ANALOG ELECTRONICS

LAB FILE

MADE BY –
DIVYE GUPTA
2K20/CO/153
 EXPERIMENT 6
OBJECTIVE
• Explain Rectification
• Explain Half Wave Rectification
• Explain Half Wave Rectification: For Positive Half Cycle
• Explain Half Wave Rectification: For Negative Half Cycle

TOOLS USED
Basic Electronics Virtual Laboratory (IIT Kharagpur)

THEORY
Rectification:

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct

current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers are
essentially of two types – a half wave rectifier and a full wave
rectifier.

Half Wave Rectification:

On the positive cycle the diode is forward biased and on the negative cycle the diode
is reverse biased. By using a diode we have converted an AC source into a pulsating
DC source. In summary we have ‘rectified’ the AC signal.

The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier.The half-wave rectifier is
a circuit that allows only part of an input signal to pass. The circuit is simply the
combination of a single diode in series with a resistor, where the resistor is acting as
a load.

Half Wave Rectifiers – Waveforms:

The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the following
two ideal equations.

𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × √2
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
𝛱

Half Wave Rectification: For Positive Half Cycle:

Diode is forward biased, acts as a short circuit, passes the waveform through.
For positive half cycle:
𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑏 − 𝐼 × 𝑟𝑑 − 𝐼 × 𝑅 = 0
where,
𝑉𝐼 is the input voltage,
𝑉𝑏 is barrier potential,
𝑟𝑑 is diode resistance,
𝐼 is total current,
𝐼 is resistance
𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑏
𝐼=
𝑟𝑑 + 𝑅
𝑉𝑂 = 𝐼 × 𝑅
𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑂 = ×𝑅
𝑟𝑑 + 𝑅
For 𝑟𝑑 ≪ 𝑅,
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑏 is 0.3 for Germanium,
𝑉𝑏 is 0.7 for Silicon
For𝑉𝐼 < 𝑉𝑏 ,
The diode will remain OFF. The Output voltage will be,
𝑉𝑂 = 0
For 𝑉𝐼 > 𝑉𝑏 ,
The diode will be ON. The Output voltage will be,
 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑏
Half Wave Rectification: For Negative Half Cycle:

Diode is reverse biased, acts as a open circuit, does not pass the waveform through.
For negative half cycle:
𝑉𝑂 = 0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐼=0
Half wave Rectification: For an Ideal Diode:
For Ideal Diode,
𝑉𝑏 = 0
For positive half cycle,
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐼
For negative half cycle,
𝑉𝑂 = 0
Average output voltage:

𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑚 × sin 𝑤 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑤𝑡 ≤ π
𝑉𝑂 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 π ≤ 𝑤𝑡 ≤ 2π
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = = 0.318𝑉𝑚
π
RMS load voltage:
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑅 =
2
Average load current:
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑣
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = = π
𝑅 𝑅
 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = =
π×𝑅 π
RMS load current:
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
Form factor: It is defined as the ratio of rms load voltage and average load voltage.
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐹. 𝐹 =
𝑉𝑎𝑣
𝑉𝑚
π
𝐹. 𝐹 = 2 = = 1.57
𝑉𝑎𝑣 2
2
𝐹. 𝐹 ≥ 1
𝑟𝑚𝑠 ≥ 𝑎𝑣
Ripple Factor:

γ = √({𝐹. 𝐹}^2 − 1 × 100\%

γ = √(1.572 − 1) × 100\% = 1.21\%

Efficiency: It is defined as ratio of dc power available at the load to the input ac
power.
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑛\% = × 100\%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
2
𝐼𝑑𝑐 ×𝑅
𝑛\% = 2 × 100\%
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑅
2
𝐼𝑚
2 4
𝑛\% = π2 × 100\% = 2 × 100\% = 40.56\%
𝐼𝑚 π
4
Peak Inverse Voltage:
For rectifier applications, peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is
the maximum value of reverse voltage which occurs at the peak of the input cycle
when the diode is reverse-biased. The portion of the sinusoidal waveform which
repeats or duplicates itself is known as the cycle. The part of the cycle above the
horizontal axis is called the positive half-cycle, the part of the cycle below the
horizontal axis is called the negative half cycle. With reference to the amplitude of
the cycle, the peak inverse voltage is specified as the maximum negative value of the
sine-wave within a cycle's negative half cycle.
𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉
−𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝐼𝑉 ≥ 𝑉𝑚
Observations and Calculations:
Calculations:
𝑉𝑚 = 0.8 𝑉
Vm 0.8
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 0.4 𝑉
2 2
Vm 0.8
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = = 0.2546 𝑉
𝜋 𝜋

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = √𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 − 𝑉𝑑𝑐 2 = √0.42 − 0.25462 = 0.3085 𝑉

Vac 0.3085
𝑅𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 1.211
Vdc 0.2546
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.4999999982115235 𝑚𝐴
Result:
Half wave rectification, for both positive and negative cycles, has been understood.
 EXPERIMENT 7
OBJECTIVE
• Explain Rectification
• Explain Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectification
• Explain Bridge Full Wave Rectification

TOOLS USED
Basic Electronics Virtual Laboratory (IIT Kharagpur)

THEORY
Rectification:

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current

(DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers are essentially of two types –
a half wave rectifier and a full wave rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier:

A full-wave rectifier is exactly the same as the half-wave, but allows
unidirectional current through the load during the entire sinusoidal cycle (as
opposed to only half the cycle in the half-wave). A full-wave rectifier converts
the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or
negative) at its output. Let us see our half wave rectifier example and deduce
the circuit.
For a half wave Rectifier this is what we have observed

If we change the phase of the input waveform by 180 degrees

Now if we add these two circuits, we would get

Full Wave Rectifier – Circuit:
So, we have seen that this rectifier circuit consists of two sources which have a phase
difference along with two diodes. When V1 is positive, V2 is negative. Hence the top
diode(D1) will be a short and the bottom diode(D2) will be an open. On the other
hand, when V1 is negative, V2 is positive. Hence the bottom diode(D2) will be on and
the top diode(D1) will be an open circuit.

Full Wave Rectifier – Waveforms:

The resulting waveform of the schematic is shown above. This configuration is rarely
used because sometimes it may be impractical to obtain two voltage sources and it is
difficult to SYNC the sources. Let us see how a single source can be used.
Full Wave Rectifier – Center Tapped Transformer:
A Full-Wave Rectifier can be constructed using Center-Tapped transformer – which
give us two shifted sinusoids so that exactly one of the waveforms is positive at one
time and two diodes. As compared to the half wave rectifier we use two diodes
instead of one, one of the two diodes remains in conduction in both of the half
cycles. At any point in time, only one of the diodes is forward biased. This allows for
continuous conduction through load.

𝑁𝑃 𝑉𝑃 1
= =
𝑁𝑆 𝑉𝑆 2
⇒ 𝑉𝑆 = 2 × 𝑉𝐼

Center Tapped Transformer – Positive cycle:

For Positive Cycle D1 is Forward Biased and D2 is Reverse Biased

 𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑂 = 0
⇒ 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐼

Center Tapped Transformer– Negative cycle:

For Negative Cycle D1 is Reverse Biased and D2 is Forward Biased

𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑂 = 0
⇒ 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐼

Bridge Rectifier:
Bridge rectifier uses 4 rectifying diodes connected in a "bridged" configuration to
produce the desired output but does not require a special centre tapped
transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is
connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as
shown below.
Bridge Rectifier – Positive Half Cycle:
During the positive half cycle of the supply diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased (ideally they can be replaced with open circuits)
and the current flows through the load as shown below.

For Positive Half Cycle D1 and D2 is Forward Biased and D3 and D4 is Reverse Biased.
𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑂 = 0
⇒ 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐼 − 2 × 𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐼 − 2 × 𝑉𝑏 − 2 × 𝐼𝑟𝑑
where,
𝑉𝐼 is the input voltage,
𝑉𝑏 is barrier potential,
𝑟𝑑 is diode resistance

Bridge Rectifier – Negative Half Cycle:

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing
through the load is the same direction as before.
For Negative Half Cycle D1 and D2 is Reverse Biased and D3 and D4 is Forward
Biased.
𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑂 = 0
⇒ 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐼
Average DC Load Voltage:
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑚 × sin 𝑤 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑤𝑡 ≤ π
2 × 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
π
Average Load Current:
𝑉𝑎𝑣 2 × 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = =
𝑅 π×𝑅
2 × 𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 =
𝑅
RMS Load Current:
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 × sin 𝑤 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑤𝑡 ≤ π
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
RMS Load Voltage:
𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑅 = ×𝑅
√2
𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑅 = ×𝑅
√2
Form factor: It is defined as the ratio of rms load voltage and average load voltage.
 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐹. 𝐹 =
𝑉𝑎𝑣
𝑉𝑚
√2 π
𝐹. 𝐹 = = = 1.11
2 × 𝑉𝑚 2√2
π
𝐹. 𝐹 ≥ 1
Ripple Factor:
γ = √(𝐹. 𝐹 2 − 1) × 100\%

γ = √(1.112 − 1) × 100\% = 48.1\%

Efficiency: It is defined as ratio of dc power available at the load to the input ac power.
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑛\% = × 100\%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
2
𝐼𝑑𝑐 ×𝑅
𝑛\% = 2 × 100\%
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑅
2
4 × 𝐼𝑚
2 8
𝑛\% = π2 × 100\% = 2 × 100\% = 81.13\%
𝐼𝑚 π
2
Peak Inverse Volatge:
For rectifier applications, peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is
the maximum value of reverse voltage which occurs at the peak of the input cycle
when the diode is reverse-biased. The portion of the sinusoidal waveform which
repeats or duplicates itself is known as the cycle. The part of the cycle above the
horizontal axis is called the positive half-cycle, the part of the cycle below the
horizontal axis is called the negative half cycle. With reference to the amplitude of
the cycle, the peak inverse voltage is specified as the maximum negative value of the
sine-wave within a cycle's negative half cycle.
For Bridge Rectifier,
D1 and D2 is Forward Biased
D3 and D4 is Reverse Biased
𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑂 = 0
⇒ 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑚
−𝑉𝑂 + 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 0
 ⇒ 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝐼𝑉 ≥ 𝑉𝑚
For Center Tapped Rectifier,
D2 is Forward Biased,
PIV at D1,
𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑂 = 0
⇒ 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑂 − 𝑃𝐼𝑉 + 𝑉𝑚
⇒ 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 2𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝐼𝑉 ≥ 2𝑉𝑚
Observations and Calculations:
Calculations:
𝑉𝑚 = 0.8 𝑉
Vm 0.8
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 0.5657 𝑉
√2 √2
2 × 𝑉𝑚 2 × 0.8
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = = 0.5093 𝑉
π π

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = √𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 − 𝑉𝑑𝑐 2 = √0.56572 − 0.50932 = 0.2462 𝑉

Vac 0.2462
𝑅𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.483 = 48.3%
Vdc 0.5093
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.7499999973172852 𝑚𝐴
Result:
Full wave rectification has been studied and understood.
 EXPERIMENT 8
OBJECTIVE
• Learn Filtering of Rectified signal
• Ripple Voltage and Ripple Factor
• Learn Capacitive filtering

TOOLS USED
Basic Electronics Virtual Laboratory (IIT Kharagpur)

THEORY
Rectifier:
In our earlier experiment we have seen that a full wave rectifier is the same as
the half-wave but allows unidirectional current through the load during the
entire sinusoidal cycle (as opposed to only half the cycle in the half wave). A
full wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant
polarity (positive or negative) at its output.

What is really desired is to convert the pulsating output of the rectifier to a

constant DC supply. Thus, we would like to ‘filter’ the pulsating input signal.
We can do this by splitting the input waveform into AC (high frequency) and the DC
components (very low frequency) and by then ‘rejecting’ the high frequency
components.

Filtering
From our filtering experiments we have seen that the simplest kind of filter that can
perform the filtering task just described is a capacitor. Thus, if we connect a capacitor
directly across the output of a rectifier, the AC components will ‘see’ a low
impedance path to ground and will not, therefore appear in the output.

Full Wave Rectification + Filtering

The smoothing capacitor converts the full wave rippled output of the rectifier into a
smooth DC output voltage. The smoothing capacitor acts as a tank.
Ripple Voltage and Ripple Factor
Assuming a finite capacitor is connected, since a new charging pulse occurs every
half cycle the capacitor charges and discharges very frequently. We can observe that
smaller the Vpp, the more the waveform will resemble a pure DC voltage. The
variable portion is known as ‘ripple’ and the value Vpp is known as the ripple voltage.
Further the ratio of the ripple voltage to the DC or average voltage is known as the
ripple factor.

‘Filling the Gaps’

So, we see that, a capacitor-input filter will charge and discharge such that it fills in
the “gaps” between each peak. This reduces variations of voltage. As we have seen,
the remaining voltage variation is called ripple voltage.

The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave is quite clear. The capacitor
can more effectively reduce the ripple when the time between peaks is shorter.
Observations and Calculations:

Calculations:
Vm 1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 0.707 𝑉
√2 √2
Vm 1
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = = 0.318 𝑉
𝜋 𝜋

√𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 − 𝑉𝑑𝑐 2 √0.7072 − 0.3182

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = = = 1.985 𝑉
𝑉𝑑𝑐 0.318
Vac 1.9857
𝑅𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 6.242
Vdc 0.318
Vpp
𝑅𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 =
Vav
Calculations:
Vm 1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 0.707 𝑉
√2 √2
Vm 1
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = = 0.318 𝑉
𝜋 𝜋

√𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 − 𝑉𝑑𝑐 2 √0.7072 − 0.3182

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = = = 1.985 𝑉
𝑉𝑑𝑐 0.318
Vac 1.985
𝑅𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 6.242
Vdc 0.318
Vpp
𝑅𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 =
Vav

Result:
Capacitative rectification has been studied and understood.