Department of Electro Mechanical

Engineering

Chapter – 1

Principles of metal cutting

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Introduction to Principles of Metal Cutting
Mechanics of metal cutting:
Metal Cutting is “the process of removing unwanted material
in the form of chips to produce a desired shape, size and
finish of a component, from a block of metal, using cutting
tool”.

Machining is the removal of material and modification of the

surfaces of a workpiece.

Major types of material removal processes:

1.Cutting
2.Abrasive processes
3.Advanced machining processes

2
Introduction to Principles of Metal Cutting
Mechanics of metal cutting:
The basic elements involved in metal cutting :
(i) Workpiece
(ii) Cutting Tool
(iii) Machine Tool
(iv) Cutting Fluid
(v) Cutting speed
(vi) Feed
(vii) Chips
(viii) Work holding and Fixturing
(ix) Force and Energy Dissipated, and
(x) Surface Finish

3
Metal Cutting
Metal cutting process in general should be carried out at
high speeds and feeds with least cutting effort at minimum
cost
Factors affecting metal cutting
1. Properties of Work material
2. Properties & geometry of cutting tool
3. Interaction between tool and work

4
Metal Cutting
The essential conditions for successful metal cutting
are:
(a) Relative motion between workpiece and cutting tool.
(b) Tool material must be harder than work material.
(c) Workpiece and tool must be rigidly held by jig and
fixtures.
(d) Sharp Cutting edge of cutting tool.
(e) Primary Motion (Cutting Speed)
(f) Secondary Motion (Cutting Feed)

5
 Contd…
Types of Cutting Processes (Operations):
Machining is not just one process; it is a group of processes.
There are many kinds of machining operations.
Common cutting processes:
1.Turning (workpiece rotates; tool moves
left, removes
layer of material to generate a cylindrical
shape.)
2.Cutting off (cutting tool moves radially
inward to cut the metal into two parts. )

3.Slab milling (rotating cutting

tool removes material
from workpiece)
4. End milling (rotating cutter;
produces cavity)

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 Turning Facing Grooving Forming Threading

External

Internal

Fig. Some common lathe operation

Fig. Some common milling operation

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Mechanics of Metal Cutting
A cutting tool exerts compressive force on the workpiece
which stresses the work material beyond the yield point and
therefore metal deform plastically and shears off.

Plastic flow takes place in a localized region called the shear

plane.

Sheared material begins to flow along the cutting tool face in

the form of chips.

Flowing chips cause tool wear.

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Mechanics of Metal Cutting
Applied compressive force which leads to formation of chips
is called cutting force.

 Heat produced during shearing action raises the

temperature of the workpeice, cutting tool and chips.

 Temperature rise in cutting tool softens and causes loss

of keenness in cutting edge.

 Cutting force, heat and abrasive wear are important

features in metal cutting.

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 In the turning process, the cutting tool is set at a certain
depth of cut (mm) and travels to the left as the workpiece
rotates
 Feed or feed rate, is the distance the tool travels
horizontally per unit revolution of the workpiece (mm/rev)
 In idealized model, a cutting tool moves to the left along the
workpiece at a constant velocity and a depth of cut
 In idealized model, a cutting tool moves to the left along the
workpiece at a constant velocity and a depth of cut

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Factors Influencing Metal Cutting Process:
Various factors or parameters that affects the cutting process
and so surface finish and accuracy of part geometry depends
on:
Table: Factors affects the cutting process

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Factors Influencing Metal Cutting Process:

Independent variables are:

(a) Cutting tool material, shape, geometry, angles.
(b) Work piece material, condition, temperature.
(c) Cutting parameters, such as speed, feed, and depth of cut.
(d) Cutting fluids.
(e) Machine tool specifications
Dependent variables are:
(a) Types of chips formed
(b) Temperature zone at work tool interface
(c) Tool wear and failures
(d) Surface finish
(e) Force and energy in cutting process

12
Methods of Metal Cutting process:
There are two basic methods of metal cutting based on cutting
edge and direction of relative motion between tool and work:
i. Orthogonal Cutting Process (2D): ii. Oblique Cutting Process (3D): the
the cutting edge is perpendicular (90 cutting edge is inclined at an acute
degree) to the direction of feed. angle (less than 90 degree) to the
direction of feed.

Fig: Types of metal cutting process

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Methods of Metal Cutting process:
Table: Comparative features of orthogonal and oblique cutting process

14
Types of Cutting Tools
Cutting tools performs the main machining operation.
It is a body having teeth or cutting edges on it.
They comprise of single point cutting tool or multipoint
cutting tools.

a. Single-Point Cutting Tool b. Multi-Point Cutting Tool

Figure (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b) a helical
milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting edges.

15
Single point cutting tool :
Principle of Metal Cutting:
A typical metal cutting process by single point cutting tool is shown in Fig.
In this process, a wedge shaped tool moves relative to the work piece at an
angle α.
As the tool makes contact with the metal, it exerts pressure on it. Due to
the pressure exerted by the tool tip, metal will shear in the form of chips on
the shear plane AB.

A chip is produced ahead of

the cutting tool by deforming
and shearing the material
continuously, along the shear
plane AB.

Fig. Principle of metal cutting

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Single point cutting tool :
Principle of Metal Cutting:
The shear plane is actually a narrow zone and extends from the cutting
edge of the tool to the surface of the work piece. The cutting edge of the
tool is formed by two intersecting surfaces.

Fig. Principle of metal cutting

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Single point cutting tool :
This type of tool has an effective cutting edge and removes
excess material from the work piece along the cutting edge.

These tools may be left-handed or right-handed.

Again single point cutting tools classified as

1.Solid type

2.Tipped tool.

3.Brazed tools

Solid type: tool bits and tool holders made single

piece.
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Single point cutting tool

Solid type of single Tipped type single Index-able insert type

point cutting tool point cutting tool single point cutting tool

Geometry comprises mainly of nose, rake face of the tool,

flank, heel and shank etc.
The nose is shaped as conical with different angles.

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Single point cutting tool
 The tipped type of tool is made from a
good shank steel on which is mounted
a tip of cutting tool material.
 Tip may be made of high speed steel
or cemented carbide.
 Different types of carbide tips are
generally used on tipped tool.

Tipped tools

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Nomenclature of single point tool

Feed

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Single point cutting tool
Side rake angle (αs)
 It is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined side
ways.
 This angle of tool determines the thickness of the tool
behind the cutting edge.
 It is provided on tool to provide clearance between work
piece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing of work- piece
with end flank of tool.

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Single point cutting tool
Back rake angle (αb)
 It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line
parallel with base of the tool measured in a perpendicular
plane through the side cutting edge.
 This angle helps in removing the chips away from the
work piece.

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Single point cutting tool
Side relief angle
It is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool
enters the material.
It is the angle between the portion of the side flank
immediately below the side edge and a line
perpendicular to the base of the tool measured at right
angles to the side.

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Single point cutting tool
End cutting edge angle
It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line
perpendicular to the shank of the tool.

It provides clearance between tool cutting edge and work

piece.

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Single point cutting tool
Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)
 It is the angle between straight cutting edge on the side of
tool and the side of the shank.

 It is also known as lead angle.

 It is responsible for turning the chip away from the finished

surface.

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Single point cutting tool
Tool signature
Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of a
standardized abbreviated system is known as tool signature
or tool nomenclature.
The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single
point cutting tool can be stated in the following order:
Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8
1. Back rake angle (0°)
2. Side rake angle (7°)
3. End relief angle (6°)
4. Side relief angle (8°)
5. End cutting edge angle (15°)
6. Side cutting edge angle (16°)
7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)
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Mechanics of Cutting
 Dependent variables in the cutting process are:
1. Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut

2. Cutting fluids

3. Type of chip produced

4. Force and energy dissipated during cutting

5. Temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool and the chip

(strength of the workpiece material, cutting speed and depth of cut)
6. Tool wear and failure
 Workpiece material and condition

 Tool material and coatings

 Tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness

7. Surface finish and surface integrity of the work piece

28
Mechanics of Cutting

29
Chips Produced in Turning

Figure: Chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and
breaks; (c) continuous chip moving radially away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool
shank and breaks off. Source: After G. Boothroyd.
Types of Chips
Chips are separated from the workpiece to impart the
required size and shape.

The chips that are formed during metal cutting operations

can be classified into four types:
1. Continuous chips

2. Continuous chips with built-up edge

3. Discontinuous or segmental chips.

4. Non homogenous chips

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Types of Chips
1. Continuous chips
Chip is produced when there is low friction between the chip
and tool face
This chip has the shape of long string or curls into a tight roll
Chip is produced when ductile materials such as Al, Cu, M.S,
and wrought Iron are machined.
 Formation of very lengthy
chip is hazardous to the
machining process and
the machine operators
 It may wrap up on the
cutting tool, work piece
and interrupt in the cutting Fig. Continuous chips
operation.
32
Types of Chips
1. Continuous chips
It becomes necessary to deform or break long continuous
chips into small pieces.

It is done by using chip breakers and this can be an

integral part of the tool design or a separate device.

Fig. Chip breaker

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Types of Chips
2. Continuous chips with built-up edge
When high friction exists between chip and tool, the chip
material welds itself to the tool face.
Welded material increases friction further which in turn leads
to the building up a layer upon layer of chip material.
 Build up edge grows and breaks down when it becomes
unstable.
Chips with build up edge
result in higher power
consumption, poor surface
finish and large tool wear
Fig. Chips with build-up edge

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Types of Chips
3. Discontinuous or segmental chips
 Chip is produced in the form of small pieces.
 These types of chips are obtained while machining brittle
material like cast iron, brass and bronze at very low
speeds and high feeds.
 For brittle materials it is
associated with fair
surface finish, lower
power consumption and
reasonable tool life
 For ductile materials it is Fig. Discontinuous chips
associated with poor surface
finish excessive tool wear.
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Types of Chips
4. Non-homogeneous chips
It will be in the form of notches and formed due to non-
uniform strain in materal during chip formation.

Non homogenous chips are developed during machining

highly hard alloys like titanium.

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Types of Chips
Chip Control and Chip Breakers
 During machining high tensile strength materials chips has
to be properly controlled.

 Carbide tip tools will be used for high speeds which leads
to high temperature and produce continuous chips with
blue color.

 If the above mentioned chips are not broken means it will

adversely effect the machining in following ways,
• Spoiling cutting edge
• Raising temperature
• Poor surface finish
• Hazardous to machine operator
37
Types of Chips
Chip Control and Chip Breakers
 Two ways are employed to overcome all the above
drawbacks.
First one is Proper selection of cutting conditions and
Second one is chip breakers are used to break the chips.
1. Proper selection of cutting conditions
 Since the cutting speed influences to the great extend the
productivity of machining and surface finish, working at low
speeds may not be desirable.
 If the cutting speed is to be kept high, changing the feed
and depth of cut is a reasonable solution for chip control.

38
Contd…
Proper selection of cutting conditions in machining
The three dimensions of a machining process:
1. Cutting speed (v) : Primary motion
2. Feed (f) :Secondary motion
3. Depth of cut (d) :Penetration of tool below original
work surface
For certain operations,
material removal rate can be
found as:

MRR = v × f × d

where, v = Cutting speed; f =

Feed; d = Depth of cut

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Types of Chips
Chip Control and Chip Breakers
2. Chip breaker
There are two types of chip breakers
1.Œ
External type, an inclined obstruction clamped to the tool
face
2.•
Integral type, a groove ground into the tool face or bulges
formed onto the tool face

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 Slot
(chip breaker)

Tipped tools

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Cutting Forces and Power
 Cutting force acts in the direction of the cutting speed,
and supplies the energy required for cutting.

 α : Rake angle V : Cutting velocity Ft : Thrust Force

 b : Frictional angle Vc: Chip velocity Fc: Cutting Force
 ϕ : Shear angle Vs: Shear velocity Fs: Shear Force
 Fn: Normal Shear Force
F: Frictional Force
 N: Normal Frictional Force

42
Cutting Forces and Power
Cutting Ratio
(or chip thickness ratio)
Chip
tool
)
B
tc
to 
A
Workpiece

to tc
As Sin = and Cos-) =
AB AB
t0 sin
Chip thickness ratio (r) = =
tc cos()
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Cutting Forces and Power

44
Cutting Forces and Power

45
Cutting Forces and Power

46
Cutting Forces and Power
Experimental Determination of Cutting Ratio

Shear angle  may be obtained

Lc
either from photo-micrographs
wc tc or assume volume continuity
(no chip density change):
t0
L0
w0

Since t 0w 0L 0 = t cw cL c and w 0=w c (exp. evidence)

Cutting ratio , r = t 0 = L c
tc L0

i.e. Measure length of chips which is easier than measuring thickness

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Cutting Forces and Power
 It can also be shown that
 Resultant force is balanced by an equal and opposite force
along the shear plane
 It is resolved into a shear force and a normal force

 Thus,

 The magnitude of coefficient of friction is

48
Cutting Forces and Power
Thrust Force
 The tool-holder, work-holding devices, and machine tool
must be stiff to support thrust force with minimal
deflections.

 The effect of rake angle and friction angle on the direction

of thrust force is

 Magnitude of the cutting force is always positive as the

force that supplies the work is required in cutting

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Cutting Forces and Power
Power
 Power (or energy consumed per unit time) is the product of
force and velocity. Power at the cutting spindle:
Cutting Power Pc = FcV
 Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and on the rake
face:
Power for Shearing Ps = FsVs
Friction Power Pf = FVc

 Actual Motor Power requirements will depend on machine

efficiency E (%):
Pc
Motor Power Required = x 100
E
 Sharpness of the tool tip also influences forces and power
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Cutting Forces and Power
Measuring Cutting Forces and Power
 Cutting forces can be measured using a force
transducer, a dynamometer or a load cell mounted on
the cutting-tool holder

 It is also possible to calculate the cutting force from the

power consumption during cutting

 The specific energy in cutting can be used to calculate

cutting forces

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Cutting Forces and Power
EXAMPLE 1
Relative Energies in Cutting
In an orthogonal cutting operation, to=0.13 mm, V=120
m/min, α=10° and the width of cut 6 mm. It is observed that
tc=0.23 mm, Fc=500 N and Ft=200 N. Calculate the
percentage of the total energy that goes into overcoming
friction at the tool–chip interface.
Solution
Relative Energies in Cutting
The percentage of the energy can be expressed as

Percentage of the energy=

52
Cutting Forces and Power
Solution
where

We have

Thus,

Hence

53
Temperatures in Cutting
 The main sources of heat generation are the primary shear
zone and the tool-chip interface.
 If the tool is dull or worn, heat is also generated when the
tool tip rubs against the machined surface.
 Cutting temperatures increase with:
1. Strength of the workpiece material
2. Cutting speed
3. Depth of cut
 Cutting temperatures decrease with increasing specific heat
and thermal conductivity of workpiece material.
TEMPERATURE IN CUTTING
 The mean temperature in turning on a lathe is proportional to the
cutting speed and feed:
Mean temperature α Va fb
 a and b are constants that depend on tool and workpiece materials,
V is the cutting speed, and f is the feed of the tool.
Tool Material a b
Carbide 0.2 0.125
HSS 0.5 0.375

 Max temperature is about halfway up the face of the tool.

 As speed increases, the time for heat dissipation decreases and
temperature rises.
Temperatures in Cutting
 Temperature rise - its major adverse effects:
1. Lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness and wear
resistance of the cutting tool.
2. Causes uneven dimensional changes.

3. Induce thermal damage and metallurgical changes in

the machined surface.

 Mean temperature in turning on a lathe is given by

56
Temperatures in Cutting
Temperature Distribution
 The temperature increases with cutting speed

 Chips can become red hot and create a safety hazard for
the operator
 The chip carries away most of the heat generated

Techniques for Measuring Temperature

 Temperatures and their distribution can be determined
from thermocouples

57
Temperatures in Cutting Zone

Figure: Typical temperature distribution in Figure: Proportion of the heat generated

the cutting zone. Note the severe in cutting transferred into the tool,
temperature gradients within the tool and workpiece, and chip as a function of the
the chip, and that the workpiece is cutting speed. Note that the chip removes
relatively cool. Source: After G. Vieregge. most of the heat.
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Properly designed cutting tool is expected to perform the
metal cutting operation in an effective an smooth manner
If a tool is not giving satisfactory performance it is an
indicative of tool failure.
Following are the adverse effects observed during
operation;
Extremely poor surface finish on the workpiece
Higher consumption of power
Work dimensions are not produced as specified
Overheating of cutting tool
Appearance of burnishing band on the work surface

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Tool Life: Wear and Failure
 Cutting tools are subjected to:
1. High localized stresses at the tip of the tool

2. High temperatures

3. Sliding of the chip along the rake face

4. Sliding of the tool along the newly cut workpiece

surface
 Wear is a gradual process

 The rate of tool wear depends on

 Tool and workpiece materials,

 Tool geometry/shape,
 Process parameters,
 Cutting fluids and
 Characteristics of the machine tool
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Tool Life: Wear and Failure
 The Cutting tool should be replaced when:
1. Surface finish of the workpiece is poor

2. Cutting force increases significantly

3. Temperature increases significantly

4. Poor dimensional accuracies

Tool Life: Wear and Failure
 Tool wear and the changes in tool geometry and they are
classified as:
a) Flank wear

b) Crater wear

c) Nose wear

d) Notching plastic deformation of the tool tip

e) Chipping

f) Gross fracture

During operation cutting tool may fail due to following;

Thermal cracking and softening
Mechanical Chipping
Gradual wear

62
 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Tool life is defined as the time interval for which tool works
satisfactorily between two successive grinding or re-
sharpening of the tool.

1.Thermal Cracking and Softening

During cutting operation lot of heat will be generated due to
this cutting tool tip and area closer to cutting edge will
become hot.
Cutting tool material will be harder up to certain limit
(temperature & pressure), if it crosses the limit it starts
deforming plastically at tip and adjacent to the cutting edge
under the action of cutting pressure and high temperature.
Tool looses its cutting ability and it is said to have failed due
to softening.
63
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
1.Thermal Cracking and Softening
Main factors responsible for this condition are;
High cutting speed

High feed rate

More depth of cut

Small nose radius

Choice of wrong tool material

64
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
1.Thermal Cracking and Softening
Working temperatures for common tool materials are;
Carbon tool steels 200oC - 250oC
High speed steel 560oC - 600oC
Cemented Carbides 800oC - 1000oC
 Tool material is subjected
to local expansion and
contraction due to severe
temperature gradient.
 Gives rise to thermal
stresses further leads to
thermal cracks.
65
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
2. Mechanical Chipping
Mechanical chipping of nose an cutting edge of the tool are
commonly observed causes for tool failure.
Reasons for failure are High cutting pressure, Mechanical
impact, Excessive wear, too high vibrations and weak tip
an cutting edge, etc.
This type of failure is pronounced in carbide tipped and
diamond tools due to high brittleness of tool material.

Chipped Tip

66
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
3. Gradual wear
When a tool is in use for some time it is found to have lost
some weight or mass implying that it has lost some material
from it due to wear.
Wear locations:
Crater wear location
Flank wear location

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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure: Crater Wear
Due to pressure of the hot chip sliding up the face of the tool,
crater or a depression is formed on the face of tool. (Ductile
materials)
By diffusion shape of crater formed corresponds to the shape
of underside of the chip
 Factors influencing crater wear are
1. The temperature at the tool–chip
interface
2. The chemical affinity between the
tool and workpiece materials

 Diffusion rate increases with

increasing temperature, crater wear
increases as temperature increases

68
Tool Life: Wear and Failure:Crater Wear
 Crater wear occurs on the rake face of the tool
 Factors influencing crater wear are

1. The temperature at the tool–chip interface

2. The chemical affinity between the tool and workpiece

materials
Diffusion rate increases with
increasing temperature, crater
wear increases as temperature
increases
Location of the max depth of
crater wear, KT, coincides with
the location of the max
temperature at the tool–chip
interface

69
Tool Life: Wear and Failure: Flank wear
Occurs between tool and workpiece
interface

Due to abrasion between tool flank

and workpiece

The entire area subjected to flank

wear is known as WEAR LAND (VB),
occurs on tool nose, front and side
relief faces

70
Tool Life: Wear and Failure:Flank Wear
 Occurs on the relief (flank) face of the tool due to
(a) Rubbing of the tool along the machined surface and

(b) High temperatures

 Taylor tool life equation states that

C and n:- exponents that depend on
tool and workpiece materials and
cutting conditions

V = cutting speed
T = time taken to develop a certain
flank wear land
n = an exponent that depend on tool
and workpiece materials and cutting
conditions
C = constant

71
Tool Life: Wear and Failure: Flank Wear
 To take into account feed rate and depth of cut effects on
wear, the Taylor Equation is modified to (For turning)
Where, d - depth of cut and f - feed

 Since x and y must be determined experimentally for each

cutting condition, we have

Ranges of n Values for Taylor Eq. To obtain a constant tool life:

for various tool materials
1.The cutting speed must be
High-speed steels 0.08-0.2
decreased
Cast alloys 0.1-0.15
2.Depending on the
Carbides 0.2-0.5
exponents
Coated carbides 0.4-0.6
ceramics 0.5-0.7

72
Tool-life Curves

Figure shows Tool-life curves for

a variety of cutting-tool materials.
The negative inverse of the slope
of these curves is the exponent n
in the Taylor tool-life equation
and C is the cutting speed at T =
1 min, ranging from about 200 to
10,000 ft./min in this figure.
Tool Life: Wear and Failure:Flank Wear
EXAMPLE 2
Increasing Tool Life by Reducing the Cutting Speed
Using the Taylor Equation for tool life and letting n=0.5 and C=120,
calculate the percentage increase in tool life when the cutting speed is
reduced by 50%.
Solution Since n=0.5, we have
VT0.5=120
V2=0.5V1
0.5V1T20.5=V1T10.5

This indicates that the change in tool life is

If the speed is reduced by 50%

74
Tool Life: Wear and Failure:Flank Wear
Allowable Wear Land
 Cutting tools need to be replaced when:

1. Surface finish of the machined workpiece begins to

deteriorate
2. Cutting forces increase significantly

3. Temperature rises significantly

75
Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Other Types of Wear, Chipping, and Fracture
 Nose wear is the rounding of a sharp tool due to
mechanical and thermal effects
 It dulls the tool, affects chip formation and causes rubbing
of the tool over the workpiece
 Tools also may undergo plastic deformation because of
temperature rises in the cutting zone
 Tools may undergo chipping, where small fragment from
the cutting edge of the tool breaks away
 Chipping may occur in a region of the tool where a small
crack already exists
 Two main causes of chipping: Mechanical shock &
Thermal fatigue
76
Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Tool-condition Monitoring
 Tool-condition monitoring systems are integrated into
computer numerical control and programmable logic
controllers
 Classified into 2 categories:

1. Direct method is observing the condition of a cutting tool

involves optical measurements of wear

2. Indirectmethods is observing tool conditions involve the

correlation of the tool condition with parameters
 Another similar system consists of transducers, which
continually monitor torque and forces during cutting
77
TOOL LIFE: WEAR AND FAILURE
Tool Condition Monitoring
Tool-condition monitoring systems are integrated into
computer numerical control and programmable logic
controllers
Classified into 2 categories:
1.Direct techniques:
 It is observing the condition of a
cutting tool involves optical
measurements of wear
2. Indirect methods
 It is observing tool conditions involve the correlation of the
tool condition with parameters : forces, power, temp rise,
surface finish and vibration.
TOOL LIFE: WEAR AND FAILURE
Tool Condition Monitoring – Indirect methods
A. Acoustic emission (AE) technique
Utilizes a piezo-electric transducer attached to tool holder
 The transducer picks up acoustic emissions that result from
the stress waves generated during cutting.
 By analyzing the signals, tool wear and chipping can be
monitored.
TOOL LIFE: WEAR AND FAILURE
Tool Condition Monitoring – Indirect methods
B.Transducers are installed in original machine tools
 Continually monitor torque and forces during cutting
 Signals are pre-amplified and microprocessor analyses and
interprets their content
 The system is capable of differentiating the signals that come
from tool breakage, tool wear, a missing tool, overloading of
the machine, or colliding machine comp
 The system also auto compensate for tool wear and thus
improve dim accuracy
TOOL LIFE: WEAR AND FAILURE
Tool Condition Monitoring – Indirect methods
C.Monitoring by tool-cycle time
 In CNC expected tool life in entered into the machine control
unit, when it is reached, the operator makes the tool change.
Lathe Tool Dynamometer
Surface Finish and Integrity
 Surface finish influences the dimensional accuracy of
machined parts, properties and performance in service
 Surface finish describes the geometric features of a surface
while surface integrity pertains to material properties
 The built-up edge has the greatest influence on surface finish
 A dull tool has a large radius along its edges. In a turning
operation, the tool leaves a spiral profile (feed marks) on the
machined surface as it moves across the workpiece
 Typical surface roughness is expressed as

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Surface Finish and Integrity
 Factors influencing surface integrity are:
1.Temperatures generated
2.Surface residual stresses
3.Plastic deformation and strain hardening of the
machined surfaces, tearing and cracking
 Finish machining is considering the surface finish to be
produced
 Rough machining is to remove a large amount of material at
a high rate.

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Machinability
 Machinability is defined in terms of:
1. Surface finish and surface integrity
2. Tool life
3. Force and power required
4. The level of difficulty in chip control

 Good machinability indicates good surface finish and

surface integrity, a long tool life, and low force and power
requirements

 Machinability ratings (indexes) are available for each type

of material and its condition.

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Machinability:
Machinability of Ferrous Metals
Steels
 If a carbon steel is too ductile, chip formation can produce
built-up edge, leading to poor surface finish
 If too hard, it can cause abrasive wear of the tool because
of the presence of carbides in the steel
 Calcium-deoxidized steels contain oxide flakes of
calcium silicates (CaSO) that reduce the strength of the
secondary shear zone and decrease tool–chip interface
friction and wear.

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Machinability:
Machinability of Ferrous Metals
Effects of Various Elements in Steels
 Presence of aluminum and silicon is harmful, as it
combine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and
silicates, which are hard and abrasive
 Thus tool wear increases and machinability reduce

Stainless Steels
 Austenitic (300 series) steels are difficult to machine
 Ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good
machinability
 Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive

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Machinability:
Machinability of Nonferrous Metals
 Aluminum is very easy to machine
 Beryllium requires machining in a controlled environment
 Cobalt-based alloys require sharp, abrasion-resistant
tool materials and low feeds and speeds
 Copper can be difficult to machine because of builtup
edge formation
 Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good surface
finish and prolonged tool life
 Titanium and its alloys have very poor thermal
conductivity
 Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very abrasive

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Machinability:
Machinability of Miscellaneous Materials
 Machining thermoplastics requires sharp tools with
positive rake angles, large relief angles, small depths of
cut and feed and high speeds
 Polymer-matrix composites are difficult to machine

 Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be

difficult to machine, depending on the properties of the
matrix material and the reinforcing fibers
 The type of chips and the surfaces produced also vary
significantly, depending on the type of wood and its
condition

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Machinability:
Thermally Assisted Machining
 In thermally assisted machining (hot machining), a
source of heat is focused onto an area just ahead of the
cutting tool
 Advantages of hot machining are:
1. Reduced cutting forces

2. Increased tool life

3. Higher material-removal rates

4. Reduced tendency for vibration and chatter

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END

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