PILAR COLLEGE OF ZAMBOANGA CITY, INC

R.T Lim Boulevard, Zamboanga City

Nursing Program

COURSEPACK

_____________________________________
Name of Student and Section
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 PILAR COLLEGE OF ZAMBOANGA CITY, INC.
Nursing Program

APPROVAL

This is to certify that this course pack has been approved for use, exclusively in the Nursing Program of
Pilar College of Zamboanga City, Inc. in the course (Anatomy and Physiology) for the first semester SY 2022-2023.

Rosella R. Chua, R.N.

Clinical Instructor

Approved by:
S. Maria Divina Consejo Billanes, RVM
BSN Program Dean

© 2022 І all rights reserved.

No part of this module may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
consent of the Author and Pilar College.
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Approval and Copyright

Course Guide
Course Objectives

Module 1: Levels of Organization

Topic 1: Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology
Topic 2: Chemical Basis of Life, Cells and Cellular Metabolism
Topic 3: Tissues

Module 2: Support and Movement

Topic 1: Integumentary System
Topic 2: Joints and Skeletal System
Topic 3: Muscular System

Module 3: Integration and coordination

Topic 1: Nervous System: Basic Structure, Division
Topic 2: Endocrine System
Module 4: Transport
Topic 1: Blood
Topic 2: Cardiovascular System
Topic 3: Lymphatic System and Immunity

Module 5: Absorption and Excretion

Topic 1: Digestive System
Topic 2: Nutrition and Metabolism
Topic 3: Respiratory System Topic
Topic 4: Urinary System
Topic 5: Water, electrolytes, and acid-base balance

Module 6: The Human Life Cycle

Topic 1: Reproductive System
Topic 2: Pregnancy, Growth and Development
Topic 3: Genetics

Module 7: The Five Senses

Topic 1: Eyes (Sight)
Topic 2: Ears (Hearing)
Topic 3: Nose (Smell)
Topic 4: Tongue (Taste)
Topic 5: Skin (Touch)

Module Evaluation
Acknowledgment

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Course Objectives:

At the end of this course, you are expected to:

1. Determine the importance of studying Anatomy and Physiology in relation to their course.
2. Understand Human Anatomy and Physiology
3. Describe anatomical planes.
4. Identify the Chemical Basis of Life, its structures, and functions
5. Understand how human organ system are formed
6. Identify the different human body organ system.
7. Explain the normal function of each organ system of a normal human. Familiarize the
parts and function of each system.
8. Discuss human body integration, coordination, absorption, and excretion.

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 Integration and coordination
TOPIC TITLE DURATION

1 Nervous System: Basic structure & division 4 hours and 30 mins.

2 Endocrine System 2 hour

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this module, you must be able to:

• Identify the major components of the nervous system and describe their functions.
• Describe the composition and location of nervous tissue.
• Locate and identify the parts of a neuron.
• Describe the structural types of neurons.
• Describe the types of neuroglia and their functions.
• Explain how resting and action potentials contribute to nerve function.
• Describe the process of neuro transmission.
• Identify major neurotransmitters and describe their functions.
• Locate and identify the spinal cord and its meninges.
• Locate and identify the cross-sectional structures of the spinal column.
• Describe the distribution and function of gray and white matter in the spinal cord.
• Explain how sensory signals and motor commands are relayed through the spinal cord
and spinal nerves.
• Locate and identify the spinal nerves and nerve plexuses.
• Explain what a dermatome is and identify skin regions innervated by each spinal nerve.
• Locate and identify major spinal nerves and structures they innervate.
• Describe the somatic reflex arc.
• Locate and identify anatomical regions of the brain.
• Locate and identify anatomical structures that surround and protect the brain.
• Identify the ventricles of the brain and describe their function.
• Locate and identify blood vessels that supply the brain.
• Identify structures of the brain stem and describe their functions.
• Identify the parts of the cerebellum and describe their functions.
• Identify structures of the diencephalon and describe their functions.
• Identify structures of the limbic system and describe their functions.
• Identify structures of the cerebrum and describe their functions.
• Locate and identify the anatomical features of the cerebrum.
• Locate and identify functional regions of the cerebral cortex
• Locate and identify the12 paired cranial nerves by name and number.
• Locate and identify the cranial nerves that transmit special sensory signals.
• Locate and identify the cranial nerves that transmit motor signals.
• Locate and identify the cranial nerves that transmit both sensory and motor signals.
• Describe the pathway and functions of each cranial nerve.
• Describe the functions of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
• Identify structures of somatic sensation and describe their functions.

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• Describe the motor functions of the somatic nervous system.
• Describe the sensory and motor pathways of the somatic nervous system.
• Describe the roles of the basal ganglia and cerebellum in somatic nervous system
function.
• Describe the functions of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
• Describe the structure of the autonomic nervous system.
• Describe the roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
• Locate and identify anatomical structures of the special senses.
• Describe the process of olfaction.
• Identify cranial nerves and describe the pathway of sensory impulses for each special
sense.
• Describe the process of taste.
• Describe the process of vision.
• Explain how eye shape affects vision.
• Describe the role of the optic chiasm in binocular vision.
• Describe the process of hearing.
• Describe the process of equilibrium.
• Identify the major components of the endocrine system and describe their functions.
• Locate and identify the primary and secondary endocrine organs.
• Describe the mechanisms of hormone action and the role hormones play in body
functions.
• Identify the hypothalamus and pituitary gland and describe their role in hormone
production.
• Identify hormones produce by the hypothalamus and describe their functions.
• Identify hormones produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland and
describe their functions.
• Identify hormones released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and
describe their functions.
• Locate and identify target organs of pituitary hormones.
• Locate and identify the thyroid gland.
• Identify hormones produced by the thyroid gland and describe their functions.
• Locate and identify the parathyroid glands.
• Identify hormones produced by the parathyroid glands and describe their functions.
• Locate and identify the adrenal glands.
• Identify hormones produced by the adrenal glands and describe their functions.
• Locate and identify the pineal gland and describe its functions.
• Locate and identify the pancreas.
• Describe the location and function of pancreatic islets and identify hormones they
produce.
• Describe how pancreas hormones blood glucose level.
• Identify hormones produced by secondary endocrine organs and describe their
functions.
• Describe how hormones regulate the stress response

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MODULE 3
Topic 1: Nervous System: Basic structure & division

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

• Demonstrate an understanding of the anatomy of a neuron
• Explain how neurons must work together to send information through the nervous system
• Investigate neural pathways in the human body
• Demonstrate how information travels between the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system
• Investigate a stimulus response reaction.

As you drive into a parking lot, a boy on a skateboard suddenly flies in front of your car across
your field of vision. You see the child in the nick of time and react immediately. You slam on the brakes
and steer sharply to the right — all in the blink of an eye. You avoid a collision, but just barely. You’re
shaken up but thankful that no one was hurt. How did you respond so quickly? Such rapid responses are
controlled by your nervous system.

The nervous system, is the human organ system that coordinates all of the body’s voluntary and
involuntary actions by transmitting electrical signals to and from different parts of the body. Specifically,
the nervous system extracts information from the internal and external environments using sensory
receptors. It then usually sends signals encoding this information to the brain, which processes the
information to determine an appropriate response. Finally, the brain sends signals to muscles, organs, or
glands to bring about the response. In the example above, your eyes detected the boy, the information
traveled to your brain, and your brain instructed your body to act so as to avoid a collision.

– Essay: Nervous System

The body has two organ systems dedicated to coordinating the activities of the trillions of cells making up the human
form. One of those systems—the endocrine system—employs chemical messengers called hormones to
communicate with cells. In contrast, the nervous system uses electrical signals to transmit messages at lightning
speed. The nervous system has three essential roles:
Write an experience in paragraph form wherein
your “Nervous System” worked from Sensing ->
Integrating -> Responding. (Example: I reflexively
remove my hand away after holding the hot kettle.)
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Structural Classification
- Includes all nervous system organs.
- 2 subdivisions:
1. CNS (central): brain and spinal cord
o Command centers of the nervous
system

2. PNS (peripheral): cranial nerves and spinal

nerves
o Part of the nervous system outside the
CNS.
o These nerves serve as a
communication lines.

They line all parts of the body by carrying impulses

from the sensory receptors to the CNS and from CNS
to the appropriate glands or muscles

Functional Classification
- Motor nerves of the PNS are classified on the basis of whether they stimulate skeletal muscle
(somatic division) or smooth/cardiac muscle and glands (autonomic division).
- 2 subdivisions:
1. SNS (somatic) – voluntary control
2. ANS (autonomic) – automatic/involuntary
a. Sympathetic
b. Parasympathetic

NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Supporting Cells
- Are “lumped together” as neuroglia literally means “nerve glue”
- Neuroglia: support and protect neurons in the cells.
- The CNS glia include:
a. Astrocytes – abundant star-shaped cells.
– help protect the neurons from harmful substances that might be in the blood.
b. Microglia – spiderlike phagocytes that dispose of debris, including dead brain cells and
bacteria.

c. Ependymal cells – line the cavities of the brain and spinal cord.
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 – forms a protective cushion around the CNS.
d. Oligodendrocytes – producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin sheaths.

- Supporting cells in the PNS:

a. Schwann cells – form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers.

b. Satellite cells – act as protective, cushioning cells.

Neurons
Anatomy: All neurons have a cell body containing the nucleus and processes (fibers) of two types:

1. Axons (one per cell) – typically generate and conduct impulses away from the cell body and
release a neurotransmitter.
2. Dendrites (one to many per cell) – typically carry electrical currents toward the cell body.

- Most large fibers are myelinated; myelin increases the rate of nerve impulse transmission.
- As a general rule, the white matter consists of dense collection of myelinated fibers, and gray
matter contains mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies.

Classification:
1) On the basis of function (direction of impulse transmission) there are sensory (afferent) and
motor (efferent) neurons and association neurons (interneurons).

2) On the basis of structure, there are unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar neurons; the terminology
reveals the number of processes extending from the cell body.
a. Motor and association neurons – multipolar
b. Most sensory neurons – unipolar
c. Exceptions are sensory neurons in certain special sense organs (ear, eye) – bipolar

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Physiology:

1) A nerve impulse is an electrochemical event (initiated by various stimuli) that causes a change in
neuron plasma membrane permeability, allowing sodium ions (Na+) to enter the cell
(depolarization). Once begun, the action potential, or nerve impulse, continues over the entire
surface of the cell. Electrical conditions of the resting state are restored by the diffusion of
potassium ions (K+) out of the cell (repolarization). Ion concentrations of the resting state are
restored by the sodium-potassium pump.

2) A neuron influences other neurons or effector cells by releasing neurotransmitters, chemicals that
diffuse across the synaptic cleft and attach to membrane receptors on the postsynaptic cell. The
result is opening of specific ion channels and activation or inhibition, depending on the
neurotransmitter released and the target cell.

3) A reflex is a rapid, predictable response to a stimulus. There are two types – autonomic and
somatic. The minimum number of components of a reflex arc is four: receptor, effector, and
sensory and motor neurons (most, however, have one or more association neurons). Normal
reflexes indicate normal nervous system function.
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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. The brain is located within the cranial cavity of the skull and consists of the cerebral hemispheres,
diencephalon, brain stem structures, and cerebellum.

a) The two cerebral hemispheres form the largest part of the brain. Their
surface, or cortex, is gray matter and their interior is white matter. The cortex
is convoluted and has gyri, sulci, and fissures. The cerebral hemispheres are
involved in logical reasoning, moral conduct, emotional responses, sensory
interpretation, and the initiation of voluntary muscle activity. Several functional areas of
the cerebral lobes have been identified. The basal nuclei, regions of the gray matter deep
within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres, modify voluntary motor activity.
Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s chorea are disorders of the basal nuclei.

b) The diencephalon is superior to the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral
hemispheres. The major structures include the following:

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 • The thalamus encloses the third ventricle and is the relay station for sensory impulses
passing to the sensory cortex for interpretation.
• The hypothalamus makes up the “floor” of the third ventricle and is the most
important regulatory center of the autonomic nervous system (regulates water
balance, metabolism, thirst, temperature, and the like)
• The epithalamus includes the pineal body (an endocrine gland) and the choroid plexus
of the third ventricle.

c) The brain stem is the short region inferior to the hypothalamus that merges with the
spinal cord.

• The midbrain is most superior and is primarily fiber tracts.

• The pons is inferior to the midbrain and has fiber tracts and nuclei involved in
respiration.
• The medulla oblongata is the most inferior part of the brain stem. In addition to fiber
tracts, it contains autonomic nuclei involve in the regulation of vital life activities
(breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, etc.)

d) The cerebellum is a large, cauliflower like part of the brain posterior to the fourth
ventricle. It coordinates muscle activity and body balance.\

2. Protection of the CNS

a) Bones of the skull and vertebral column are the most external protective structures.

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 b) Meninges are three connective tissue membranes --- dura mater (tough outermost),
arachnoid mater (middle weblike), and pia mater (innermost delicate). The meninges
extend beyond the end of the spinal cord.

c) Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) provides a watery cushion around the brain and cord. CSF is
formed by the choroid plexus of the brain. It is found in the subarachnoid space,
ventricles, and central canal. CSF is continually formed and drained
d) The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is composed of relatively impermeable capillaries.

3. Brain dysfunctions
a) Head trauma may cause concussions (reversible damage) or contusions (nonreversible
damage). When the brain stem is affected, unconsciousness (temporary or permanent)
occurs. Trauma-induced brain injuries may be aggravated by intracranial hemorrhage or
cerebral edema, both of which compress brain tissue.

b) Cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs, or strokes) result when blood circulation to brain

neurons is blocked and brain tissue dies. The result may be visual impairment, paralysis,
and aphasias.

c) Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative brain disease in which abnormal protein deposits

and other structural changes appear.

4. The spinal cord is a reflex center and conduction pathway. Found within the vertebral canal, the
cord extends from the foramen magnum to L1 or L2. The cord has a central bat-shaped area of
gray matter surrounded by columns of white matter, which carry motor and sensory tracts from
and to the brain.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. A nerve is a bundle of neuron processes wrapped in connective tissue coverings (endoneurium,

perineurium, epineurium).

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2. Cranial nerves: Twelve pairs of nerves that extend from the brain to serve the head and neck
region. The exception is the vagus nerve, which extend into the thorax and abdomen.

3. Spinal nerves: Thirty-one pairs of nerves are formed by the union of the dorsal and ventral roots
of the spinal cord on each side.

4. Autonomic nervous system: Part of the PNS, composed of neurons that regulate the activity of
smooth and cardiac muscle and glands. This system differs from the somatic nervous system in
that there is a chain of two motor neurons from the CNS to the effector. Two subdivisions serve
the same organs with different effects.

a) The parasympathetic division is the “housekeeping” system and is in control most of the
time. This division maintains homeostasis by seeing that normal digestion and elimination
occur, and that energy is conserved. The first motor neurons are in the brain or the sacral
region of the cord—which is why this division of the ANS is also called the craniosacral
division. The second motor neurons are in the terminal ganglia close to the organ served.
Postganglionic axons secrete acetylcholine.

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b) The sympathetic division is the “fight-or-flight” subdivision, which prepares the body to
cope with some threat. Its activation results in increased heart rate and blood pressure.
The postganglionic axons secrete norepinephrine. The sympathetic division is also called
the thoracolumbar division because it arises from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the
spinal cord.

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Comparison of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
• Originates in thoracolumbar region • Originates in craniosacral region
• Ganglia lie in chain alongside spinal cord • Ganglia lie in or near target organs
• Has short preganglionic and long • Has long preganglionic and short
postganglionic fiber postganglionic fiber
• Employs mostly norepinephrine as a • Employs acetylcholine as a
neurotransmitter (occasionally uses neurotransmitter
acetylcholine)
• Produces widespread, generalized effects • Produces local effects

The nervous system is one of the vital systems in the human body. It is an organ system that
coordinates voluntary and involuntary actions and responses by transmitting signals between different
parts of our bodies. The nervous system is responsible for our thoughts, our emotions, our senses, and
our movements. The brain, nerves, and spinal cord are all members of this important process.

- List for Learning and Conceptualize: The Brainstem

List the three structures that make up the brainstem. Then draw and color using the space below:

1.___________________
2.___________________
3.___________________

- Conceptualize in Color: Meninges

Identify key structures associated with the meninges by coloring each structure in the following figure. Use the colors
suggested or choose your own and label.

● Dura mater: Pink ● Dural sinus: Blue

● Arachnoid mater: Orange ● Arachnoid villi: Yellow
● Pia mater: Tan ● Falx cerebri: Purple
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● Draw a red line to identify the subdural space ● Color the gray matter gray and the white matter
● Draw a green line to identify the subarachnoid either white or light gray
space

- Make a Connection: Cranial Nerves

Write the name of each cranial nerve next to the Roman numeral representative of that nerve. Then draw a line to
link each nerve to its characteristics. Some characteristics may link to more than one nerve, while other nerves may
have more than one characteristic.

Gale Sloan Thompson: Understanding Anatomy & Physiology, 2 nd Edition

Kelly M. Harrel, Ronald W. Dudek: Lippincott Illustrated Reviews anatomy, internal Edition
E. Marieb Essentials of Ana & Physio 7th Edition
McGraw Hill: Anatomy and Physiology
Internet source: http://thepoint.lww.com/activate

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MODULE 3
Topic 2: Endocrine System

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

• Identify the contributions of the endocrine system to homeostasis
• Discuss the chemical composition of hormones and the mechanisms of hormone action
• Summarize the site of production, regulation, and effects of the hormones of the pituitary,
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands
• Discuss the hormonal regulation of the reproductive system
• Explain the role of the pancreatic endocrine cells in the regulation of blood glucose
• Identify the hormones released by the heart, kidneys, and other organs with secondary
endocrine functions
• Discuss several common diseases associated with endocrine system dysfunction
• Discuss the embryonic development of, and the effects of aging on, the endocrine system
• Distinguish the types of intercellular communication, their importance, mechanisms, and effects
• Identify the major organs and tissues of the endocrine system and their location in the body

The nervous system uses two types of intercellular communication—electrical and chemical
signaling—either by the direct action of an electrical potential, or in the latter case, through the action
of chemical neurotransmitters such as serotonin or norepinephrine. Neurotransmitters act locally and
rapidly. When an electrical signal in the form of an action potential arrives at the synaptic terminal, they
diffuse across the synaptic cleft (the gap between a sending neuron and a receiving neuron or muscle
cell). Once the neurotransmitters interact (bind) with receptors on the receiving (post-synaptic) cell, the
receptor stimulation is transduced into a response such as continued electrical signaling or modification
of cellular response. The target cell responds within milliseconds of receiving the chemical “message”;
this response then ceases very quickly once the neural signaling ends. In this way, neural communication
enables body functions that involve quick, brief actions, such as movement, sensation, and cognition. In
contrast, the endocrine system uses just one method of communication: chemical signaling.

These signals are sent by the endocrine organs, which secrete chemicals—the hormone—into
the extracellular fluid. Hormones are transported primarily via the bloodstream throughout the body,
where they bind to receptors on target cells, inducing a characteristic response. As a result, endocrine
signaling requires more time than neural signaling to prompt a response in target cells, though the
precise amount of time varies with different hormones. For example, the hormones released when you
are confronted with a dangerous or frightening situation, called the fight-or-flight response, occur by the
release of adrenal hormones—epinephrine and norepinephrine—within seconds. In contrast, it may
take up to 48 hours for target cells to respond to certain reproductive hormones.

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND HORMONE FUNCTION – AN OVERVIEW

1. The endocrine system is a major controlling

system of the body. Through hormones, it
stimulates such long-term processes as growth
and development, metabolism, reproduction,
and body defense.
2. Endocrine organs are small and widely separated
in the body. Some are mixed glands (both
endocrine and exocrine in function). Others are
purely hormone producing.
3. All hormones are amino acid-based or steroids.
4. Endocrine organs are activated to release their
hormones into the blood by hormonal, humoral,
or neural stimuli. Negative feedback is important
in regulating hormone levels in the blood.
5. Blood borne hormones alter the metabolic
activities of their organs. The ability of a target to
respond to a hormone depends on the presence
of receptors in or on its cells to which the
hormone binds or attaches.
6. Amino acid-based hormones act through second
messengers. Steroid hormones directly influence the target cell’s DNA

THE MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS

1. Pituitary gland
a. The pituitary gland hangs from the base of the brain by a stalk and is enclosed by bone.
It consists of a glandular (anterior) portion and a neural (posterior) portion.
b. Except for growth hormone and prolactin, hormones of the anterior pituitary are all
tropic hormones.

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 1) Growth hormone (GH): an anabolic and protein-conserving hormone that promotes
total body growth. Its most important effect is on skeletal muscles and bones.
Untreated hyposecretion during childhood results in pituitary dwarfism; hypersecretion
produces gigantism (in childhood) and acromegaly (in adulthood).
2) Prolactin (PRL): stimulates production of breast milk.
3) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates the adrenal cortex to release its
hormones.
4) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroid
hormone.
5) Gonadotropic hormones
a) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): beginning at puberty, stimulates follicle
development and estrogen production by the female ovaries; promotes sperm
production in the male.
b) Luteinizing hormone (LH): beginning at puberty, stimulates ovulation, converts
the ruptured ovarian follicle to a corpus luteum, and causes the corpus luteum
to produce progesterone; stimulates the male’s testes to produce testosterone.

Releasing and inhibiting hormones made by the hypothalamus regulate release of hormones made by
the anterior pituitary. The hypothalamus
also makes two hormones that are
transported to the posterior pituitary for
storage and later release.

The posterior pituitary stores and release

hypothalamic hormones on command.

1. Oxytocin: stimulates powerful uterine

contractions and causes milk ejection in
the nursing woman.
2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): causes
kidney tubule cells to reabsorb and
conserve body water and increases blood
pressure by constricting blood vessels.
Hypo secretion leads to diabetes
insipidus.

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2. Thyroid gland

a. The thyroid gland is located in the anterior throat.

b. Thyroid hormone (thyroxine [T4] and triiodothyronine [T3]) is released from the thyroid follicles
when blood levels of TSH rise. Thyroid hormone is the body’s metabolic hormone. It increases
the rate at which cells oxidize glucose and is necessary for normal growth and development.
Lack of iodine leads to goiter. Hyposecretion of thyroxine results in cretinism in children and
myxedema in adults. Hypersecretion results from Grave’s disease or other forms of
hyperthyroidism.
c. Calcitonin is released by C cells surrounding the thyroid follicles in response to high blood levels
of calcium. It causes calcium to be deposited in bones.

3. Parathyroid glands

a. The parathyroid glands are four small glands located on the posterior aspect of the thyroid
gland.
b. Low blood levels of calcium stimulate the parathyroid glands to release parathyroid hormones
(PTH). It causes bone calcium to be liberated into the blood. Hyposecretion of PTH results in
tetany; hypersecretion leads to extreme bone wasting and fractures.

4. Adrenal glands
a. The adrenal glands are paired glands perched on the kidneys. Each gland has two functional
endocrine portions, cortex, and medulla.
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b. Three groups of hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex.

1) Mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone, regulate sodium ion (Na+) and potassium

(K+) reabsorption by the kidneys. Their release is stimulated primarily by low Na+
and/or high K+ levels in blood.
2) Glucocorticoids enable the body to resist long-term stress by increasing blood
glucose levels and depressing the inflammatory response.
3) Sex hormones (mainly male sex hormones) are produced in small amounts
throughout life.

c. Generalized hypoactivity of the adrenal cortex results in Addison’s disease. Hypersecretion can
result in hypoaldosteronism, Cushing’s disease, and/or masculinization.
d. The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) in response to
sympathetic nervous system stimulation. Its catecholamines enhance and prolong the effects of
the fight-or-flight (sympathetic nervous system) response to short-term stress. Hypersecretion
leads to symptoms typical of sympathetic nervous system over activity.

5. Pancreatic islets

a. Located in the abdomen close to the stomach, the pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine
gland. The endocrine portion (islets) releases insulin and glucagon to blood.
b. Insulin is released when blood levels of glucose are high. It increases the rate of glucose uptake
and metabolism by body cells. Hyposecretion of insulin results in diabetes mellitus, which
severely disturbs body metabolism. Cardinal signs are polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia.
c. Glucagon is released when blood levels of glucose are low. It stimulates the liver to release
glucose to blood, thus increasing blood glucose levels.

6. Pineal gland
− Located in the third ventricle of the brain, releases melatonin, which affects biological
rhythms and reproductive behavior.

7. Thymus gland

− Located in the upper thorax, functions during youth but atrophies in old age. Its
hormone, thymosin, promotes maturation of T lymphocytes, important in body defense.

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 8. Gonads

a. The ovaries of the female, located in the pelvic cavity, release two hormones.
b. The testes of the male begin to produce testosterone at puberty in response to LH stimulation.
Testosterone promotes maturation of the male reproductive organs, male secondary sex
characteristics, and production of sperm by the testes.

1) Estrogens: release of estrogens by ovarian follicles begins at puberty under the

influence of FSH. Estrogens stimulate maturation of the female reproductive organs
and development of secondary sex characteristics of the female. With progesterone,
they cause the menstrual cycle.

2) Progesterone: Progesterone is released from the corpus luteum of the ovary in

response to high blood levels of LH. It works with estrogens in establishing the
menstrual cycle.

Hyposecretion of gonadal hormones results in sterility in both females and males

The hypothalamus–pituitary complex can be thought of as the “command center” of the

endocrine system. This complex secretes several hormones that directly produce responses in target
tissues, as well as hormones that regulate the synthesis and secretion of hormones of other glands. In
addition, the hypothalamus–pituitary complex coordinates the messages of the endocrine and nervous
systems. In many cases, a stimulus received by the nervous system must pass through the
hypothalamus–pituitary complex to be translated into hormones that can initiate a response.
The hypothalamus is a structure of the diencephalon of the brain located anterior and inferior
to the thalamus. It has both neural and endocrine functions, producing and secreting many hormones.
In addition, the hypothalamus is anatomically and functionally related to the pituitary gland (or
hypophysis), a bean-sized organ suspended from it by a stem called the infundibulum (or pituitary
stalk).
The pituitary gland is cradled within the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone of the skull. It
consists of two lobes that arise from distinct parts of embryonic tissue: the posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis) is neural tissue, whereas the anterior pituitary (also known as the adenohypophysis)
is glandular tissue that develops from the primitive digestive tract.

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 The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones critical to
homeostasis. The body coordinates its functions through two major types of communication: neural and
endocrine. Neural communication includes both electrical and chemical signaling between neurons and
target cells. Endocrine communication involves chemical signaling via the release of hormones into the
extracellular fluid. From there, hormones diffuse into the bloodstream and may travel to distant body
regions, where they elicit a response in target cells. Endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete
hormones. Many organs of the body with other primary functions—such as the heart, stomach, and
kidneys—also have hormone-secreting cells.

- Drawing Conclusions: Organs of the Endocrine System

Color each of the organs in the following figure. Write the name of the organ next to each number.

– Just the Highlights: Comparison of Endocrine vs. Nervous Systems

While both the endocrine and nervous systems work toward the same goal—homeostasis—their methods differ.
In the following list, highlight the actions of the endocrine system in blue and the actions of the nervous system in
yellow
1. Employs hormones to relay messages
2. Secretes neurotransmitters into tiny space of a synapse
3. Adapts slowly to continual stimulation
4. Responds to stimuli quickly (milliseconds)
5. Exerts short-lived effects
6. Adapts quickly to continual stimulation
7. Responds slowly to stimuli (seconds to days)
8. Distributes hormones throughout the body via the bloodstream
9. Exerts long-lasting effects
10. Employs neurotransmitters to relay messages
24
 - Determine the Truth: Thyroid, Parathyroid, and Pineal Glands
Use a pen to underline or encircle the correct word or phrase within the parenthesis in each of the following
sentences.

1. The pineal gland produces (melatonin)(calcitonin), a hormone that rises (at night) (during the day) to
trigger (alertness)(sleepiness).
2. The thyroid gland secretes (thyroid-stimulating hormone) (thyroid hormone), which
(suppresses)(boosts) the body’s metabolic rate.
3. The two lobes of the thyroid are connected by the (isthmus)(infundibulum).
4. The parathyroid glands are located on the (anterior)(posterior) side of the thyroid.
5. The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone in response to low levels of (thyroid hormone)
(calcium).
6. An excess of thyroid hormone would cause (increased heart and respiratory rate and an increased
appetite) (weight gain, hair loss, and fatigue).
7. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) activates (vitamin A) (vitamin D) to promote the absorption of calcium by
the intestines.

Gale Sloan Thompson: Understanding Anatomy & Physiology, 2 nd Edition

Kelly M. Harrel, Ronald W. Dudek: Lippincott Illustrated Reviews anatomy, internal Edition
E. Marieb Essentials of Ana & Physio 7th Edition
McGraw Hill: Anatomy and Physiology
Internet source: http://thepoint.lww.com/activate

25
 Transport
TOPIC TITLE DURATION

1 Blood and Cardiovascular System 2 hours & 30 mins.

2 Lymphatic System and Immunity 3 hours

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this module, you must be able to:

• Use anatomical terminology to identify and describe locations of major organs of each system
covered.
• Explain interrelationships among organ functions in each system.
• Describe the interdependency and interactions of the systems.
• Locate and identify anatomical structures.
• Describe modern technology and tools used to study anatomy and physiology.

26
MODULE 4
Topic 1: Blood and Cardiovascular System

BLOOD
• A connective tissue consisting of several types of cells in combination with fluid: a tissue with a
fluid matrix.
• Its fluid composition allows blood to function as no other connective tissue can.
• Instead of staying fixed in one location, blood can move.
• Its main function is to serve as a transport medium as it makes endless, frequent laps around the
body.
o Blood delivers oxygen and removes waste products from the body’s cells.
o It delivers nutrients, hormones, enzymes, and many other critical substances to points
throughout the body.
o It plays multiple roles in protecting the body against infection.
o It helps stabilize the body’s acid-base balance.
o It also helps regulate body temperature

Components of Blood

Red Blood Cell

- Charged with delivering oxygen to cells and removing carbon dioxide, red blood cells, or
erythrocytes, are critical to survival.
- Blood contains more RBCs than any other formed element.

Hemoglobin
- Over a third of the interior of a RBC is filled with hemoglobin—a red pigment that gives blood its
color.
- The color of blood always remains within the red spectrum: bright red when oxygenated and a
deep maroon when deoxygenated. Blood is never blue.

27
Life Cycle of RBCs
- Red blood cells circulate for about 120 days before they die, break up, and are consumed by
phagocytic cells in the spleen and the liver.
- In fact, 2.5 million RBCs are destroyed every second.
- While this is only a fraction of the trillions of RBCs in the body, the body must constantly produce
new RBCs to maintain homeostasis.
- The process of producing new erythrocytes—called erythropoiesis—is maintained through a
negative feedback loop.

White Blood Cell

- White blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes are the fewest of the formed elements. (A microliter of
blood contains between 5000 and 10,000 WBCs and 5 million RBCs.)
- Regardless, WBCs are crucial to life: they are the body’s line of defense against invasion by
infectious pathogens.
- The body contains five types of WBCs, all different in size,
appearance, abundance, and function.
1. Neutrophil (A)
2. Lymphocyte
3. Monocyte (C)
4. Eosinophil
5. Basophil (B)
- All leukocytes—unlike RBCs—contain a nucleus.
- They also contain a number of other internal structures, some of which look like granules when
stained and examined under a microscope.
- The presence or absence of granules identifies the two classifications of WBCs: granulocytes
(those having obvious granules) and agranulocytes (those having few or no granules).

GRANULOCYTES
- Besides containing granules in the cytoplasm, granulocytes also contain a single multilobular
nucleus.
- The three types of granulocytes are neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
- All granulocytes circulate for 5 to 8 hours and then migrate into the tissues, where they live
another 4 or 5 days.

28
1. Neutrophils
- They are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) because the shape of the nucleus
varies between neutrophil
- Highly mobile, neutrophils quickly migrate out of blood vessels and into tissue spaces, where
they engulf and digest foreign materials.
2. Eosinophils
- While few exist in the bloodstream, eosinophils are numerous in the lining of the respiratory
and digestive tracts.
- Eosinophils are involved in allergic reactions; they also kill parasites.
3. Basophils
- Basophils secrete heparin (an anticoagulant), which prevents clotting in the infected area so
WBCs can enter;
- they also secrete histamine, a substance that causes blood vessels to leak, which attracts WBCs.
- Basophils possess little or no phagocytic ability

AGRANULOCYTES
- Unlike granulocytes, agranulocytes lack cytoplasmic granules; the nuclei of these WBCs also lack
lobes.
- There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes.

1. Lymphocytes
- Lymphocytes are the smallest of the WBCs
- Lymphocytes are responsible for long-term immunity. There are two types:
• T lymphocytes, which directly attack an infected or cancerous cell
• B lymphocytes, which produce antibodies against specific antigens
2. Monocytes
- Monocytes are the largest of the WBCs
- Monocytes are highly phagocytic and can engulf large bacteria and viral-infected cells.

Platelets
- Platelets (also called thrombocytes) are the second most abundant of the formed elements, with
each microliter of blood containing between 150,000 and 400,000 platelets.
- Platelets play a key role in stopping bleeding (hemostasis).

Blood Types
- the surface of each red blood cell carries a protein called an antigen (also called agglutinogen).
- There are two antigens: A and B.

29
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE HEART

1. The heart, located in the thorax, in the

mediastinum, a space between the lungs
and beneath the sternum. and enclosed in
a pericardium.

2. The heart tilts toward the left, so that

2/3s of it extends to the left of the body’s
midline.

3. The broadest part of the heart, called

the base, is at the upper right, while the
pointed end, called the apex, is at the lower
left.

4. The bulk of the heart (myocardium) is composed of cardiac muscle. The heart has four hollow
chambers – two atria (receiving chambers) and two ventricles (discharging chambers), each lined
with endocardium. The heart is divided longitudinally by a septum.

5. The heart functions as a double pump. The right heart is the pulmonary pump (right heart to lungs
to left heart). The left heart is the systemic pump (left heart to body tissues to right heart).

30
 6. Four valves prevent backflow of blood in the heart. The AV valves (mitral and tricuspid) prevent
backflow into the atria when ventricles are contracting. The semilunar valves (aortic and
pulmonary) prevent backflow into the ventricles when the heart is relaxing. The valves open and
close in response to pressure changes in the heart.

7. The myocardium is nourished by the coronary circulation, which consists of the right and left
coronary arteries and their branches and is drained by the cardiac veins and the coronary sinus.

8. Cardiac muscle is able to initiate its own contraction in a regular way, but its rate is influenced by
both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The intrinsic conduction system increases the rate of heart
contraction and ensures that the heart beats as a unit. The SA node is the heart’s pacemaker.

9. The time and events occurring from one heartbeat to the next are the cardiac cycle.

10. As the heart beats, sounds resulting from the closing of the valves (“lub-dup”) can be heard. Faulty
valves reduce the efficiency of the heart as a pump and result in abnormal heart sounds
(murmurs). The following figure shows the area where the heart sounds can be located:

11. Cardiac output, the amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in one minute, is the product
of heart rate (HR) x stroke volume (SV). SV is the amount of blood ejected by a ventricle with each
beat.

12. SV rises or falls with the volume of venous return. HR is influenced by the nerves of the autonomic
nervous system, drugs (and other chemicals), and ion levels in the blood.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD VESSELS

1. Arteries, which transport blood away from the

heart, and Veins, which carry blood back to the
heart, are conducting vessels. Only capillaries play a
role in actual exchanges with tissue cells and they
connect the smallest arteries to the smallest veins.
To remember the difference between the various blood
vessels, remember:
• Arteries Away: arteries carry blood away from the heart.
• Capillaries Connect: capillaries serve to connect arteries
and veins.

31
2. Except for capillaries, blood vessels are composed of three tunics: the tunica interna forms a
friction-reducing lining for the vessel. The tunica media is the bulky middle layer of muscle and
elastic tissue. The tunica externa is the protective, outermost connective tissue layer. Capillary
walls are formed of the interna only.

3. Artery walls are thick and strong to withstand pressure fluctuations. They expand and recoil as
the heart beats. Vein walls are thinner, their lumens are larger, and they are equipped with valves.
These modifications reflect the low-pressure nature of veins.

4. All the major arteries of the systemic circulation are branches of the aorta, which leaves the left
ventricle. They branch into smaller arteries and then into the arterioles, which feed the capillary
beds of the body tissues.

5. The pulse is the alternate expansion and recoil of a blood vessel wall (the pressure wave) that
occurs as the heart beats. It may be felt easily over any superficial artery; such sites are called
pressure points.

6. Blood pressure is the pressure that blood exerts on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the force
that causes blood to continue to flow in the blood vessels. It is high in the arteries, lower in the
capillaries, and lowest in the veins.

7. Hypertension, which reflects an increase in peripheral resistance, strains the heart and damages
blood vessels. In most cases, the precise cause is unknown.

32
Blood Flow through the Heart

Unoxygenated blood enters the superior and inferior vena cava to the right side of the heart
specifically into the right atrium. From the right atrium, blood enters into the right ventricle via the
atrioventricular valve (tricuspid valve). From the right ventricle, blood is push into the semilunar valve
(pulmonary valve) then to the pulmonary arteries. The pulmonary arteries carries blood to the lungs,
where oxygen is picked up and CO2 is unloaded. Oxygenated blood now enters the left side of the heart
specifically into the left atrium via the pulmonary veins. From the left atrium, it enters the left ventricle
via the atrioventricular valve (mitral valve). From the left ventricle, blood will be push to the semilunar
valve (aortic valve) then to the aorta. From the aorta, oxygenated blood will be distributed to all body
tissues.

The Cardiovascular is a large extensive network wherein the Heart, the Blood Vessels, and Blood
work together in conjunction to provide nutrients to the body tissues like oxygen and remove wastes such
as Carbon Dioxide. This system works cooperatively with the Respiratory System which will be discussed
later. Blood also functions and works in body defense, and clot formation.

33
 - Just the Highlights: Granulocytes
Granulocytes—one of the two classifications of white blood cells—can be one of three types. Color each type of
granulocyte. Then link each cell to its characteristics by writing either Neutrophil, Lymphocyte, or Basophil.

1. The fewest of the WBCs, making up 0.5% to 1% of the WBC count

2. Numerous in the lining of the respiratory and digestive tract
3. Most abundant of the WBCs, making up 60% to 70% of all the WBCs in circulation
4. Kill parasites
5. Account for 2% to 5% of circulating WBCs
6. Secrete heparin
7. Involved in allergic reactions
8. Secrete histamine
9. Possess little to no phagocytic ability
10. Quickly move out of blood vessels into tissue spaces to engulf and digest foreign materials

- Drawing Conclusions: Heart Structures

Color and label the heart structures in the following figure; Then identify each of the heart’s four valves (noted by
the letters A through D in the figure.

34
 – Sequence of Events: Blood Flow Through the Heart
Test your knowledge of the flow of blood through the heart by placing the following cardiac events in the proper
order. The first step has been provided to get you started. Arrange the subsequent events by inserting the numbers
2 through 18 in the spaces provided.

___A. Blood fills the left atrium.

___B. The right atrium contracts.
___C. The pulmonary valve closes.
___D. Blood leaves the lungs via the pulmonary veins.
___E. The left atrium contracts.
___F. The pulmonary valve opens.
___G. Blood flows into the aorta for distribution throughout the body.
___H. The mitral valve closes.
___I. The left ventricle contracts.
___J. The aortic valve opens.
___K. The right ventricle contracts.
___L. The tricuspid valve opens.
___M. Blood is pumped into the right and left pulmonary arteries and into the lungs.
___N. Blood fills the left ventricle.
___O. The mitral valve opens.
___P. Blood flows into the right ventricle.
___Q. The tricuspid valve snaps closed.

Gale Sloan Thompson: Understanding Anatomy & Physiology, 2nd Edition

Kelly M. Harrel, Ronald W. Dudek: Lippincott Illustrated Reviews anatomy, internal Edition
E. Marieb Essentials of Ana & Physio 7th Edition
McGraw Hill: Anatomy and Physiology
Internet source: http://thepoint.lww.com/activate

35
MODULE 4
Topic 2: Lymphatic System and Immunity

Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph (the fluid
within the vessels), lymphatic tissue, and lymphatic organs. The vessels
of the lymphatic system cover the body in much the same way as blood
vessels. The tissues and organs of the lymphatic system—the lymph
nodes, thymus, tonsils, spleen, and red bone marrow—produce
immune cells.

Lymph
• Lymphatic vessels are filled with lymph: a clear, colorless fluid
similar to plasma but with a lower protein content.
• Lymph originates in the tissues as the fluid left behind following
capillary exchange.
• Depending upon its location in the body, lymph may contain
lipids (after draining the small intestines), lymphocytes (after
leaving the lymph nodes), hormones, bacteria, viruses, and
cellular debris.
Lymphatic Vessels
• Similar to veins, lymphatic vessels—also called lymphatic
capillaries—have thin walls andvalves to prevent backflow.

NONSPECIFIC BODY DEFENSES

1. Surface membranes (skin and mucous membranes) provide mechanical barriers to pathogens.
Some produce secretions and/or have structural modifications that enhance their defensive
effects. The skin’s acidity, lysozome, mucus, keratin, and ciliated cells are examples.

2. Phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils) engulf and destroy pathogens that penetrate
epithelial barriers. This process is enhanced when the pathogen’s surface is altered by attachment
of antibodies and/or complement.

3. Natural killer cells (NK Cells) are nonimmune cells that act nonspecifically to lyse virus-infected
and malignant cells.

36
 4. The inflammatory response prevents spread of harmful agents, disposes of pathogens and dead
tissue cells, and promotes healing. Protective leukocytes enter the area is walled off by fibrin; and
tissue repair occurs.
o 5 Cardinal Signs of Inflammation
1. Calor – Heat
2. Rubor – Redness
3. Tumor – Swelling
4. Dolor – Pain
5. Functio Laesa – Loss of Function

5. When complement (a group of plasma proteins)

becomes fixed on the membrane of a foreign cell, lysis
of the target cell occurs. Complement also enhances
phagocytosis and the inflammatory and immune response.

6. Interferon is a group of proteins

synthesized by virus-infected cells
and certain immune cells. It
prevents viruses from multiplying in
other body cells.

7. Fever enhances the fight against

infectious microorganisms by
increasing metabolism, which
speeds up repair processes; and by causing the liver and spleen to store iron and zinc, which are
needed for bacterial multiplication.

SPECIFIC BODY DEFENSES: The Immune System

The immune system recognizes something as foreign and acts to inactivate or remove it. Immune
response is antigen-specific, is systemic, and has memory. The two arms of immune response are humoral
immunity, mediated by antibodies, and cellular immunity, mediated by living cells (lymphocytes).

1. Antigens
a. Antigens are large, complex molecules (or parts of them) recognized as foreign by the
body. Foreign proteins are the strongest antigens.
b. Complete antigens provoke an immune response and bind with products of that
response (antibodies or sensitized lymphocytes).

37
 c. Incomplete antigens, or haptens, are small molecules that are unable to cause an
immune response by themselves but do so when they bind to body proteins and the
complex is recognized as foreign.

2. Cells of the immune system: An overview

a) Two main cell populations, lymphocytes and macrophages, provide for immunity.
b) Lymphocytes arise from hematocytoblasts of bone marrow.
a. T cells develop immunocompetence in the thymus and oversee cell-mediated
immunity.
b. B cells develop immunocompetence in bone marrow and provide humoral
immunity.
c. Immunocompetent lymphocytes seed lymphoid organs, where antigen
challenge occurs, and circulate through blood, lymph, and lymphoid organs.
c) Immunocompetence is signaled by the appearance of antigen-specific receptors on
surfaces of lymphocytes.
d) Macrophages arise from monocytes produced in bone marrow. They phagocytize
pathogens and present parts of the antigens on their surfaces, for recognition by T cells.

3. HUMORAL (ANTIBODY-MEDIATED) IMMUNE RESPONSE

a) Clonal selection of B cells occurs when antigens bind to their receptors, causing them to
proliferate. Most clone members become plasma cells, which secrete antibodies. This is called
the primary immune response
b) Other clonal members become memory B cells, capable of mounting a rapid attack against the
same antigen in subsequent meetings (secondary immune responses). These memory cells
provide immunological “memory”.
c) Active humoral immunity is acquired during an infection or via vaccination and provides
immunological memory. Passive immunity is conferred when a donor’s antibodies are injected
into the bloodstream, or when the mother’s antibodies cross the placenta. It does not provide
immunological memory.

38
 d.) Basic antibody structure

Antibodies are proteins produced by sensitized B cells or

plasma cells in response to an antigen, and they are capable
of binding with that antigen.

• is composed of four polypeptide chains (two heavy

and two light) that form a Y-shaped molecule.
• Each polypeptide chain has a variable and a constant
region. Variable regions form antigen-binding sites,
one on each arm of the Y.
• Constant regions determine antibody function and
class.
o Five classes of antibodies exist: IgA, IgG, IgM, IgD, IgE. They differ structurally and
functionally.

Antibody functions include complement fixation, neutralization, precipitation, and agglutination.

Monoclonal antibodies are pure preparations of a single antibody type useful in diagnosis of various
infectious disorders and cancer, and in treatment of certain cancers.

4. CELLULAR (CELL-MEDIATED) IMMUNE RESPONSE

a) T cells are sensitized by binding simultaneously to an antigen and a self-protein displayed on the surface
of a macrophage. Clonal selection occurs, and clone members differentiate into effector T cells or
memory T cells.
b) There are several different classes of effector T cells. Cytotoxic (killer) T cells directly attacks and lyse
infected and cancerous cells. Helper T cells interact directly with B cells bound to antigens. They also
liberate lymphokines, chemicals that enhance the killing activity of macrophages, attract other
leukocytes, or act as helper factors that stimulate activity of B cells and cytotoxic T cells. Delayed
hypersensitivity T cells release chemicals that enhance inflammation and promote a delayed allergic
reaction. Suppressor T cells terminate the normal immune response by releasing suppressor chemicals.
c) Organ transplants include autografts, isografts, allografts, and xenografts. The most usual graft is an
allograft. Blood group and tissue matching are done to assure the best match possible and organ
transplant is followed by immunosuppressive therapy.

39
 5. Disorders of immunity
a. In allergy or hypersensitivity, the immune system overacts to an otherwise harmless antigen,
and tissue destruction occurs. Immediate (acute) hypersensitivity, as seen in hay fever, hives,
and anaphylaxis, is due to IgE antibodies. Delayed hypersensitivity (for example, contact
dermatitis) reflects activity of T cells and lymphokines.

b. Immunodeficiencies result from abnormalities in any immune element. Most serious is severe
combined immunodeficiency disease (a congenital disease) and AIDS, an acquired
immunodeficiency disease caused by a virus that attacks and cripples the helper T cells.

c. Autoimmune disease occurs when the body’s self-tolerance breaks down, and antibodies
and/or T cells attack the body’s own tissues. Most forms of autoimmune disease result from
inefficient lymphocyte programming in the fetus, changes in structure of self-antigens or
appearance of formerly hidden self-antigens in blood, and cross-reactions with self-antigens
and antibodies formed against foreign antigens.

- Conceptualize in Color: Overview of the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph, lymphatic tissue, and lymphatic organs. Identify the
structures of the lymphatic system by coloring them as suggested then label the structures.

- List for Learning: Inflammation

Using the spaces provided, list the 5 Cardinal Signs of
Inflammation and their meaning.

1. _______________________
2. _______________________
3. _______________________
4. _______________________
5. _______________________

40
 – Illuminate the Truth: Specific Immunity
Review some of the key concepts about specific immunity by encircling or underline the correct word or phrase in
each sentence.

1. (Cellular immunity) (Humoral immunity) destroys foreign cells or host cells that have become infected
with a pathogen.
2. B cells mature in the (thymus) (bone marrow) while T cells mature in the (thymus) (bone marrow).
3. Also known as immunoglobulins, (antibodies) (antigens) are formed by B cells.
4. An (antigen) (allergen) is any molecule that triggers an immune response.
5. A secondary immune response (takes longer) (happens more quickly) than the primary immune
response.

Gale Sloan Thompson: Understanding Anatomy & Physiology, 2 nd Edition

Kelly M. Harrel, Ronald W. Dudek: Lippincott Illustrated Reviews anatomy, internal Edition
E. Marieb Essentials of Ana & Physio 7th Edition
McGraw Hill: Anatomy and Physiology
Internet source: http://thepoint.lww.com/activate

41