifth in 6 ways. This gives us

10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 = 30 240 ways of selecting the team.

In these examples we took into consideration of the order of arrangements. Such arrangement

were order is important is called permutation.

Theorem 4.3.1. The permutations, n Pr , of r objects from n is given by

n
Pr = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × (n − r + 1)

which can be written more compactly as

n n!
Pr = .
(n − r)!

In this way, we immediately see that the number of permutations of n objects from n objects is

n n!
Pn = = n!.
0!

Example 4.3.1. How many two-digit numbers can be formed from the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 8

if

(a) there is no repetition?

(b) there is repetition?

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AND COMBINATORICS

Solution:

(a) With no repetition; There are five digits to choose from to get the two-digit number.

So the first digit can be chosen in 5 ways and second can be chosen in 4 ways since we

cannot repeat the digit already used. So we have

5 × 4 = 20 ways.

(b) With repetition; the first digit can be chosen in 5 ways and second can be again be chosen

in 5 ways since we are allowed to repeat the digit already used. So we have

5 × 5 = 25 ways.

Example 4.3.2. How many three-digit numbers can be formed from the numbers 0, 3, 4, 5,

6, 9 if

(a) there is no repetition?

(b) there is repetition?

Solution:

(a) With no repetition; There are 6 digits to choose from to get the three-digit number. We

must note that 0 cannot be in the first position, hence for first position we restrict our

choice to the other 5 digits. So the first digit can be chosen in 5 ways; and for the second

place we can now also choose 0, so we will have 4 remaining digits and a 0 hence five

choices; and for third position we have 4 ways. So we have

5 × 5 × 4 = 100 ways.

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AND COMBINATORICS

(b) With repetition; the first digit can be chosen in 5 ways excluding 0, but second and third

position we will have 6 choices since we are allowed to repeat the digit already used and

0 is included here. So we have

5 × 6 × 6 = 180 ways.

Example 4.3.3. In a beauty pageant competition, how many ways can we select a queen,

first princess and second princess if there are 30 contestants who entered the competition?

Solution:

This is just permuting 3 from 30 contestants hence

30 30! 30! 30 × 29 × 28 × 27!

P3 = = = = 30 × 29 × 28 = 24 360.
(30 − 3)! 27! 27!

Theorem 4.3.2. Given a set of n objects of which n1 are of one kind, n2 are of the second

kind,· · · , and nk are of the k-th kind, then the number of distinguishable permutations Pd is

n!
Pd = . (4.1)
n1 !n2 ! · · · nk !

Example 4.3.4. Given the word STATISTICS;

(a) How may distinct arrangements are there?

(b) How many distinct arrangements are there if the word start with letter “S” and ends

with “S”.

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AND COMBINATORICS

Solution:

(a) The word STATISTICS has 10 letters with 3 “S”, 3 “T”, 2 “I”, 1 “A” and 1 “C”.

Using equation 4.1, we get that the distinct arrangements are

10!
Pd = = 50 400.
3!3!2!

(b) Since we know what is in the first and last position, so in the case of 3 “S”, we take out 2

and put them in first and last place and left with one. So we will only permute the remaining

8 letters in between, hence

8!
Pd = = 3 360.
3!2!

4.3.2 Combination

Frequently we are not concerned with the order in which the objects are chosen, but merely

which objects are chosen, i.e. we may be concerned with a selection or a combination.

Theorem 4.3.3. The number of r-combinations of a set with n elements, where n is a non-

negative integer and r is an integer with 0 ≤ r ≤ n, equals

n n!
Cr = .
r!(nr)!

Example 4.3.5. How many different committees of four students can be formed from a group

of ten students?

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AND COMBINATORICS

Solution:

In this case , there is no specific order specified, so we are only interested in the number of

combinations without worrying about order.

10 10! 10!
C4 = = = 210.
4!(10 − 4)! 4!6!

Note: n C0 = 1, n Cn = 1 and n C1 = n

Corollary 4.3.4. n Cr =n Cn−r

Example 4.3.6. 1. If n Cn−4 = 15, find n.

20 20
2. If Cr+11 = C3r+1 , find r.

Solution

1. If n Cn−4 = 15.

∴n C4 = 15 by Corollary 4.3.4
n(n−1)(n−2)(n−3)
4! = 15

∴ n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) = 15 × 4!

∴ n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3

∴ n = 6.

2. We then obtain that r + 11 = 3r + 1

Hence r = 5.
20 20
OR Cr+11 = C20−(r+11)
20 20
Cr+11 = C9−r

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 CHAPTER 4 – MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, BINOMIAL THEOREM
AND COMBINATORICS

9 − r = 3r + 1

Hence r = 2.

Example 4.3.7. Suppose we have 5 boys and 7 girls. A team of 5 is to be selected to play in

a tournament. How many ways can a team be selected if,

(a) a team is randomly selected?

(b) a team chosen consists of 3 boys and 2 girls?

(c) a team chosen consists of more boys than girls?

Solution:

(a) In total there are twelve individual to choose from. So

12 C 12! 12!
5 = 5!(12−5)! = 5!7! = 792.

(b) We must choose 3 boys from 5 and 2 girls from 7 in

5C 5! 7! 5! 7!
3 ×7 C2 = 3!(5−3)! × 2!(7−2)! = 3!2! × 2!5! = 10 × 21 = 210.

(c) For a team to have more boys than girls, we can have either have 3 boys or 4 boys or 5

boys with 2 girls or 1 girl or 0 girls respectively, so

5
C3 ×7 C2 +5 C4 ×7 C1 +5 C5 ×7 C0
5! 7! 5! 7! 5! 7!
= × + × + ×
3!(5 − 3)! 2!(7 − 2)! 4!(5 − 4)! 1!(7 − 1)! 5!(5 − 5)! 0!(7 − 0)!
5! 7! 5! 7! 5! 7!
= × + × + ×
3!2! 2!5! 4!1! 1!6! 5!0! 0!7!
= 10 × 21 + 5 × 7 + 1 × 1

= 210 + 35 + 1 = 246.

Tutorial 4.3.1. Show your workings in each of the following questions:

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 CHAPTER 4 – MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, BINOMIAL THEOREM
AND COMBINATORICS

1. Given the following digits, 0, 1, 3, 4, 7 and 8.

(a) How many three-digit odd integers can be formed without repetition?

(b) How many two-digit even integers can be formed with repetition?

(c) How many odd integers can be formed in total?

2. Using the the letters of English alphabets,

(a) How many seven letter words can be formed with and without repetition?

(b) How many five letter words which consist of consonants only can be formed without

repetition?

(c) How many eight letter words can be formed which contains all vowels of alphabets

without repetition?

3. A committee of 5 people must be chosen such that there must be chairperson, vice-

chairperson, secretary, vice-secretary and a treasurer. If there 15 people to choose from,

(a) How many ways can a committee be formed from this information?

(b) How many ways can a committee be formed if Mr Mabuza is a chairperson?

(c) How many ways can a committee be formed if Mrs Jansen and Mr Tlou are the

ones occupying Chairperson and treasurer position?

4. If n P5 = n+1
P4 , find n.

5. If n C20 = n
C35 , find n.

6. If n Pr = 720 and n Cr = 120, find n and r.

“There is nothing so easy but that it becomes difficult when you do it reluctantly.” Pythagoras

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 CHAPTER 5

COMPLEX NUMBERS

”To those who ask what the infinitely small quantity in mathematics is, we answer that it is

actually zero. Hence there are not so many mysteries hidden in this concept as they are usually

believed to be”. Leonhard Euler

5.1. Introduction

In this chapter we are going to explore how complex numbers arose and the need for them. We

are also going to discuss the various ways of representing complex numbers. We are going to

learn how to perform various algebraic operations with complex numbers, find roots of complex

numbers and solve polynomial equations.

Suppose we have to solve quadratic equation such as x2 + 1 = 0, i.e. we must find x such

that x2 = −1. In high school we learnt that there are no real roots for such equation. In

mathematics, it is possible to extend the number system beyond the real numbers in order to

solve equation such that x2 = −1. We call these numbers imaginary numbers.

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

5.2. Solutions, Operations and Properties of Complex Numbers

Definition 5.2.1. An imaginary number i is a number such that i2 = −1.

Definition 5.2.2. A complex number, is a number of the form a + bi where a, b ∈ R and

i2 = −1, where a is called the real part and b the imaginary part.

The complex number z = a + bi is said to be in real-imaginary form. We write x = Re(z)

denoting x the real part of z and y = Im(z) denoting the imaginary part of z. Note that the

imaginary part of z is a real number.

√ √
Example 5.2.1. Let z = 5 − 3i and w = − 10 + 2i.

Solution:
√ √
Re(z) = 5; Im(z) = − 3 and Re(w) = − 10; Im(w) = 2.

Definition 5.2.3. Let z = a + bi; then the conjugate of z, denoted by z is given by:

z = a + bi = a − bi.

Example 5.2.2. Find the conjugate of z in each of the following:

(a) z = 5 + 2i

(b) z = −3 + i

(c) z = −3 − 3i

√
(d) z = 5i − 3

(e) z = −1

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

Solutions:

(a) z = 5 + 2i = 5 − 2i

(b) z = −3 + i = −3 − i

(c) z = −3 − 3i = −3 + 3i

√ √
(d) z = 5i − 3 = − 5i − 3

(e) z = −1 = −1.

Theorem 5.2.1. (Properties of conjugate) For all z, w ∈ C, then

 
z z̄
(a) z + w = z̄ + w̄; z − w = z̄ − w̄; zw = z̄ w̄; w = w̄ ; and z̄¯ = z.

(b) z + z̄ = 2Re(z) and z − z̄ = 2Im(z)i.

(c) z ∈ R ⇒ z = z̄.

Theorem 5.2.2. Factor Theorem: A polynomial f (x) has a factor (x − a) if and only if

f (a) = 0.

Remark 5.2.1. Suppose that a is a root of f (z). Using Theorem 5.2.2, we get that z − a is a

factor of f (z). If α is a root of f (z) then so is ᾱ. This means that z − α and z − ᾱ are factors

of f (z) by Theorem 5.2.2.

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
It is well known that a quadratic formula x = is use to solve for equation of
2a
the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.

Example 5.2.3. 1. Solve the equation x2 + 4x + 5 = 0

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

Solution : Use the quadratic formula,

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x = (5.1)
√2a
−4 ± 42 − 4 · 5
= (5.2)
√2
−4 ± −4
= (5.3)
2 √
−4 ± 2 −1
= (5.4)
2
√
= −2 ± −1 (5.5)

= −2 ± i (5.6)

We get two roots, that is −2 + i and −2 − i.

2. Given that x + 1 is a factor of the expression f (x) = x3 + 5x2 + 9x + 5. Find the other

two factors.

Solution By long division method we obtain that

x2 + 4x + 5

x3 + 5x2 + 9x + 5


x+1

− x3 − x2

4x2 + 9x

− 4x2 − 4x

5x + 5

− 5x − 5

0
By Example 5.2.3(1), we obtained that the other roots are −2 + i and −2 − i.

3. Given that −2 − i is a root of the expression f (x) = x3 + 5x2 + 9x + 5. Find the other

two roots.

Solution By Remark 5.2.1, the other root is −2 − i = −2 + i. Using the factor theorem,

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

x − (−2 − i) and x − (−2 + i) are factors of f (x). Thus [x − (−2 − i)][x − (−2 + i)] =
x3 + 5x2 + 9x + 5
[(x + 2) + i][(x + 2) − i = x2 + 4x + 5. Clearly = x + 1.
x2 + 4x + 5

Remark 5.2.2. Remember that if you are not given a root or a factor, you should find one

factor by inspection.

Tutorial 5.2.1. 1. Solve for z if z 2 − 5z − 4 = 0. where z ∈ C.

2. Find a quadratic equation with real coeffients which has 2 + i as one of its roots.

3. If f (z) = z 4 − 2z 3 + 6z 2 − 8z + 8

(a) Show that 2i is a roor of f (z),

(b) Find all the roots of f (z),

(c) Express f (z) as a product of real factors.

4. Given that −2 + 3i is a root of the equation z 4 + 4z 3 + 9z 2 − 16z − 52 = 0, find all the

other roots.

5. if z − 1 − i is a factor of the expression f (z) = z 4 + 2z 3 − z 2 − 2z + 10, find all the

remaining factors of f (z).

6. Solve for z in the equation: 6z 4 − 25z 3 + 32z 2 + 3z − 10 = 0, where z ∈ C.

5.2.1 Operations with complex numbers

For all the operations that follow below, we let z = a + bi and w = c + di.

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

Equality

The complex numbers z and w are said to be equal if and only if a = c and b = d; i.e.

z = w ⇔ a = c and b = d.

Addition and Subtraction

z + w = (a + bi) + (c + di)

= (a + c) + (b + d)i

z − w = (a + bi) − (c + di)

= (a − c) + (b − d)i

Example 5.2.4. If z = 7 − 2i and w = −4 + 7i, then write z + w and z − w in real-imaginary

form.

Then

z + w = (7 − 2i) + (−4 + 7i)

= (7 + (−4)) + (−2 + 7)i

= 3 + 5i

z − w = (7 − 2i) − (−4 + 7i)

= (7 − (−4)) + (−2 − 7)i

= 11 − 9i

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

Multiplication

zw = (a + bi)(c + di)

= ac + adi + bci + bdi2

= (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i

Example 5.2.5. If z = −3 − 2i and w = 5 + i then write zw in real-imaginary form.

zw = (−3 − 2i)(5 + i) = −15 − 3i − 10i − 2i2 = −15 + 2 − 13i = −13 − 13i.

Division

z a + bi
=
w c + di
(a + bi)(c − di)
=
(c + di)(c − di)
ac + bd + (bc − ad)i
=
c2 + d2
ac + bd bc − ad
+ 2 i.
c2 + d2 c + d2

z w
Example 5.2.6. If z = 5 − 2i and w = −6 − i then write w and z in real-imaginary form.

z 5 − 2i
=
w −6 − i
(5 − 2i)(−6 + i)
=
(−6 − i)(−6 + i)
−30 + 5i + 12i − 2i2
=
62 + 1 2
−30 + 2 17 −28 17
= + i= + i.
37 37 37 37

w
z (exercise)

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

Example 5.2.7. Simplify the following expression and write the answer in real-imaginary

form.

(a) i(2 + 5i)2 ,

(2−i)(1+i)
(b) 4−3i ,

2
(c) i2 − i3 − i5
,

Solutions:

(a)

i(2 + 5i)2 = i(4 + 20i + 25i2 )

= 4i + 20i2 − 25i

= −20 − 21i

(b)

(2 − i)(1 + i) 2 + 2i − i − i2
=
4 − 3i 4 − 3i
2+1+i
=
4 − 3i
3+i 4 + 3i
= ×
4 − 3i 4 + 3i
12 + 9i + 4i + 3i2
=
16 + 9
12 − 3 + 13i
=
25
9 13
= + i.
25 25

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

(c)

2 2
i2 − i3 − 5
= −1 − ii2 − 2 2
i i(i )
2
= −1 + i −
i(−1)2
2 i
= −1 + i − ×
i i
2i
= −1 + i −
−1

= −1 + i + 2i

= −1 + 3i.

Example 5.2.8. Solve for x and y in the following expressions:

(a) 3(x − iy) = 5 − 9i,

(b) 3(x + i2y) − 2(x − iy) = 7 − 16i,

√
(c) 3 − i = x + iy,

(d) 3(2x + iy) − 2(y − ix) = 10 − 7i

Solutions:

(a)

3(x − iy) = 5 − 9i

3x − i3y = 5 − 9i

Equating the real part and imaginary parts on both sides we get
5
3x = 5 and −3y = −9 hence x = 3 and y = 3.

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

(b)

3(x + i2y) − 2(x − iy) = 7 − 16i

3x + i6y − 2x + i2y = 7 − 16i

x + i8y = 7 − 16i

Equating the real part and imaginary parts on both sides we get

x = 7 and 8y = −16 hence x = 7 and y = −2.

(c)

p
3−i= x + iy
p
(3 − i)2 = ( x + iy)2

9 − 6i + i2 = x + iy

9 − 1 − 6i = x + iy

8 − 6i = x + iy

Equating the real part and imaginary parts on both sides we get

x = 8 and y = −6.

(c)

3(2x + iy) − 2(y − ix) = 10 − 7i

6x + 3yi − 2y + 2xi = 10 − 7i

(6x − 2y) + (2x + 3y)i = 10 − 7i

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

Then,

6x − 2y = 10 (1)

2x + 3y = −7 (2)

(2) × 3 : 6x + 9y = −21 (1)

31
(1) − (2) : −11y = 31 ⇒ y = −
11
31
Substitute y = − 11 in (2), then

 31  63 14
2x + 3 − = −7 ⇒ 2x = −7⇒x=−
11 11 11

Theorem 5.2.3. Let z, w and w be complex numbers. Then

(a) z + w = w + z (addition is commutative)

(b) zw = wz (multiplication is commutative)

(c) z + (w + u) = (z + w) + u (addition is associative)

(d) z(wu) = (zw)u (multiplication is associative)

(e) z(w + u) = zw + zu or (z + w)u = zu + wu (distribution law)

(f ) z + 0 = 0 + z = z (addition by addition unit)

(g) z + (−z) = (−z) + z = 0 (additive inverse)

(h) z · 1 = 1 · z = z (multiplicative unit)

Tutorial 5.2.2. 1. Simplify the following and write in form a + ib (real-imaginary form).

(a) (3 − i)[(2 + 3i)(4 − i)]

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

(b) (2 + 3i)[(−7 + i) − (2 − 3i)]

(c) 7(i − 3) − 3(2 + 3i)i

i(2+5i)
(d) 3−4i
h i
4 3+i
(e) (2i − 1)2 i−2 + 2+i
 3  2
(f) 4 1+i
i−1 − 3 1−i
1+i

i4 +i9 +i16
(g) 2−i5 +i10 −i15

2. Solve for x and y.

(a) 7(x − iy) = 21 − 7i,

(b) 2(2x − iy) + (2y − 3xi) = 5 − 3i,

√
(c) 4 − 3i = 2x + iy,

(d) 2(x − iy) − 3(xi − 3y) = 5 + i.

5.3. Modulus-Argument form (Polar form) of complex numbers

We can also view the complex number z = a + ib as a ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers. This

representation facilitates the representation of complex numbers as points in the xy-plane

called the complex plane or Argand diagram.

Any complex number z represented in the the Argand plane is associated with a unique distance

from the origin measured in a direction defined by an angle θ, made with the positive real-axis.

This angle is not unique (why?).

The distance is called the modulus of z and the angle θ is called the argument of z.

Definition 5.3.1. Consider the complex number z = a + ib. The modulus of the complex

number z, denoted by |z|, is the real number defined by

p
|z| = a2 + b2 .

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

The argument (arg) of z is defined to be the angle θ that the line from the origin to makes

with the real-axis.

√
Let z = a + ib and r = |z| = a2 + b2 . By using the polar coordinates (r, θ) in the Argand

diagram we can show that we can write

z = (a, b) = a + ib = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

The form z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) is called the Modulus-Argument form (Polar form) of

complex number z.

√
Definition 5.3.2. Given complex number z = a + ib with r = |z| = a2 + b2 . The unique real

number θ such that a = r cos θ and b = r sin θ, −π < θ ≤ π, is called the principal value of

Argument of z, denoted by arg(z).

NB:

We must note that the Argument θ is only unique up to adding integer multiple of 2π. Also

note that
b
arg(a + ib) = arctan ,
a

provided a 6= 0.

Example 5.3.1. Find the modulus and Argument of the following complex numbers and

hence express each z in the Modulus-Argand form.

(a) z = 1 + i

(b) z = 1 − i

(c) z = −3 − 3i

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

(d) z = i

(e) z = −1

Solutions:

(a) z = 1 + i has ordered pair (1, 1) which tells us z is in the first quadrant in the Argand

diagram. Hence
1 π
θ = arg(z) = arctan = arctan 1 = .
1 4
√ √
Modulus: r = |z| = 12 + 12 = 2.
√
So z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = 2(cos π4 + i sin π4 ).

(b) z = 1 − i has ordered pair (1, −1) which tells us z is in the fourth quadrant in the Argand

diagram. Hence
 −1  π
θ = arg(z) = arctan = arctan(−1) = − .
1 4
√ √
Modulus: r = |z| = 12 + 12 = 2.
√
So z = 2(cos π4 + i sin π4 ).

(c) z = −3 − 3i has ordered pair (−3, −3) which tells us z is in the third quadrant in the

Argand diagram. Hence

 −3  3π
θ = arg(z) = arctan = arctan(−1) = − .
−3 4
p √
Modulus: r = |z| = (−3)2 + (−3)2 = 18.
√ h    i
So z = 18 cos − 3π 4 + i sin − 3π
4 .

(d) z = i has ordered pair (0, 1) which tells us z is on the positive imarginary-axis in the

Argand diagram. Hence in this case we will find the general solution where

cos θ = 0 and sin θ = 1.

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

√
The solution θ = π2 . Modulus: r = |z| = 02 + 12 = 1.

So z = cos π2 + i sin π2 .

(e) z = −1 has ordered pair (−1, 0) which tells us z is on the negative real-axis in the Argand

diagram. Hence in this case we will find the general solution where

cos θ = −1 and sin θ = 0.

p
The solution θ = π. Modulus: r = |z| = (−1)2 + 02 = 1.

So z = cos π + i sin π.

We can summarize the argument value where z = a + ib by the following table:

Position of z on the plane arg(z)

z is in first and fourth quadrant arctan ab

z is in second quadrant π + arctan ab

z is in third quadrant arctan ab − π

z is on positive real axis: b = 0, a > 0 0

π
z is on the positive imaginary axis: a = 0, b > 0 2

z is on negative real axis: b = 0, a < 0 π

z is on negative imaginary axis: a = 0, b < 0 − π2

Theorem 5.3.1. Suppose z = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and w = r2 (cos θ1 + i sin θ2 ), then

zw = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )],

and
z r1
= [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )].
w r2

Theorem 5.3.2. For all z, w ∈ C, the modulus || function satisfies

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

(a) |z| ≥ 0; equality holding if z = 0.

(b) |zw| = |z||w|.

 
|z|
(c)  wz  = if w 6= 0.
 
|w|

(d) Re(z) ≤ |Re(z)| ≤ |z|.

(e) z z̄ = |z|2 which is real and non-negative.

Theorem 5.3.3. (Inverse of a complex number). Let z ∈ C. If z 6= 0, then there exist a

unique z −1 ∈ C such that

zz −1 = 1.

We call z −1 a multiplicative inverse of z and can be represented as

z
z −1 = .
|z|2

Proof. If z = a + ib 6= 0, then either a 6= 0 or b 6= 0, hence |z|2 = a2 + b2 6= 0.

a b
Let w = a2 +b2
− a2 +b2
i. Then

a  b 
zw = (a + ib) − i
a2 + b2 a2 + b2
a2 ab ab b2
= 2 2
− 2 2
i+ 2 2
− 2 i2
a +b a +b a +b a + b2
a2 b2
= 2 +
a + b2 a2 + b2
a2 + b2
= 2
a + b2

= 1.

So z −1 = w = a
a2 +b2
− b
a2 +b2
i = a−ib
a2 +b2
= z
|z|2
.

Tutorial 5.3.1. Find the Modulus and argument of the following complex numbers and hence

write in in polar form.

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

√
1. (a) z = 3+i

(b) z = 3i

(c) z = −2 + 2i

(d) z = 10
√
(e) −4 3 − 4

2. Find conjugate of the above complex numbers.

5.4. Euler’s Formula (Exponential Form)

We can also express complex numbers using Euler’s formula which involves the exponent of
√
power e. If z = a + ib, with r = |z| = a2 + b2 . Then we can represent z by Euler’s formula

as follows,
√
z = reiθ , where r = |z| = a2 + b2 and θ = arg(z).

It is important to note here that θ = arg(z) is in radians only in Euler’s formula.

Example 5.4.1. Write the following in Euler’s form.

h    i
(a) z = 5 cos π3 + i sin π3 .

(b) z = 13(cos 2 + i sin 2).

(c) z = 1 − i.

√
(d) z = −2 3 − 2i.

Solution:

h    i π
(a) z = 5 cos π3 + i sin π3 = 5e 3 i .

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

(b) z = 13(cos 2 + i sin 2) = 13e2i .

p √
(c) z = 1 − i. First r = |z| = 12 + (−1)2 = 2.

z is in fourth quadrant, so

−1 π
θ = arg(z) = arctan( ) = arctan(−1) = − .
1 4
√ π
So z = 2e− 4 i .

√ q √ √ √
(d) z = −2 3 − 2i. First r = |z| = (−2 3)2 + (−2)2 = 12 + 4 = 16 = 4.

z is in third quadrant, so

 −2   1 π 5π
θ = arg(z) = arctan √ − π = arctan √ ) − π = − π = − .
−2 3 3 6 6
7π
i
So z = 4e 6 .

Tutorial 5.4.1. Write the following in Euler’s form.

√
(a) z = 3+i

(b) z = 3i

(c) z = −2 + 2i

(d) z = 10

√
(e) −4 3 − 4i

5.5. De Moivre’s Theorem

Theorem 5.5.1. (De Moivre’s Theorem:)

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ for all n ∈ N.

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

Proof. Let P (n) : (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ for all n ∈ N.

For n = 1: (cos θ + i sin θ)1 = cos 1 · θ + i sin 1 · θ = cos θ + i sin θ.

So P (1) is true.

Assume P (k) is true for some k ∈ N, i.e. (cos θ + i sin θ)k = cos kθ + i sin kθ.

We will now deduce the statement is true for n = k + 1; i.e.

(cos θ + i sin θ)k+1 = cos(k + 1)θ + i sin(k + 1)θ.

(cos θ + i sin θ)k+1 = (cos θ + i sin θ)k (cos θ + i sin θ)

= (cos kθ + i sin kθ)(cos θ + i sin θ) From assumption

= cos kθ cos θ + i cos kθ sin θ + i sin kθ cos θ + i2 sin kθ sin θ

= cos kθ cos θ − sin kθ sin θ + i(cos kθ sin θ + sin kθ cos θ)

= cos(kθ + θ) + i sin(kθ + θ)

= cos(k + 1)θ + i sin(k + 1)θ

So P (k + 1) is also true, so P (n) is true for all n ∈ N.

Example 5.5.1. Use De Moivre’s Theorem to express the following in form a + ib.

√
(a) (−2 − 2 3i)7

12
(b) √1+i
3−i

Solutions:

√
(a) Let w = −2 − 2 3i.
q √ √ √
r= (−2)2 + (−2 3)2 = 4 + 12 = 16 = 4.

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

w is in third quadrant, so
 −2√3  √ π 2π
θ = arg(z) = arctan = arctan( 3) = − π = − .
−2 3 3

Then

√ n h  2π   2π io7
(−2 − 2 3i)7 = 4 cos − + i sin −
3 3
h  2π   2π i
= 47 cos − × 7 + i sin − ×7 De Moivre’s Theorem
3 3
h  14π   14π i
= 47 cos − + i sin −
3 3
 1 √3 
= 47 − −
2 2
√
= −8192 − 8192 3i

√ √
(b) Let z = 1 + i and w = 3 − i. |z| = 2 and |w| = 2.
π
arg(z) = 4and arg(w) = − π6 .
√ h    i
 1+i
2 cos π4 + i sin π4
√ = h    i
3−i 2 cos − π6 + i sin − π6
1 h π π   π π i
= √ cos + + i sin + Using Theorem 5.3.1
2 4 6 4 6
1  5π 5π 
= √ cos + i sin
2 12 12

Now

 1+i
h 1  5π 5π i12
12
√ = √ cos + i sin
3−i 2 12 12
1 h  5π   5π i
= 6 cos × 12 + i sin × 12
2 12 12
1
= (cos 5π + i sin 5π)
64
1
= (−1 + 0)
64
1
=−
64

Example 5.5.2. Use De Moivre’s Theorem to show that:

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

(a) sin 4θ = 2 sin 2θ cos 2θ.

cos 5θ
(b) cos θ = 16 cos4 θ − 20 cos2 θ + 5.

Solutions:

(a)
4  
4
X 4
(cos θ + i sin θ) = (cos θ)4−r (i sin θ)r
r
r=0
   
4 4 3 4
= cos θ + (cos θ) (i sin θ) + (cos θ)2 (i sin θ)2
1 2
 
4
+ (cos θ)(i sin θ)3 + (i sin θ)4
3

= cos4 θ + 4i cos3 θ sin θ − 6 cos2 θ sin2 θ − 4i cos θ sin3 θ + sin4 θ

Since by De Moivre’s theorem, (cos θ + i sin θ)4 = cos 4θ + i sin 4θ, then

cos 4θ + i sin 4θ = (cos4 θ − 6 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ) + i(4 cos3 θ sin θ − 4 cos θ sin3 θ).

So equating imaginary parts we get:

sin 4θ = 4 cos3 θ sin θ − 4 cos θ sin3 θ

= 4 cos θ sin θ(cos2 θ − sin2 θ)

= 2(2 cos θ sin θ)(cos 2θ)

= 2 sin 2θ cos 2θ

(b)

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

5  
X
5 5
(cos θ + i sin θ) = (cos θ)5−r (i sin θ)r
r
r=0
   
5 5
= cos5 θ + (cos θ)4 (i sin θ) + (cos θ)3 (i sin θ)2
1 2
   
5 2 3 5
+ (cos θ) (i sin θ) + (cos θ)(i sin θ)4 + (i sin θ)5
3 4

= cos5 θ + 5i cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ − 10i cos2 θ sin3 θ

+ 5 cos θ sin4 θ − i sin5 θ

cos 5θ + i sin 5θ = (cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ)

+ i(5 cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ − sin5 θ).

Taking the real parts

cos 5θ = cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ

cos 5θ
= cos4 θ − 10 cos2 θ sin2 θ + 5(sin2 θ)2
cos θ
= cos4 θ − 10 cos2 θ sin2 θ + 5(1 − cos2 θ)2

= cos4 θ − 10 cos2 θ(1 − cos2 θ) + 5(1 − 2 cos2 + cos4 θ)

= cos4 θ − 10 cos2 θ + 10 cos4 θ + 5 − 10 cos2 +5 cos4 θ

= 16 cos4 θ − 20 cos2 θ + 5.

Tutorial 5.5.1. 1. Use De Moivre’s Theorem to write the following in form a + ib.

√
(a) z = (4 − 4 3i)8
 √

9
(b) −1+√3+i
3i
√
(1− 3i)3 (1−i)8
(c)
5
(−2+2i

2. Use De Moivre’s Theorem to prove that:

3
(a) sin3 θ = 4 sin θ − 41 sin 3θ.

1
(b) cos4 θ = 8 cos 4θ + 12 cos 2θ + 38 .

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

5.6. Finding roots of Complex Numbers

Theorem 5.6.1. If z 6= 0, n ∈ N, then there are exactly n distinct complex nth roots of

z .i.e.there are n distinct complex numbers z1 , z2 , . . . , zn with zkn = z, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n −

1:Furthermore,

1
h  arg(z) + 2πk   arg(z) + 2πk i
zk = |z| n cos + i sin for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1,
n n

Remark 5.6.1. In the Argand diagram the n nth roots of z are equally spaced out on a circle

of radius |z| = r.
h    i
Example 5.6.1. (a) Find the cube root of z = 27 cos π3 + i sin π3 .

(b) Solve z 5 + 32 = 0 i.e. find the 5th root of −32.

√ √
(c) Solve z 6 − 1 = − 3i i.e. find the 6th root of 1 − 3.

Solutions:

h π  π i
1 +2πk +2πk
(a) zk = (27) 3 cos 3 n + i sin 3 n for k = 0, 1, 2.

1
h  π + 2π0i   π + 2π0i i
z0 = (27) 3 cos 3 + i sin 3
3 3
h π   π i
= 3 cos + i sin
9 9
π  π 
= 3 cos + i3 sin
9 9
= 2.82 + 1.03i

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

also

1
h  π + 2π   π + 2π i
z1 = (27) 3 cos 3 + i sin 3
3 3
h  7π   7π i
= 3 cos + i sin
9 9
 7π   7π 
= 3 cos + i3 sin
9 9
= −2.30 + 1.93i

finally

1
h  π + 2π(2)   π + 2π(2) i
z2 = (27) 3 cos 3 + i sin 3
3 3
h  13π   13π i
= 3 cos + i sin
9 9
 13π   13π 
= 3 cos + i3 sin
9 9
= −0.52 − 2.95i

(a) z 5 + 32 = 0 ⇒ z 5 = −32 = 32(−1 + 0i) = 32(cos π + i sin π) then

1
h  π + 2πk   π + 2πk i
zk = (32) 5 cos + i sin for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
5 5

h π   π i
z0 = 2 cos + i sin
5 5
π  π 
= 2 cos + i2 sin
5 5

also

h  π + 2π   π + 2π i
z1 = 2 cos + i sin
5 5
 3π   3π 
= 2 cos + i2 sin
5 5

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

h  π + 4π   π + 4π i
z2 = 2 cos + i sin
5 5
= 2 cos π + i2 sin π

= −2

h  π + 6π   π + 6π i
z3 = 2 cos + i sin
5 5
 7π   7π 
= 2 cos + i2 sin
5 5

h  π + 8π   π + 8π i
z4 = 2 cos + i sin
5 5
 9π   9π 
= 2 cos + i2 sin
5 5

√ √  √
3

(c) z 6 − 1 = − 3i ⇒ z 6 = 1 − 3i = 2 21 − 2 i
h    i
= 2 cos − π3 + i sin − π3 then

1
h  − π + 2πk   − π + 2πk i
3 3
zk = (2) 6 cos + i sin for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
6 6

1
h −π + 0  − π + 0 i
3 3
z0 = (2) 6 cos + i sin
6 6
1
h  π   π i
= (2) 6 cos − + i sin −
18 18
1
 π  1
 π
= (2) 6 cos − i(2) 6 sin
18 18

also

1
h  − π + 2π   − π + 2π i
3 3
z1 = (2) 6 cos + i sin
6 6
1
 5π  1
 5π 
= (2) 6 cos + i(2) 6 sin
18 18

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 CHAPTER 5 – COMPLEX NUMBERS

1
h  − π + 4π   − π + 4π i
3 3
z2 = (2) 6 cos + i sin
6 6
1
 11π  1
 11π 
= (2) 6 cos + i(2) 6 sin
18 18

1
h  − π + 6π   − π + 6π i
3 3
z3 = (2) 6 cos + i sin
6 6
1
 17π  1
 17π 
= (2) 6 cos + i(2) 6 sin
18 18

1
h  − π + 8π   − π + 8π i
3 3
z4 = (2) 6 cos + i sin
6 6
1
 23π  1
 23π 
= (2) 6 cos + i(2) 6 sin
18 18

1
h  − π + 10π   − π + 10π i
3 3
z5 = (2) cos
6 + i sin
6 6
1
 29π  1
 29π 
= (2) 6 cos + i(2) 6 sin
18 18

Tutorial 5.6.1. Find the roots of:

(a) z 4 = 1,

(b) z 2 = −1 + i

√
(c) z 4 = −8 + 8 3i

√
(d) z 5 = −2 2i

√
(e) z 6 = −4 3 − 4i

183
”God does arithmetic”. Carl Friedrich Gauss”

”If others would think as hard as I did, then they would get similar results.” Isaac Newton

”Do not worry about your difficulties in Mathematics. I can assure you mine are still greater.”

Albert Einstein

Lastly, Students are recommended to use the following books as appearing on the Bibligraphy

below.

184
 Bibliography

[1] Aton H/ Rorres C. , Elementary linear algebra John Wiley and sons, 10th edition, 2010.

[2] Bronson R, Matrix operation Schaum’s outline series.

[3] Fraleigh J B, A first course in abstract algebra Addison-wesley, 4th edition, 1989.

[4] Marsdel J E/Hoffman M J, Basic complex analysis 3rd edition, 1999.

[5] Roberts C, Introduction to mathematical proofs A chapman and Hall book, 2010.

[6] Smith D et al. , A transition to advanced mathematics Cengage Learning. Inc, 7th edition,

2011.

[7] Smith J D H, Introduction to abstract algebra A chapman and Hall book, 2009.

[8] Taylor J/Garnier R, Understanding mathematical proofs A chapman and Hall book, 2014.

185