sy WRGb \ \ @ i) oscillation of simple pendulum (used in the making of pendulum walled clock) ; rotation of the earth on its axis. One complete rotation gives a day. Thus a second is 1/864,00 of a mean polar day. We now talk of a mean day since we now know that the period. of rotation of the earth varies slightly from time to time. It has been suggested that the reason for such variation include:’ 2. Tidal friction-between the water and the land b. _. Motion of the winds c. _ Melting of ice located in the poles & Shifting earth plates. (iii) Oscillation of coiled spring (used in making mechanical Watches). . (iv) Oscillation of quartz crystals (used in the making of most electronic watches). 15 Units There is certain degree, of arbitrariness in the choice of the fundamental ‘quantities, But once such quantities have been chosen and units given to them, all other derived quantities are expressed in terms of these fundamental quantities. The standard unit for mass is kilogram, that of length is meter and that for time is second. Such system of units is called the S.I. system or S.I. units, It is also called the MKS systems, that is, metre-kilogram- : second system. Other systems include. (i) . the f- p- s system or the foot - pound - second system (ii) the c.g. s system or the centimeter-gram - second system Sometimes values of any of the ‘above systems are too big for conrmerci uses and fractions of them become more practical. the other hand we require that multiples of the values are 4 map ramecenceeneirereesx u re \ 1 { ee ne LOCC A A TI A more practical. Some prefixes used to identify multiples and sub multiples of metric quantities are as given below: 1 = deci - 10. = deka- 107 = centi- 10° = — hecto- w= milli- 10 = kilo- Ww = micro - 108 = mega- 10° = nano 1° = giga- 19? pico - 10? = tera- The summary below may assist readers to understand the relevant units both in the S.I. and in the C.G.S. systems. QUANTITY RELATION : Dyne Ikg= 1000g Momentum Newtor Dyne-second | INs = 10° second, Ns dynes [Energy [Joutes, 7 [Erg 11 = 10" exgs Power ‘Watt (W) or | Ergs” 1W Je" Sn Example 1 Show that 1N is equivalent to 10° dynes. Solution IN is an S.I. Unit of force. Force is defined as: F=mass times acceleration = mass x distance LN is equival a tie equivalent to kg ms”, 1 kg = 1000g, Im = 10 > » LM = 100 Therefore, IN=Ikgms?=lkem = 000g 1006 n =19> s ? * = 10" gms*= 105 dynes, 8 Example 2 -_ Show that 1y = 10°, ergs,unit of work or energy. Work is derived from wo =__ Force x Distance in direction of force = Mass x acceleration x displacement 1J=1(kgms”)(m). lkg= 1000g Im = 100cm Therefore, J=ke(ms”\im) 1000g (100cms”)1 00cm 10 gems? 10”ergs 1 joule isan 8. woul Example 3 Convert a velocity of 80kmv/h to S.I. unit. Solution lkm = 1000m th . =60x60s ‘Therefore 80km/h = 80000m/60 x 60s 80000 =n - 60x 60 =222 m/s Example 4 Convert an acceleration of LOms? to @ value in kmh? Solution : be ma tha Ex: beli @ Gi) (iii) (iv) (v)=—_—_ kn hy’ Oms?=10 x x Therefore, 10ms 1000 60 x 60, 10 1 : % kmh? \ 1000 60 x 60 : “10 wt = — ‘x 60? x 60° kmh* 1600 = 129 600k 16 Dimension | fhe slayer The dimension of physical quantity expresses ionship i between the quantity and the three fundamental Quantities of mass, length and time. Recall that the dimension of mass is M, that of length is L and that of time is T. Example of derived quantities and their dimensions are given below @ Volume = length x width x height “ Therefore, dimension of volume = LxLxL = [2 Gi) Velocity = Displacement/Time Therefore, dime: ion of velocity = L/T. =LT z (iii) “Momentum = mass x velocity Therefore dimension of momentum = MLT! (iv) Acceleration = Velocity/Time leref i i i oa fore dimension of acceleration ig =— 297 T T° (vy) Force= Mass x Accels-ation 72 Therefore dimension of force = M x LT 2 Work = force x Displacement ¢ the dimension of work is MLT? x L Ory | TT (vi) ‘ Therefor . ii) Power = : Time ‘Therefore the-dimension of power MT? « mass. Vat n (m) Power act-Enary) xt 2, Distinguish betwee List three fundame: 3, The velocity Vo} n fundamental ‘tal units and f vay. plucking it, can be given in terms of string length I of the V= my String and mass m ij 15 yn the LHS to,” ) ) have and z of equations (19), (20) and (21), we Z S st equation (16) give: yang qual units and derived units. Six derived units, © Set up in a stretched String, by tension, F in the in the String aswhere x, y and z are numbers and k is tbe constant of proportionality. Use dimensional analysis to calculate x, y and z and hence prove that yo =k(FV/m)* ~ >» Tension mass per unit length The force F between the sun of mass m and the earth of ete oe erent 4. mass M separated by a distance, r is given as FO =G.=— o wheré G is the universal gravitational Constant. Use dimensional analysis to obtain the unit of G. 5. A simple pendulum made up of a small mass m suspended from a long thread of length I is sét into oscillation. If the period T of the oscillation is related to m, ] and the acceleration due to gravity, g by the equation. T = kg where x, y, z and k are “dimensionless constants, use dimensional analysis to obtain values of the constants x, y, and z and-hence an explicit expression for T. 6. Givethe relation between: @) Asguare inch-and a square centimeter. (b) -A.square mile and a square kilometer a a meter and a cubic centimeter : (a) 1 in’ = 6.45em’ (b) 1 mi? = 2.61 ? (Sim 06am AO ao ‘Show that 1 watt = 10’ erg per second.ee ee et I I BEIT 10. 11, It is necessary to specify the temperature of which a standard metre is made, why? Do you consider temperature a fundamental quantity? List any ten phenomena each of which so repeats itself regularly that it can be used as a reasonable time standard. Show that Lwatt= 107 ergs" Convert a density - (i) of 0.0045kgém® to the.S.L. unit. (i) of 10gem” to S.1. unit ; Ans: (i) 4500kgm’ (ii) 10000kgm"CHAPTER TWO os = VECTORS i Physics 2.0 Introduction — vx and ofr areas of This book deals @ am ea antities treated are of mucl pee ay gm oucie at tis Wok 2A Definition of Vector a io ical quantity that hasmagnitude as we! i JS Se ie iples of vectors are many. They include: displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, torque, angular momentum, electric field intensity, etc. Ifa physical quantity is not a vector, it is definitely classified as a scalar. 2.2 Definition-of a Scalar . .Any physical quantity. that has a magnitude but no direction is called a scalar, Examples include; distance, speed, mass, volume, moment of inertia, coefficient of viscosity, Young’s modulus, etc, 2.3 Geometrical Representation We can use the simplest of the vectors to illustrate the techniques vi z : i : i i § i 3 1 ao An ai direct magn printe arrow 24. The p to the from. ‘the pc figure Note t which arbitra 25 25.17 Before Underst Underst Particul any vec it, bur idenyt A to B to show tp B and the vector is written 4 “ eae = the displacement from ! ted in bold prints | ‘An arrow is drawn on the line segment is A direction is from ue magnitude of the vector is nted. matter, vectors are represen! arrows on them). it nou Ve ctashit: ‘sin. 0 ms cnet point A is the vector from tee origin, oe point-A, ie. OA. Every position’ vector the re. sats fem the. origin. . The relationship between the position vectors : ‘he points A and B and the displacement vector AB is as given figure 2.2. Yy > x 9 Fig 2.2- Note that the position vector of the origin itself becomes OO which is a mull vector. A null vector has zero magnitude but arbitrary direction. — = Sa 25 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors . 251 Transmissibility of vector ~ Before the method of addition or subtraction of vectors understood, the Principle of transmissibility of vectors has understood. The princisie recognises that the diteccion 4 Particular vector is not r d to its li ion. | nh ced to its line of Jen aume action. He- tude as another vecto,a a - i ed from its line or action to another line of action i sransfemed_from its Hine or seton parallel to the first line. , i \ i Addition of Vectors - If you have a vector AB and another one given as BC (see fig. - | 2.3), you can add the two vectors by transferring one of the “Vectors parallel to its line of action into the tip of another vector. The vector AC becomes the vector addition in magnitude ant direction of the two vectors. Note that a vector AB can simply be represented by a single letter P= AB and BC can be represented / “by Q=BC.Hence P+ O=R F A———_—_—_> 8 cc Hig23¢@) A f, Fig23() where R is the resultant of addition (or subtraction) of the vectors. A single vector which represents the addition (or subtraction) of two vectors is called the resultant of the vectors. _ Hence the-vecter R is the resultant of the vectors P.and OQ added - _ / .-vectorically. Ifthe vectors 4, B, and -C- are parallel but with different 4 actin, then by the priniciples of transmissibility of ‘vectors, the vectors-can be transferred to a single and common tine of action and added head to tail as in figure 2.4 2 units . —_ Bs c — Ay Baits : Resultant” = “R- ~ _ 2 9 units Fig24 y iTERME Ee em em YE 9s 2.5.2 Subtraction of Vectors If you take a vector A of 4 units Pointing from West to East and another parallel vector B of two units Pointing from West to East, A . B 4 units . 2 units we can note that -B will be given as follows: ee 2 units That is, a vector pointing from East to West with same magnitude of 2 units. Thus A-B is the same as the subtraction of B from A and is best seen as the addition of the negative of the yector Bie, A-B=A+(-B) That is, the resultant is 4+ (-2)=4-2=2 units, and pointing from West to East. This method is true even when A and B are in different directions. For example, the subtraction of Q from P in figure 2.3(a) will be given as in figure 2.5. 3 Fig. 2.5 Hence the resultant R in magnitude: and direction can be Calculated if the angle @ between P and Q vectors are known, (using cosine formula) 5 ae 2.6. Equilibrium ‘of Vectors : nee The addition law of vector AB +BC = AC Fig. 2.6 tremhead of one vector is connected to the tail of form one side of a triangle; their sum (also f the triangle obtained by the head of the implies that if the second vector to f side ¢ called the resultant) is the third’ side 0! also joining the t2Eail of the first vector to second. To neutralise this resultant AC, we need to apply CA. (Since AC + CA = AA): ‘We ate that €A reduces AC or its component parts AB’ and- BE to- equilibriua A is then called the equilibrant of AB and BC for it follows that AB+BC+CA=AC+CA=AA. Thus if three vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a closed triangle taken in order, the three vectors are in equilibrium and conversely. This is known as the law of TRIANGLE OF VECTORS. Parallelogram Law of Addition and Subtraction of. Vectors If two vectors are presented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides AB and AD ofa parallelogram, then D 7 c 27. . B Fig 2.7 (a) Their sum or Tesultant is represente: n 6: tant ji di i represented j nitude and through their connect i i My cling point A, this follows j i AD=BC by transmissibility of vectors, ms smediately fom AB+AD= AB +BC=AC 2 22 direct by the diagonal. of the paralle lograt sins lirection diag C of im passing(b) Their difference is represented in magnitude and ee by the diagonal DB of the parallelogram joining the head of thi vector subtracted to the head of the vector from which it is subtracted. This follows immediately from AD + DB = AB, Therefore AB - AD=DB . As.an. example. of the application of triangle rufe “of vectors, a situation where a stream is flowing North fo South at a 7kmii:' and ‘a canoe is crossing the stream from East to West at a velocity of 108kmbh". Obviously, the flow of the stream will influence the overall velocity and even the diréction of the canoe. The canoe cannot -succeed in heading to the preferred direction, i.e., due West due to the effect on it by the flow of the stream. If the vector A represents the magnitude and direction of the stream and :he vector B the magnitude and direction of the canoe, Fig 2.8(a) Using triangle method, the tai! of A is joined to the tip of B after moved transferring A parallel to itself (read the transmissibility ® Vectors, section 2.5.1. 1; ‘wise the tail of B can be joined to le tip A after Properly tr: tring B parallel to itself, (fig. 2.85). Fig 2.8(b)The resultant is therefore R in magnitude and direction, A, B, and R having formed a triangle. Triangular method can as well : be used to solve the problem of a stream flowing at a velocity of { 3ms' due East from West while.a boy is swirnming across the stream due North at 2 yelocity of sms". As expected, the yelocity of the stream will affect that of the swimmer in a way that the can no longer cross to a point directly opposite the point he started. To represent the velocity vectors, we draw a line 5 units long pointing North to represent the velocity of the boy across the stream. We also draw a line 3 units long pointing East ‘ to represent the yelocity of the stream. From the end of the 5 unit line, the 3 unit line is joined. A line joining the beginning of the first line to the tip of the second represents in magnitude and direction the resultant velocity of the boy across the stream. The length of the resultant R represents the magnitude of such resultant, Hence by ‘drawing to scale and measuring out by pythagora’s theorem, the resultant R'will be found to be 5.83 units which represents a velocity of 5.83 ms! This method of finding the resultant of two vectors by representing the vectors with the three sides of a triangle forms what is known as the triangular method of adding vectors. Th resultant'so obtained represents ‘the addition of two vectors both in magnitude and direction. The direction of the resultant R is determined by calculating the angle e in figure 2.8(c) The direction -of -R 3s 3 units -determiried-by the anigle'® ancy or “or 31° East of North.all of he he ay int © voy vast sof and The such t by 5.83 id of ctors | | i The resultant velocity of the boy as he swims across the stream can be obtained by a parallelogram method. A line OA is drawn to represent velocity of swimmer Sms! in magnitude and direction. Another line OB is drawn in the same scale as the first to represent the velocity of the current downstream. The parallelogram OACB is completed and the diagonal OC is drawn through O which will represent the resultant velocity it) magnitude and direction. This method will yield the same result as the triangular method. Consider as in figure 2.8(d), two vectors A and B which act at angle 6 to each other. The resultant R is obtained by completing the parallelogram and drawing the diagonal OD. The diagonal OD represents the resultant of A and B both in magnitude and direction. The magnitude of R can be determined by applying the cosine rule: R’ =A’ +B? - 2ABcos (180 - 8) = A’+B’+2AB cos 0 where @ is the-angle between A and B. The direction of R can also be determined . A by applying the sine tule:mes Sin (180° - 6) Sin aan B B sin (180° - 8) 0 ine = rosin R Since,..two.-or snes cant be. combined“ to. posal & “resultant vector conversely a single vector, can be resolved it components. The number of direction in which such a vector can be resolved is infinite. However, a force is normally resolved into two directions at right angles only, usually the vertical and horizontal directions. Suppose a wagon is being pulled by a force F at angle 6 to the horizontal as shown in figure 2.9, Although the force F is being applied on the wagon in the direction OF, the entire force is not effective in puling the wagon forward in horizontal direction. The force effective in doing this is the component of F in the ~ direction OA. The other component of F in the direction OB tend to pull the wagon up. We therefore say that the force F has components in two direction, horizontal called Fy, and vertical called Fy components, The magnitude of the components are: Fp = F cos 6 F, = F sind sey a2 . . Cleaity it is the component F, that is fesponsible for moving the wagon. 29 Scale Method Note that if A and B are drawn to scale and the proper di chosen, then R in the same scale represents the ween angle 8 also tepresents the direction, Apart from »: 26 _ a | t ithod, the magnitude of the resultant, R can be calculated using method, d the Pythagora’s rule i.e. mer APIBE =TS +30 «.— (RL=30.92 ms! The angle 6 is given as tan 8= 0.25. 30 Les tho4. ‘The canoe instead of heading towards the West, it is constrained to head in the direction $ 76° W (i.e., W 14° S). ; Example t _A vector A of magnitude 8 units points due East and another 1 “vector B of magnitude 12 units points in the direction N20° E. The triangle of force is as given in figure 2.9(b). . 8 units § : A i B 5 } B 12 i j j - 8 3 b i Fig 2.9(a) Fig2.9(b) fone ; ee sie ee A and B vectors are obtained as 110° j s ue two vectors is R. Obvi t i f Roe viously th a NISR'=8"+ 12?-2x8x 12 cos 110°— 175.2 uy evdion * R=13.24 units esate.2.10 Section Theorem 2.10.1 Internal Division . ; | If a point P divides a line segment AB internally in the ratio AP:BP = n:m, then n.OA + m.OB = (m+n).OP where O is any arbitrary point (see figure 2.1 0) oO Fig 2.10 PROOF: AP=OP-OA _ PB=OB-OP Thus AP=n=OP-OA PB m_ OB-OP Thus n.OB - n.OP = m.OP - mOA Thus m.0A + n.OB= (m+n).OP 2.10.2 External Division Ifa point P divides a line segment AB externally in the ratio AP:PB =n: (-m), then m.0A - .nOB = (m-n).0P where O is any arbitrary point. (see figure 2.11) PROOF: AP=OP-OA PB=OB-OP Thus AP=n=OP-OA PB -m OB-OP exergy = “0 aa 1.0B = 0-OP =-m.OP +m.0A m.0A - n.OB =(m-n). OP 28I Note that the negative sign of AP = .u arises from the PB -m fact that AP is anti-parallel to PB oO Fig 2.11 Example 2 An aircraft traveled from Calabar to Kano as follows:'It first flew to Lorin covering a distance of 300km.30° West of North (ie., N 30° W) and then flew 400km 60° East of North to Kano. What is the resultant displacement? (J.M.E:. 1981) oe Solution The displacement from Calabar to Ilorin and from Ilorin to Kano are as represented in fig 2.12 below. By Pythagoras theorem, the ‘resultant displacement R is as given by R? = 400? + 300° Thus R = (400° + 300°)*, = 500km - The direction of the Tesultant R will be given by Tan @=400 300 or 8=tan! 1.33=53.1° Since OA is 30° West of North, then the resultant OB, will be 23.1° East of North (i.e $3.1°- 30°) East of North.~ Fig 2.12 o ' : Parente due North at 45knvb and a stone 1s thrown by an occupant of the ship at 22kmV/h in a direction () North West () $20°W, ie. 20° West of South (il) £20°S, i.e. 20° South of East Find the velocity and the direction of the stone relative to the sea in each case, Solution Let the ship velocity in magnitude and directi i Pett naga direction be given by a 45kniv/h Fig 2.13 (a) CASE 1: Nosth: West : i est is i velocity is given in magnitude ee toN 45 W and the t : stone is given j of Veloci . end a es in the usual way by joining 4 cB of ship and or B can come first ie. as howe end to 30 nin figure A mkt ie AD eo OMAPi e with sultant C (that is, the velocity of the stoné 2.13(b). The resultant C (WHAT ? ale ister 135° (using cosine mule) al to 62.5knv/b. Fig. 2.13(6) | ‘The resultant C is in the direction 8, w where Sin 8; sin 135° 62.5 6 =14.4° ie. 14.4° West of North CASEI: — The stone moving in S 20° W with velocity 2kmm/b-can be represented as in figure 2. 14(a) by a vector D. 20° 22 . ¢ - . 2 . orsiné; = —— (sin135°) = 02489 i D A= 45km/h Fig 2.14(a)direction by F where F is as shown if igure 2.15(a). | i 3 ; i The resultant of D and A, is therefore given as E as in figure 4,14(b), where the magnitude of F is E| =Eand. Fi=22° +457 - 2x22 x45 008 20° = 648.4kan/h. ‘Therefore E= 25.5 knv/h. ‘And the direction of B vector can be given in terms of 62 where gin@, —~~sii 20° vq. 2 E A or sin 20°x 22 - ——=_ sin EB 255 0.2951 Fig 2. 14(b) 17.2 o = of Therefore the direction of E = N 17.22 W or 72.8° North of West. CASE It: Ifthe direction of stone with velocity 22km/h isE 20° S, then this stone ean be represented in magnitude and Fig 2.15(a) and the resultant of F and A is G as provided in figure 2.15(b) nan | &F | 7 a Fig, 2.15(b) “The resultant G i.e. of the stone wrt (with respect to) the sea is e = A? +F? - 2AFcos 70°= 1831.8 Therefore, G = 42.8 and the vector G is due 03 East of North (N @3 E) where Sin 6s Sin 70° 22, G 22 sin 70° or sin; = ————— =0.483 . 42.8 83 = 28.9° Example 3 A boatman facing North wants to cross a flowing river to a point directly opposite. him at-the-other bank. If the river is fi wing at a sail at_a-velocity“6f Sits in still it velocity. In what direction must he ‘Solution: The resultant velocity of the boatman is that due to the vector i Of the velocity of the river-and- that of the-boatman | (in atan angle @ as shown in figure 2.16 below.rth of hisE_ 2 and Fig. 2.15(b) “The resultant G i.e. of the stone wrt (with respect to) the sea is G? =A? +E? - 2AFcos 70° = 1831.8 . Therefore, G = 42.8 and the vector G is due 6; East of North (N @3 E) where Sin 3 Sin 70° 22 G 22 sin 70° or sin@; = ——— =0,483 . 42.8 @ =28.9° Example 3 A boatman facing North wants to cross a flowing river to a Point directly opposite. him at the other bank. If the rive ‘is flowing at a velocity of” - isaiees ive ion. The Tesultant velocity of the boatman is that due to the vector - tition of the Velocity of the tiver-and that of the boatman (in . Water). For the boatman to come out at a Point directly PPosite him at the other bank of the ri : tiver, he must row his atan angle 9 as shown in figure 2.16 below. nee2 units is represented in this ‘on the same scale to etermined analytically . - ‘it river, Sms! His velocity in the still river, , direction and that of the river is drawn represent 2ms", The resultant velocity is di by measuring R. Alternatively; by Pythagoras theorem, R=(5*.2")* = 4.6 ms", | To determine the direction the boatman will set his boat, we calculate the angle @ in figure 2.16. Sin 0 =2/5=0.4 Therefore 8 = 23.6° and so he must row his boat set at 23.6° West of North in order to come out exactly in the North. Example 4 If three forces of 12N, 15N, and 20N respectively concurrent and acting at a point are in equilibrium, caleu angles between them, Solution = Let the concurrent forces be sketched to act at 2 peint O as follows where the angle for example between 20N and 15N is Other angles as given in figure 2.17(a) are 8; and @,, We... that each of the three forces is an equilibrant of the other “ 5 j : i z |J te ne neem mamntemantininaeanentaient hte aneeREROMNRE HTC AMA eR ERpSre—eeennrnneenesenerenen 20N %) 8, uN., 15N Fig 2.17(a) ; / For example, sie jeeultant of 20N and 15N can be given as in figure 1.17(b) below. 9, 8, ‘ 15 15 0 20 2 2 Fig 217(0) Fig2. 1 7(b) The equilibrant of 20N and ISN is therefore of the same magnitude with C but in opposite direction to it, that is es in fig 2. 17(c). Therefore D = -C The angle @, between 15N and 20N of figure 1.17(a) therefore can be provided as in fig. 1.17(b) as @, where @ = 180° - ; is deduced from the cosine rule as follows: 12?= 15? +20?- 2.x 15x 20 cos Therefore, 8 = 180° - 8, = 36.7° Therefore, 6, = 180° - 36.7° = 143.3° |Convince yourself similarly that the angle between ISN and 12N i is @2 and that 20N is the equilibrant of both forces. Therefore 20? = 15? + 127-2 x 15 x 12 cos (180°-62) Or —180°-8) = 94.9° Sates La the equilibrant of ZO and 12N and therefore 15? = 12? + 20? 2x 12 x 20 cos (180° - 6°) _ Therefore 180° - @;=48.3° Or %=431.7 = / dy Note that, sin 8) sin 62 sin 03 4 12 20 15 andthat «+6 + = 360°. Example 5 : Calculate the resultant force acting at the point O and the direction of the force (figure 2.18(a)). 60N 150N Fig 2.18(a) 100.N The resultant force and the direction.of the force can be found in many ways. One of such ways is to consider that three forces are involved and we are to resolve any two at first and then find the resultant of the two (so resolved) with the third force. Any two canbe chosen at first. Let us in this example choose 60 Nand 150 N which made angle 30° with each other. The resultant be R, as in figure 2.18(b), where | 4 Eee ns12N fore ‘ore memes etna ON R, 60N 30" : (0. 130. 150N Fig 2.18(b) R?=150?+ 602.2 150 x 60 cos 150° = 22500 + 3600 + 15588.46 = 41688.46 Therefore, Ri =204.18N Ri makes angle @ with the 150 N vector, i.e. East direction, Using sine rule therefore, Sine 6, sin 150° —— . 60 R sin 150° 204.18. Therefore, sin @, = 60 sin 150° * 204.18 = 0.1469 Or 6 = 845? We are therefore left with two forces, i.e, (i) Ri =20418N in direction 8.45° North of East-ang (ii) 100.N due South, The two forces Can be.tesolved into.a.single force {resattant), Rs “making angle 0; with R, as in figure 2.8/6), ° 100N Fig 2.18 (c)cosine rule, ° Ry=Ri*+ 100°—2 x Ry x 100cos 81.55 41689.47 + 10000 - 6000.7 = 45688.7 Therefore, Rp = 213.15 N Also using sine rule, Sin®, sin 81.55" 100 213.75 - Therefore, 8 = 100 sin 81.55” 213.75 = 0.4628 Therefore, 8 = 27.57° Note that 27.57" is greater than 8.45°, therefore Ry is in the direction 8; south of East where 3 =27.57-8.45 =19,12° Therefore, resultant force Rp = 213.75 N Direction of resultant is E 19,12 g Solution The forces symmetrically supporting the picture can be given as follows (figure 2. 19(a)), w Fig2.19(a) 38 Fig 2.190) eaten Exar Abo, &N calcu] + tend t Soluti, F igure Q Tesi[ote eon b), where Ti = Ta tant of T; and T2 Ry is the weight ved forces are aS given in figure 2 e-tension in the string is same. oe ie equilibrant of Ti and T2 is R oe of the picture. The equilibrant 1§ therefore giv’ Baqi T- 271 T2008 120 = 192+ 10? - 2x 10-x'10 cos 120° = 100-+100+2x100x05° = The resol =300 Therefore, Rz = 300%, =17.3N Alternatively, we note that the vertical components of the tension ns of the cord add up to be equal to but opposite in the two sectior in direction to the weight, W of the picture. The sum of unit vertical components is | Tieos0 +T, cos 8 = W Or - 2T; cos 30°=W 2x 10cos 30 =173N. Example 7 A body is boing pulled by te action ftw fres 6 N Nori and west. If the ropes make angle 50° wi the calculate the resultant force on the body and the dincaer ie « tend to move, fahtion ‘igure 2.8 (e) illustrat pivesultat force, R nee of forces measuring =8+ 6-24 48 cos Lie? =8'+ 6742448 cos 50° = 64+ 36 +96 x 0.6428 =100+617 = 1617 =12.72N,————— 4 To determine the direction that the body will move, we calculate ain figure 2.8(e) whete ; 6 sin 130 Sina = — JR 6 sin 130° =~ ——— = 036 * 12.72 a. =212 Hence the direction of the resultant is 5 Exercise Le 0-21.2=28.8° NW. ‘A river 50m wide is flowing due East at a velocity of 30 ms’. A man wishes to row his boat due North across the fiver, If he can row the boat in still water at 50 ms", calculate @) the direction in which he must head his boat (ii) the time'taken to reach the other bank of the river (Answer: 37° West of North; 1.25 s) - Three forces of magnitude 10 N, 4.N and-3 N act on a body in the directions North, Souths and East, respectively. Find the magnitude and direction of the “resultant force. (Answer: 6.7 N, 27° East of North) an-airspeed’of 100 kmh‘! -and-flies on a ring 1D? f.e,E (60°S):_A_.wind is blowin y-at 30 kmb’' from a bearing of 080° (ie., N 308 E). Find the track and ground speed. (NB: wind.vector + course vector= track vector) (Aviswer:.track is 167.5° and ground speed is. 94kmh') ‘A man sets out to swim across a river O.4km wide at right angles to its parallel banks. He can swim at a steady an ace Ne NER ARE ELE RE HATE GRRE A AYa ery speid of 2 kmh” in still water but there is a current flowing at 1 kmh’. Find: (a) _ his track across the river and (b) how far downstream he is carried when he lands. (Answer: (a) 2.24 kmh" at 63.43” to bank: (b) 0.2 km.) A ship is travelling at 10 kmh’. A ball is rolled across -the deck (at right angles to the motion of the ship) at 4 ms. Find the actual velocity of the ball relative to the ground. (Answer: 10.77 m/s at 21.8° (N 21.8° E) to line of ship.) A river flows at 3 km/h and its parallel banks are 400 m apart. A man wishes to cross in a motor boat which can make Skm/h in still water, to reach the point directly opposite. Find the direction in which he must steer and the time taken to cross the river. (Answer: 53.13° to bank, 6 min.) A pendulum of weight 100N is pulled to angle 30° from the vertical. Calculate the horizontal force pulling the pendulum. (Answer: 57.5N).the weight, W of the ous 8. In figure 2.9 determine swer: 6.2 Ny suspended vertically and the angle @ (An: 39°), is i ilibri der ti ‘An object is in equilibrium unt - 9 Ferces two of which are 50 N and 70 N tas 45° to each other. Calculate the magni force necessary to maintain the object at rest. B ction of three beh are at angle f the third 100 kg c Ae Fig. 2.10 A crane has a jib AB (hinged at A) inclined at 60 to the horizontal, held by a tie BC inclined at 30° to the horizontal, A load of 100kg hangs from B. Neglecting the weight of the jib, calculate the tension along BC (Answer: 1000 N). 10. : 60N 150N 100N Determine the resulta t i ‘ 213.8 N), nt force acting at the Point O. (Answer: 42 eae mw te di di Si te de dir 3.3 des Vec dire SimCHAPTER THREE VECTOR ANALYSIS arrow to describe a vector in 3,0 Introduction a cribe the vector in terms of z sox pith: on tead of using @ line wil are and direction, we can dest appropriate UNIT VECTORS. 3.1 Vector in a Line In one dimension, say in x di terms of. the unit vector in x direction is given as i. Hence a vec direction is given as A= Si. rection, vectors can be described in direction. A unit I vector in. x- tor of magnitude 8 units in x- Similarly, unit vectors in y-, al nd z- directions are give as j and k respectively, : 3.2 Vectors in a surface Any vector in two dimensions, that is, a surface ve can be described by any two of three principal unit vectors: i, j and k. hence a. vector B which sweeps through 4 units in x- direction(axis) and 3 units in y-axis is given by B = 4i + 3] The magnitude of B ie B can be found using pythagoras rule as B=(4+3"* =5 units. 3.3 Vectors in Space i vector in three dimensions, i.e, in space can easily be ae in tems of the three unit vectors. i, j and kk. Thus a Hes wi ich-sweeps 4 units in x-direction, 3 units in y- on and 2 units in z-direction is given as i C=4i+3j+2k Similarly, the Magnitude is given as CH@ 4324 52% Wax azy »=5.3 units, 4BFig 3.(a) Since any vector A can be given in terms of unit vectors i, j and k. in x, y, and z direction respectively (see fig 3.1(b). It follows that, A=Ai+Aj+ Ack, Where Ax is the component of vector A in x-direction. Ay is the component of vector A in y-direction and A, is the component of vector'A in z-direction (see fig. 3.1 (¢)). Fig 3.1(c) The magnitude of A is therefore A =(A,’ + AP +A2%—-—3.3. Unit Vector Any unit vector has unit magnituide in its direction. Take a véctor A, The unit vector in direction A is given as zt 7 A= ——; where A is the magnitude of the vector x hae A z Dividing A by its magnitude therefore, ensures it is'a unit vector. Such unit vectors in x, y, z directions are given as i, j, k (see fig. 3.1(a)) Example 1 . p * Ifa vector A = 2i - 3} +k , calculate the unit vector in the direction A. . . a wx 2i-3j+k Solution: A> — = ———_ A (+3? +14 i = = (i-2j+k) : tae Example 2 ° Ifa vector B = 4j + 0j + 2k, the unit vector or B is * # 4i+0j+2k OBS P24 1 i (41+ 0j + 2k) 20 Example3 ~~ : : i Ifavestor Cis given as € = -i +2) +4k, the unit vector-of C is @ +2) +4k N 21 Note that if two or more vectors have.the same unit vector, such = See ere thing except in Magnitude: For xample, vectors D and E are similar except in magnitud D=4i+2}+kand ee E=8i+4j-2k7 4i+2i+k | . * 2 ee iy Since D = 14 E and unit vector of D is D= yx ; 8i+4j+ 2k and the unit vector E = aw. i+ +1 4i+ 2j+k 241+ 2j+k) . . : ax Nake tat we can write the vector D = 4i+ 2}+K as arow vector, that is; D = (4,2,1) or, a column vector. 4 That is, D= {2 . 1 3.4 Definitions a In general, a vector can be defined as an ordered set of quantities. For example, an N-dimensional vector or N-vector is an ordered set of N entities given as F= (fi, fi, fi, .... AN) Such an array of N elements in a row is called a row vector. Where the array is in a column, it is called a column vector. 8 & ‘ ‘ normally be represented by a thre i variously above, However a vector 46 r stint hina ara mn SS A oman pe hsm RoW wae Ly T In| is triction in no res! | vector. In general there is | by a one dimensional | ite number of dimensions. Example! If -Wj-2e Peay : i -4j+ Ok) + (21 + 3j + 2k) - (81 +43 +B-2C=(3i-4j+ 0k) + (21+ 4 =-3i-5j + 4k le 2 . . . What the magnitude of () A, (ii) A- 2B + C where A, B, C ere as in example 1. Solution ; “ (i) The magnitude of A, i.e., Ais [3°+ (4) +07] =25" =5, ; (i) A 4j + Ok- (41+ 6j + 4k) +41 +2j-k 8) -5k 2 ens The magnitude of A - 2B + C = (37 +87 + 5°) . =(9+64+25)*= 99 "3.4 Position Vector The position vector of the point Piy2) is the vector from the origin (0,0,0) to the point Pryz Hence position P is the displacement vector from O to Pye OP. 35 Displacement The displacement vector from 'S given as Q=P, ie, G4 3-4,2 ieGe (4-2)i+ 3-4) + (245) © magnitude of such displacem e+e rye I s = 544 = : " general, if vector is given as 73 units 4uy, then the magnitude of the vector is |p] =P=(u2 + ue +U2 + 3.6 Projections.and Direction Cosines Consider the three dimensional vector of figure 2.2 below: z Fig3.2_ The components of the Cartesian vector"in the xy, and 2 directions are; A, = Acos 0: Ay = Acos B: A, = Acos y, where the vector A makes a, B, y angles with the x, y, z, coordinate axis respectively and A is its modulus. _ The cosines of the angles a vector makes. with the “axes of coordinates are called its DIRECTION COSINES. These angles determine ,the of the vector :because they..give its inclination to each of the coordinate axes. ae ; Example - " The direction cosines of the vector A= i+ 4) - 4k are Ax 2 Ay 4 “Ag | 4 cos @= —-=—,cosB = — = —,cosy= — =— Ae A 6 A 6 The inclination of A to the coordinate axes are therefore . Ag BE oR YY Noe pe ae a me ee mo3.7 Vector Multiplication There are various types of vector multiplications, viz: 3.7.1 Product of a Vector ad a Scalar * A vector can be multiplied by a scalar. The. multiplying ‘scalar magnifies each component of the vector equally. The new vector is an erilargement of the former. . - Example: If A =2i + 3j-4k, we can have B= 3A = 3(2i+3}-4k) : = 61 +9) - 12k. 3.7.2. Product of Two Vectors z “There are two types of products of two vectors: scalar product and vector product, . SCALAR PRODUCT: Recall that the multiplication of ordinary numbers or scalar variables, say a and b can be accomplished in three ways: a x b, a.b, and ab. In-scalar multiplication, the three mean one and the same thing. However, in vector: inultiplication of the vectors. A arid B, we can also have @)° AB; (i) AxB ii) AB But each means a different.thing from any other. A.B is called the scalar or dot Product of the vectors A and B. AxB is called the cross or vector product of A and B, while AB is Tegarded as formal product of A and B vectors. 3.7.3 CASE 1: Dot Product ¥ake any two vectors “A and B-as in fig. 3.3(a), Which make B Fig23ia) B *F8230) —Fig2.3¢6 AOis the product of the magnitude of A with the component off B along the direction of A. Note that the component of Balong direction of A is Bcos 6. By our definition therefore, AB=|A| [|B | cos6, or'simply, A Bcos 0. at Note that the dot product of two vectors becomes 4 a. quantity since only magnitude is obtained (and no direct Hence dot product is a scalar. i aw of Scalar Product : ( ie is BA; 2. A(BHC)=A.B+ A.C; Hise 3 ii kk=1; 4. - ij=jk=ki=0 i 5. Given any two vectors A and B , “where A=Axit AyI + Ark and B =B,i+ Byj + Bk then AB= A,B, + AyB, + A.B, \ He anne PRR 3.7.5 Angle Between Two Vectors Since A.B = ABcos 6 where a is the angle between A and B, it therefore follows that the angle between any two vectors can be found as AB cos 6 —_ AB A,B, + AyBy + A.B, ae +Ay + A,) (BO +Bi +B,)* i i i i Therefore, 8 = cos’ —— AB An example of dot product is the calculation of work done by a force F. If a force is given as F = 2i + 4j + 2k and the force causes a horizontal displacement § = j + 2j-k, geometrically i Wwe can represent the system of force and displacement =“ in ; figure 3.4. below where 6 is the angle between force and: displacement. m : 50 ee tay Sees Nc wt 3. BAS mi ! i i | i ; E 8 Fig. 3.4 of force. Suppose in the direction s re ate referring to work done in ntal distance, then, the component Fcos @ and the work is Work = Force x Displacel = aia r id ste wor i ad iil a - of the Resi fn horizontal direction is . 'W = FScos0. Analytically, the work can be given as W=ES . Note that whereas F and S are vectors, their dot product, i.e. F.S which is equivalent to the work W, isa scalar. 3.7.6 CASEI; — Cross Preduct The cross product of A and B given as Ax Bor AAB as the component of A in a direction perpendicular to B, multiplied by the vector B. Take two vectors A and B at angle @ ~ toeach other (see fig. 3.5). A 6 <: B - Fig 3.5 The component i of A perpendicular to Bis Asi is here fe te re nt wane Asin @. Therefore, OWS that the angle ben thea a eae ween the vectors A and B can be / AAB | sin@ - —__ lal lB]Hence A.” B is equal to the magnitude of B times the component of A perpendicular to B, Note that the cross product of vectors A and B. ie, C= A AB is also a vector. Hence. cross product is called VECTOR PRODUCT. Note that C is in a direction perpendicular to both A and B vectors. (see figure 3.6) C=AAB A Fig 3.6 B 3,8. Laws of Vector Products 1. AxB=-BxA; 2: Ax (B+C)=AxB+AxC 3. ixi=jxj=kxk=07~ 4 jxk=i, kxi ae ijxi=-kixk=-j pe lows bs C = Aj«B is analytically given in terms of hw C = | ArAy Ae B,B, By = Bae tk | ALA {BB ea * - y = -(AyB.~A:By)i~ (Ax B.—A,B,)j + (Ax By - Ay Bk ijk i A : Note that asa Sc ae . | By, By °B,, kA Be Note also that | AxB | is the area of the parallelogram (fig 3.7) 52ynent ws A act is ction as of 7) And the direction of C, ie., A ~ B is along the, normal to the plane (area) containing A and B vectors. If SOS! is drawn to be perpendicular to this plane, an ambiguity exists as to whether the direction is OS or OS'. The ambiguity is removed by the ‘SCREW RULE: If a right-handed screw is turned from A to B, it moves towards the direction of the vector A A B=C, i.e.,.OS. Hence C=AAB=0S And D=BaA=OS'=-C Therefore, A AB =-B aA _3.9 - Formal Products _ The formal product is better expressed in the Cartesian form: AB=(Axi+ Ay + A,k) (Byi + Byj + Bk). When expanded, it gives a complicated product called a DYAD. Example 1 If. A=3i+2j+kand B=4i +3] - 2k, Calculate A x B *Solution ij k “AXB = 32 Ff ote slg ap = [2(-2)-3(1)]i - [3(-2)-4(1)] j + BEE] _ -4-3)i — (-6-4)j + (9-8) k =-Ti+10j+k 3.10. Moment ofa Force ; = Recall that the moment of a force about a tuming point 9, a distance r is defined as: 53line of Moment = force x perpendicular distance from O to the action of the force. 9 a & EF Fig 3.8 Ifris the vector from O, F is the force and @ is the angle between rand F, Moment =f. But rx=rsin® Therefore, moment = rxF =r sir: 0 F =1F sin 8 Therefore, moment = raF. Note that the moment of two vectors is also a vector. F, where r, is the perpendicular distance from O Example 2 Given two vectors, A=2i+5j-3kand A B=3i-j+2k, Calculate: () AB,ie, AdotB (ii) A‘B , i.e., AXB, ie, A cross B (iii) "The angle between A and B using the dot product relation (iv) The angle between A i The gl and B using cross product Solutions @ — AB=2(3) +51) +(-3)(2) =6-5-6 =5 (ii) AAB= ij k 2 5 3 3 -l 2 ; é i i i an cana oR en ai nongenhnhheuag naan yeeiprmmemane atenets eae Sennen ott op eens pin ean ~ (iii) The work done . 1) -3(5)1k searteanenii- 2O3E9 * ee cba - esi C21) =7-13j-! ‘A.B= AB cos @ 5 0= AB AB 5 = -0.2168 _ > - wons2! Or 180-102.52 = 77.48, (ii) Therefore, CO Therefore, @ iy). | AxB | =ABsin® ana sin = 1A 38 preisyeel YT pli dle delist [38 x14]* 6=77.48° Hence the angle between A and B is 77.48° and 102.52°. Note that the angle between any two vectors are two: 8 and 180-6. Note that if two vectors A and B are parallel, the angle between them is zero if A and B are in the same direction-but 180° if A and B are in opposite direction. Therefore sin0° = sin 180° = 0, Therefore their cross product, .i.e. A x B has zero magnitude. If however A and B,-are perpendicular to each other, their dot Product is zero; i.e. A.B =O, Example 3 Ga Pils BR ang F; act on a 4kg mass stone causing it to TF es 2.-2) to position B(5,3,4). | + F2= Ji-4j+2k, and F; = 1-0}. a The resultant force on the stone “Pelee ) The displace of the stone n the store, 55qutions © 4 = resultant force, F = F tFrt+F3 = 2it 3j+0k +3i-4j+2k +i-0j+3k 6i-j#5K (ii) Displacement §= AB = (5-3)i + (3-2)j + (4-(-2))k =2i+jt+6k (iii) Work, W=F.S= (6i-j+5k). (2i+j+6k) = 12-1+30=41 units Example 4 / What is the angle between the vector F = 4) + 3j + 5k and the y- axis. Solution c A unit vector in the y-axis = 0i + + 0k. Using the dot product rule to find the angle between this unit vector and F, (4i + 3}+5k).(Oitj+Ok) = (47437457) (07+17+0")* cos @ where @ is the angle between F and the y-axis. 3 Therefore, cos @ SSS (4tsgtesty = 0.4243 . Therefore, 9 = 64.9° Alternatively, using cross product rule, (dit 3)+5k) a (Oi4j+0k) = 50” sin @ where j ij k 4.3.5] =-5+0j+4k : 010 and | -Si+0j+4k.| =(25+0+ 16)" Therefore, sind © = 41/50 = 0.9055 Therefore, 0 = 64.9” 56 one nna sonarrornn ses remnant REMAP NOT EID MEARE 2 > mommhb wm UMMnit Seater sean era ote RR A TeMNOEEEY SENET GI TERRIER ER ER ERT RMSE TS IEE NE BE Alliteratively, you can use the directinn cosine method to find the angle between f and the y-axis. Example 5 For what value of ‘a’ are A = 3i+2j-4k and B =2itaj+5k perpendicular? Solution Vectors A and B are perpendicular when the angle between A and Bis 96° such that cos 8= 0 Hence A.B = AB cos 6=0 Hence (3i+ 2j-4k).(2i+aj+5k) = 0 Or 6+2a-20 = 0, Or2a=14 Hence a= 7. Example 6 Ifa vector D = 2i-j+2k, what is the value of ‘a’ that will make the vector E parallel to D where KE = 8i-4j+ak. Solution (2 38 D= -1 and E= | -4 2 a Since D and E are parallel, D = KE where k= 2=-1=2 8 -+ a Therefore, a=4 X2=8. 3.11 Scalar Product of three Vectors “Note that given three vectors A, B and C. A. (BxC) is the dot product of two vectors. A and (BxC). Hence A. (BxC) is a scalar, Convince yourself that A. (BxC) is to be given as Ax Bx Cx Ax Ay Az A(BxC)= | BxByBz| = Ay By Cy Cx Cy Cz Az BzCz 37Volume of Parallelopiped ” ned are Indeed if the three adjacent sides of a peel ee at O, Tepresented by three vectors a, b, and ¢ that are concurren! the volume of the parrallelopiped is given as V=a. (bxc) , . The cyclic order follows also, i.e., V is also given as V=b.(cxa) and 2 Fig 3.9: A parallelopiped Example7 . Calculate the area of a parallelogram with A and B as adjacent sides where A = 4i + 5j + 2k and B=-2i+ 3) +4k Solution , ij k The areaisS=AAB=.} 4 5 2 23:4 = (20-6)i- (16+4)j + (12+ 10)k = 14i- 20) +22k =2(7i-10j +-11k) Note therefore that the area of a surface is a vector. 5 perpendicular to the surface containing - The vector is of the area is S= (147421 A and B. The magnitude +22)" = 1080" = 32 36 units, Example 8 Calculate the volume of a solid (parallelopi sides are given as A, B, and C vectors ee whose 58 adj A= 2i-3j+2k, saatent is de ent f i { i f i i i i i i i i _ Solution p= 3itjt2k, C= i#2)-4k. The volume, V=A- (BxC) = BA(CxA) = C(AxB) ee = (44 Jie( “12-2054 6-1)k put - ijk 3.12 4 M4, git 14j+5k Therefore A.(BxC) =2(-8) + (-3).14 2(5) w= 16-42+10= 48 The volume is therefore 48 cubic units. Note therefore that volume is a scalar. Example 9 . (2) Calculate the momient of the force F about O from a position vector rif es F=3i+4j+5k (Newton) and r= 6i+5j+3k (meter). (2) Calculate also the magnitude of such moment (see fig. 2.9). 0 L F Fig, 2.9 Solution Moment about O,M =r x F (Note that rx F=-F y r) i jk 304 Sl = 13i421}- 653, 0k Maori agnitude of the moment = (13? +212 4. 9°)* = 26.29 Ni : = 26.29 Nm. a Gradient of a ake a function of x, ‘Ox (inone dimensio; Scalar Field Say ¥ = fx), the ne gradient of y with respect 39dy dfix) dx dx In three dimensions however, we can also calculate the gradient of the scalar function.Q(x,y,z), Such gradient is given as: : ~ é é VQ(x,y,2) where Y= —— i+ — ———=k Ox oy oz is the gradient function or the-gradient operator. . Note that VQ defines a vector from a scalar function, Q. Note also that is a partial derivative with respect to x, 6x . which is an instruction to differentiate wrt to x while regarding y and Z as constants. 6 Similarly, = is the partial derivative wrt y, ie. while renin x and z constant. Example 10. If Q varies in space as follows: Quyz) = 3x’y-y'2, calculate VQ at the point (x,y,z). = (1,-2,-1) Solution 6 6 VQ = i+ jt Ke Ox oy az na 2 & = —— j+ =k ay az a 6 = +A Bx’y-'27)j + — Bx2y-y'249k _¥ a : 6yi + (3x? - 3y*z)j - 2y'zk = Lyi + BP 3627-1 = 202-7 EDK = “2-91 16k setirmanatnnasnemee ips: eran ee SN cha hh ean TE TIN eeThe gravitational potential is an example ofa scalar that varias: three dimensions (or in space). ae ; Electric field strength in x-direction is given in terms of i: potential as ov E,= - — (xy,z) where V = V(xy,2) ox ev w Similarly,Ey= - — andE,=-—— oy oz But total electric field strength, E=Bi+E,j+Ek av av w = -|-i+—j+ —|k x by a, " av =| ; = -[-i+—j+—lv ox by az. ‘ = -VWV Or E=-VV : where V is a delta or gradient function and is given as a a 6 V= —i+——j+—k ox ey a Example 11 An electric potential V changes in one direction accordi following. V=4x’yz' (volts). Calculate the electric field strength, E at position P where x= 2,y =| andz=-1 Calenlate also the maonitude of such gradientSolution E=- Vy=-8xyzi— 4x725j — 12x"yz"k At PQGy,z) = (21-1). E= -802)(I)CDi 4 (2)°CDj -122) (1) (Dk. E= 161+ 16) — 48k (volt metre . Magnitude, E=. (16°+16°+48°)%, = N7B16 = 53.07 Vin" 3.13 Divergence of a Vector Field The divergence of a vector field is the flux per unit volume leaving an infinitesimal element of volume at a point in the vector: The divergence of a vector field is a scalar. If A(ky,2) is a differentiable vector field at each point (x,y,z), We define the divergence of A as DivA=V.A @° a a ‘ =|—it+—— j + — |k(Ai+Ajt+an) x. By a}: GA, - Ay aA, sao te + ox oy az Example 12 TEA = 2x°yi + 6xy2j + 4y’xzk calculate div Aie. V. A at. P(2,1,3) Solution dA, DivA = — + ol rs oA x a =tyt Orbe tayhe 2 AtP, DivA = 4(2)1 + 6(27) (3)+ 42? 8 =8+72+8=8 62 gen then ap BEANE ONE RWIS NRE an one URN SNAae | I | | jent function Note that Div grad 6, ic. the divergence of a gradi . "given as V. (s * fe pean =s—t+—?t Tz ax a a is called the Laplacian operator Example 13. - ; Ifa ae = 4x'y'i — 3x°yzj + 2yz’k, find div A at the point (xy.2z)=(12,-D. Solution a. V.A= ant “3x2yz)+ — (2yz3 = Get (-3x’yz) yy oP) ay = Bay’ +(3x'2) + dil 64+3412=79, 3.14: Curl of Vector Field The curl of a vector field, A = Aji + i + Ak is the cross Product of the function. V with, the vector, i.e. k Va= | 3 & A Felo—Dept eee v { 5 Example 13 a an 5 Ifa vector A is given as A == 4xyzi. + xyz j + 3x’yz° k calculate (i) Curl A at the point (I,1,-1) _ (ii). Div (curl) A at the same point Solution . | R j k @ CulA= a oO a m 8, (2 ; i ey, dxyz 3x yz : \ Z : a @ 2.3 é 2 ie : = |—Gxy2)- — (Qaxy'Z)fi- |— Gx yz) - —(4x"yz) | a a ax zz t bi a a a 4|— (xyz?) - — (4x°yz)_k ax ay i. = (3x72 - 4xy*z)'i- (6xy2 - 4°y)j + Q'2- 4¢2)k bt = (3 +4)i- (6 -4)j +(2 + 4)k =i + 10) + 6k Example 14: Find Div Curl A of Example 13 Div Curl A a a 6 2 G2 — Axy'z) + —C6xyz +4x'y) +— Ry ~4x°2) . 3, ay 2 2 oz 6x2 —4y'z—6xz? + 4x? + 4y'2-Ax’ = 0 This is true of any vector A r That is Div Curl A = 0 for any vector A Example 15 ! IPA = 2xy'i— xyzit 2yz"k Find VaA at the point *1.1,2)yz) {i x°z) (7 saan abasrens cy een epteielopmrsereee Solution ij CurlA orVAA=/]@ 0 xy 2xy? xyz £8 é =|= Qyz")'-= (xy’2i | ay a a : - (2yz*) - Low] i ox ey é 2. a 2 k H— (xyz) - — (2xy?} = Cxyz) a xy = (224 +xy’)i - (0-0)j + (yz -4xy) k = [224+ 1071 +0)- (17) 24410) k = (32+ Ni-Oj-(2+4)k = 331+ 0j-6k Example 16 Bglox Ifa scalar field ¢ varies as 6 (x,y,z) = 4x*y? + 2xy? + 6yz, evaluate V@ i.e grad @ at the position P(x,y,z) = (-1,1,1). Solution a e a Vo=(— 1+ —j+— HAV ny +6 9 are rly? + 2xy? + 6yz) + (4x°y? + xy? + 6yz)k. g |e le é (4x°y5 + Ixy? + 6yz)i y (4x°y) + 2xy? + 6yz)j. ly? + dxy + 62)j + yk 6(I)k. “ie benny ACD) + I+ = -6i + 14) +6k. : ing forces | Pere itil is under the action of the following fo , ' ncn terms red aay 43k, Fe= 5i-2j-3k | = 2it6j-k, Fe = 4it2j+5k, Fs = 7i-4j-3k, Fy : 7 Zara . a resid force on the particle | “ (ii) the magnitude of the resultant, an : iii) the unit vector parallel to the resultant. , | 4 (Ans: (i) 8-2)-2k; (ii) 8.48 (iii) 8: 22.24 | . IfA = 4i+2)+0k and B = 3i-j+5k, - @ - Obtain a vector C=2A - 3B (i) Calculate the magnitude of A, B and C. ; (iii) Calculate (a) A.B, (b) Ax Band (©) |AxB bs (iv) From no. (iii)(a) above obtain the angle between AandB () From no, (iti)(c) above calculate also the angle between 'A and B (Ans: (i) ~1+7}-15k, (i) 4.47, 5.92; 16.58, di) 10 oan” 10(i-2)-k), (c) 24.49 units, (iy) 67.8°, (v) j 3. rd the moment of the force F= 8i. i Point i+0}+k) if the force ii r Mery ree is applied (Ans: 14i+4)-32 or 35,2 Nm) -4i# 3k about the at the point } 4. A = Qwyai _ 2, 4 YZ + Ixz! (4,1,2) (Ans: 33i+ Oj + 6k), % find Va * the point 5 Givena Vector A = 3xy?9i 4x? Ai 3. Caleulate: (Carl A an et Pak 66 the point (2,-3,4)int. ii) Div. Curl. A at the same point (i) On aa0i-342j-2928k (i) ZerO (Ans: (i) 2 : soe iI = 3) +4j + 0k and Fy= forces Fy =2i+ 3)-k. a ce Tepes eet za a body of mass m = 40g causing it es displace for 10 seconds from position P, (2,4,7) to Po (3,6,7). (i) Estimate the resultant force on the body Gi) Estimate the overall displacement vector (iii) | What is the distance from P, to Pa. (iv) Calculate the work done on the body (vy) In which plane is the body moving (Ans: (i) 2i+ 6] +4k (ii) i#2+0% (iii) V5 units) (iv) 14 Units. (v) x-y plane. 7. Given a vector A Sj+4k, find the value b in a vector B = 4i-bj that A and B are perpendicular (Ans: 5.6) If (x,y,z) = 2x2’. (l-1,2) (Ans: 7 +4 find grad $ ie Vo at the Point TEA = 6x°y*r4j +. 4, + Qy3,2, Aad (end 8x’y'z’k, evaluate V.A ie div. A cit ; vector A is said to be ‘rotational if curl-A = 0. Find =U. Ping n ¢ sucir that th = + (bx-3-2)j +(4x Ft A= (-2ytaz)i 4b=2 cu i ‘TCy2Z)K becomes Urotational, (Ans: ra Find the direct tianal qi (xy,2) = (2,-1,2) ia th vative of } = 4x23 3x22 tection 2i-3i+6k (Ang 128/7) * Ie An electri IC charze j. Potential V varies « ° f\20ed in i Varies in sp a region wh in spose ag y — iol Where the x’ et ~ * 16x?y, -13, 14, calculate the electric field strength at a point (2, 3, 1). Hint: Electric field strength E = -VV = -grad V. (Ans: -288i — 98) - 288k). Take a vector A= axyzi + xyj = 4x?y'2?k obtain Curl ‘A and Div Curl A and hence show that for this vector A and any other vector B chosen by you, V. (VAB) = 0. Take-a scalar function a4xtyizitxz” obtain grad. and Curl grad 6. Hence show that for this scalar, > or any other scalar function V, Curl grad V=0 i.e VA(VV) =0 Find the projection of the vector A = 2i+3j+5k on the vector B= 3i+2j+6k (Ans: 6). ee 1 EET RTO SN Aa eT EERIE tc ponerseani ane earner eT CHAPTER FOUR EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES L 4.1 Definition : A body is said to be.in a translational equilibrium, if the resultant force acting upon it is zero. The body is non-accelerating and is either at rest (static). or in a state of uniform motion in straight line. 4.2. The Equilibrant of Two Forces 3 The equilibrant of a system of two forces acting on a body is the . single force which is equal and opposite to the resultant of the two forces such that the body is in equilibrium. Considering Fig. 4.1, a weight of 50N is suspended from the hook‘on a ceiling and is being pulled aside by a horizontal string until the supporting string makes angle 40° with the vertical. The body is in equilibrium under the action of three forces. The ‘Weight Wand the tensions T, and T in the String. The weight W is the equilibrant of the tensions T, and T>. Hence it i 2. Hence it is equal to the.resultant of T and To. By the same rule, T; is the equilibrant Of W and T>, while T> is the equilibrant of W and T,dT, we draw vector To determine the magnitudes of T, and 12, 9 triangle as in fig 4.2. 50N 1, * a Fig 42) Fig 4.2(ii) = = 65.3N n cos40° T, = 50tan 40° = 42N der also fig 42(ii), an object of weight W, is kept in giles ona eee plane by the tension T on a string along the plane. The weight Wand the tension T give to the object a reaction R. For the object to be in equilibrium, the reaction R must be equal and opposite to the resultant of W and T. Hence R is the equilibrant of W and T. Note that T is the equilibrant of W and R, whereas W is the equilibrant of R and T. Note also that for the object to be in equilibrium under the action of the, three coplanar forces, the directions of the three forces must all pass through one point. 43 Moment of a Force The moment of a force is the turning effect it produces. This effect is useful. in machines and in everyday life activities. A force applied on a door in trying to open it produces turning effect on the hinges, The driver’s force on the steering wheel of the car produces. a tuming efféct of moment on. the car. Other examples abound. The, turing effect a force Produces depends on the ‘magnitude of the force applied and the distance of the line Oi action from the point (fulcrum) about which the turning takes 70 :wut a point, also cance se 1>—7 place. The moment ofa fete ne ae nd the perpendicular is defined as the product of the Se peiok When, the force is distance of its line of action from th otras, then moment ‘sii measured in Newton and distance is in metres, Newton metres (Nm). P Gi) @ 6 Oo T o ; Fig. 43 / In fig. 4.3 (i), the moment of the force p about the axis 0 or fulcrum is rap. However, considering fig 4.3 (ii) the force pis applied at angle @ to the axis O, The resolved component of the forcé in the direction perpendicular to the axis is p sin @. The moment of the force from definition becomes rxp sin 0. This is consistent with the fact that rap = rpsin6 where @ is the angle between r and p vectors. 43.1 . Moment of Parallel Forces a Suppose 2 beam AB is balanced at a point O (Fig 4.4) under the action of two forces p and q acting at points A and B respectively. Since the beam is in equilibrium, it follows that the resultant force acting on the beam is zero and hence the moment of the two forces about the fulcrum is zero. This means that the clockwise moment about O is equal to the anticlockwise moment. JA Clockwise moment about O =qy KO q Anticlockwise moment about O =px Fig 4.4 7ey over 1.100 sme onan oA IE OY ce enrrnanm pmimcnsensTo calculate R2, we take, moments of the forces about the first support. R,x60 = 60x20 + 80x 30 = 1200 + 2400 = 3600 3600 4 R= —— =00N 60 Note that the total downward forces 60N+80N is equal to the - total upward forces R, +R2 = 80N + 60N, Example 2 A uniform rod of length 60cm is pivoted at the 20cm mark and horizontally balanced by a mass of 50kg hung from the 4cm mark. Calculate the mass of the rod. Oo 16 ——>«—— 10 ky 50kg ; = Fig 4.6 Solution To calculate the mass of the rod, we take moment about the pivot 0. xkg x 10cm = 50kg x l6cm 10x kgem = 800 kgem oxkg = 80kg 4.3.2 Moment of a Couple A system of two equal forces acting in opposite directions on a body constitute a couple. The moment of'a couple has a turning effect on the body and simply produces a rotation of the body. The moment or torque of a couple is given as the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between them.Wez R al F 1 but opposite are : In fig 4.7, two forees Fi and F2 which are cass ONT tS caused -= thro acting on a rod pivoted at the middle O. os fo rotate about O in the clockwise direction. Exar i R aun i 3 rev the r¢ | 2 the w <— re Solut { F, 0) Fig 4.7 ‘ i 2 / Torque = Fx2r =2Fr i @) 433 . Work Done by a Couple P Consider fig. 4.8. The equal but opposite forces each of magnitude F'is acting at the ends of the rod to cause it to rotate 4.4 through angle 8 in the clockwise dicection, Fore r> body - point the ce i + point: i can a : triang . : from Fi B ig 4.8 i Means The work done by each force = F x distance = Fxs, But 5 isi p object ‘length of the arc AB mede by the rod by a rottion through gt pele i a OU 5 Hence s = r0, by definition of an angle in radius, = } eau Fxs = Fro : Xperi The work done b { y the two forces becomes Fr @ + Fr9 = 97-0 i i 2Fr = torque of the couple, TO + EO = 2Frg but : x ny . . : avit Work done by acouple = torque x 0, £ Objecr 4 3 Concerk clone by 2 couple statement that the wo rand the angle then led to the st e ‘e | aes given to be the product or its torq| through which it rotates. eran itre is caused to tum through i rod pivoted at the cen! sed t . ; eat fae forces each of LON applied.in both. ents of fons to constitute a couple. Calculate the torque on the ro the work done by the couple. Solution : _ - @ m Torque byacouple=2Fr = 2x 10Nx0.5m = 10Nm (2) work done = torque x angle of rotation. But angle of rotation = 2nx3 radius 1. Work done = 10x2nx3 = 188.5 J 4.4 — Centre of Gravity and Centre of Mass For every object, the resultant earth’s gravitational force on the body or its weight is regarded to be concentrated at a point. This point is called the centre of gravity of the object. For instance, of a uniform metre rule is located at its mid the centre of gravi point; The centre of gravity of a disc is located at its centre. It can also be verified that the centre of gravity of a uniform triangular lamina is located at a point two thirds the distance from any vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side. What it Means is that if we want to locate the centre of gravity of an object, we simply identify the centre of such an object. This eee us to oe the centre of gravity of any object, no matter low irregular che shape. The met is ill i experiment descssedieny, ew usted by the oo aes it is important to distinguish between the centre of avity and centre o7 mass of an object. The centre of mass of an ere the total mass appears to be objects, the centre of 75 gravity coincideswith the centre ‘of mass. However, if one considers a very large “object such that the earth's field and hence the earth’s gravitational acceleration is different at different parts of the object, then the centre of gravity will be different from the centre of mass. °4.8 Determination of the C.G. of an Irregularly shaped Lamina . To determine the C.G. of an irregularly shaped lamina, small holes are made at different edges of the Jamina. The object is suspended Fig. 4.9 by a pin fixed at one of the holes made such that it can swing freely. A plumb line is hung from the same point. When the plumb line and the lamina come to rest, @ vertical line AB of the plumb line on the lamina is traced. The process is repeated by suspending the lamina from the other holes made on it. The point of intersection of the vertical lines of the plumb line on the Jamina is marked. This point is the. centre of gravity of the object. 4.6 Stability and Centre of gravity The stability of a body depends on the position of its centre of ‘gravity and the moment of its weight about an axis. On account of this the equilibrium of a body can be classified into stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium. A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium if when slightly displaced and released, it returns to tile original position. To emirJn arse monn seaseeemenerinmmemenendaiensini oxen es illustrate a stable equilibrium, consider the cone of Fig 4.10 placed with its base on the horizontal surface. B ai Fig. 4.10 When the cone is slightly displaced from A to B, its centre of gravity is raised and the vertical line through the C.G will still pass through the base of the cone. Consequently, the weight W of the cone will exert an anticlockwise moment about the edge O of the base which will return the cone to its original position. Thus the cone is said to be in a stable equilibrium. ~ “Suffice it to be said also that for a body in a stable equilibrium, the potential energy is increased witha light displacement as the C.G is increase. Fora body in unstable equilibrium, a slight displacement of the ~ ‘body will cause it to topple over. A cone placed on its tip (theoretically) as in fig. 4.11 is in unstable equilibrium. a z ; F §it the ied on it Te . all force 2PP ee vill PS! If the cone is slightly displaced by $8" "ine C.G will "CG. is lowered. The vertical line thro clockw! iin exert 2 1OPN er, away from the tip and the weight wale 10 top ent about the tip 0 which will cause (1° ® The cone is said to be in unstable equilibri body in c.G. of 2 180 cenit gy, since the ( is a! a eesti i towered ‘the potential unstal reduced. d ;prium is possesse The ilibrit al equilibrium 1 aE ird kind of equilibrium the neutr ee by sey eighty displaced and release the body its new position without change in its C.G. Fig 4.12 shows a cone resting on its' curved surface. If the cone is rolled into a new position, the height of the C.G. from the base is uachanged and the vertical line through the C.G. will continue to pass exactly through the same point in the base. The weight w of the cone will have no moment about the base as the axis ad the. cone will therefore remain at its new position. The cone is said to _ be ina neutral equilibrium, ‘ Since there is no change in the height of the C.G t ‘ energy will be unchanged, he potential 78 eer ud eA EL : caanninosctpansst sata gas:ai Exercise 4 L ae . 0°N Fig 4.15 oka A body of mass 6kg is suspend by a opie: an LA : i BON as shown in fig. 41:5. Cale i f the body is in equilibrium. (Ans: 72N). tension T in the string i ¢ moment of a force about an axis. ete metal rod of mass S0kg is suspended horizontally by two wires attached at the 20cm and 90cm respectively from the ends of the rod. Calculate the tension in each wire. (Ans: 2!4, 286N). | ? i | i 3. A Sm wooden platform is suspended from the roof of a { house by ropes attached to its ends. A carpenter i weighing 800N stands 1.5m from the left end of the i platform. If the weight of the platform is 150N, calculate q the tension of each of the ropes. (Ans: 635N, 315). i : : Fi 3 i ; 4. What is meant by a couple? Ifeach of the forces in a couple is. SON and their lines of ne action are separated at a distance 80cm, calculate work done by the couple ill t fon ites, uple ill tuming through 4 Tevolutions.8. 5 A beam of Jength 5m has weight 200N hung at one end vand 150N at the other end. Neglecting the weight of the ~ beam itself, calculate the balance point of the beam. (Ans: 2.14m) In fig, 4.15, calculate the weight of the lock, B *necessary to keep the object A in equilibrium. - 3 (Ans: 0.15N) A uniform ladder of mass 100kg le: u ‘ a ans at 60° to th horizontal against a frictionless. wall, calculate the reaction on the wall. (Ans: 289.7N)CHAPTER FIVE MOTIONS 5.1 Introduction . Motion is the change of the state of rest of an object. \ When we talk of the state of motion, we must find the reference in respect of which the state of rest changes. When you are sitting in the : classroom, you are not in motion with respect to the classroom or even with respect to the earth. But have you considered that you _ are not in absolute rest? You are rotating with the earth at a tremendous speed of 2nR T where R is the radius of the earth = 6, 400km and T is the period of rotation = 24 hrs. : . Therefore your speed of rotation is 22x tx 6.400 24 =1676km per hour =465 ms” While you think you are at rest, you are not just moving at a rotating speed of 465ms"'; you:are also revolving round thé sun together with the earth at a period of 365.25 days. Can you calculate the speed of such revolution? The sun is ‘itself Tevolving round the centre of our galaxy — the Milky Way, with a tremendous speed. Can -you calculate the speed of such tevolution? Even the Milky Way is revolving and so on and so _ forth. Nothing is therefore at real or absolute rest. But the impact of these tremendous speeds are not felt at normal circumstances since each movement is normally. constant. In a Constant speed, there is no force. The impact or force is felt only heavenly 4n_cases of changed velocity like during collisions bodies or particles. rae OL DATICIES 5.2 Kinds of Motion There are four kinds of motion that you need to know at this levelional Motion | «path avray ti is Rae of a body along a continuous Pp a Us As zi ae tart an aircraft moving ing point Examples are many: SE Hi, eae meing on the road, a pebble thrown om eae ee arace, etc. A special case of this type © a boy , etc. 7 on that of object along a straight path called rectilinear motioi pe tebe ca Rotational Motion : a Tis is movement of an. object in a circular path about _ axe Examples are car tyres. that run round and round as tl a moves, the moon which moves in circle round the earth, etc, i i in which all particles of the body. perfect rotational motion is one in wi (except that at the centre of mass) sweep through equal angles as the body moves f 3. Oscillatory Motion . In this type of motion, an object moves to and fro about an equilibrium: position. The acceleration’ of the object is always towards the equilibrium position and is proportional to the distance of the object from such position. A special type of oscillatory motion is called Simple harmonic motion (SHM). Example of oscillatory motions are: @ ~ motion of simple pendulum bob, (i) motion of load attached io an elastic spring (ii) motion ofa load attached to the end of a cantilever (iv) plucked guitar (v) — astruck drum 4. Random Motion Here, the object does not follow any well-defied motion. It is impossible therefore to predict its Position at any instant from the starting point. The motion of gas molecules is a good example of Particles in irregular or random Motion. But note that the motion of each molecule is not Continuously random. In betw: two successive collisions between each molecule and anozher or 82 ny ranaLaA eRsopeRM Unt RSME Fearon erpinineveerpencseeun nd: oaseeraay in iy, is ae Pew Piece eras iB ! | the motion the molecule and the walls of the container, between is regular. 5.3 Kinematics tion of objects without caring what ‘When_we consider th f kinematics. “But e are in ie area of kine ‘produces-the ‘motion, then Ww ate the motion with e ful if we associ such study is more meaning eed with the properties of the the forces that produce and Dynamics is the branch of science that motion in yn with the fore! motion as well as the Motion yjects are usually ol Complicated. An ol can move continuously forward from a point in what is known as translational motion. Note that fora body to have a perfect translational motion, all particles of the. body will have same speed and direction. But this is usually not the case since, in general, an object will rotate or vibrate intemally while: it is moving as a whole in some specific trajectory. If these internal motions are very small compared with the overall translational motion, ‘they can be. neglected. The whole body is therefore regarded as a particle located in the centre of mass of the body in motion. moti Velocity and Speed ‘ If a car moves from Enugu to Nsukka and back to Enugu Covering a total distance of 140kan i in 2 hours, the average speed ofthe car is 140km =70kmhr* 2hr 70000ms" 60x 60 fe speed could not have been constant during the eriod of tw hours, therefore we should indeed talk of the cage being: ° Total Distance =19.4ms" Average speed E . Total Time lote that both speed and distance are scalar les. It is Se Justified in this usa since tl T was changing tion durin in this usage since the car wa: hanging direction during