CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

CHEM111
UNIT III
CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS: METALS
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
1. Understand the basic structures of metals.
2. Understand the different properties of metals.
3. Classify metals according to certain properties and have an understanding of the
applications of those metals in the industry.
CONTENTS:
I. Structure of Metals
II. Properties of Metals
III. Classification of Metals

INTRODUCTION
Metals, from the Greek word “metallon” (mine or quarry), are used in various aspects of our
daily lives. Roughly 25% of the earth’s crust is comprised of metals and due to this abundance and
metals’ varied properties, they can be used in construction, home appliances, tools, decorative items
and jewelry, coinage and more.
The metals industry have a long history of refining. The smelting and use of copper date back
to the Bronze age, at around 3500 B.C. Gold, silver, meteoric iron, and lead have been in use earlier
than that. The smelting of iron dates back to around 1500 B.C. and subsequent developments of early
forms of steel followed at around 1200 B.C. Further discoveries of new types of metals and the
development of modern alloys from early simple steel alloys to more complicated and specialized
ones have happened over the years, to cater to various needs and applications.

I. STRUCTURE OF METALS
Almost all metallic elements are crystalline solids at room temperature. This means that atoms
of metals and metallic substances are arranged in an orderly and regular fashion. Only cesium,
gallium and mercury are not solid at room temperature.
Imagine the metal atoms to be identical spheres which are stacked together in layers, each
layer’s spheres slotting into the spaces between where the spheres of the other layers come together,
much like how fruits are stacked in displays or how balls and cannonballs are stacked together.
This arrangement is the most efficient as it minimizes the empty space between the spheres.
Metal crystals have unit cells – the smallest section of a crystal lattice that still retails the overall
structure and symmetry of the lattice – wherein the atoms are arranged in such close-packed
structures.

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 Figure 3a.1.1 Metal atoms are stacked similarly to how we see fruit being stacked
or how any large or heavy spheres are stored/arranged

Most pure metals and metallic alloys naturally adopt one of these three arrangements which
provide the closest packing structures:

www.ggspdt.com
Figure 3a.1.2. The common structures of the unit cells of most metals

(a) Hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure. This crystal structure has atoms occupying all corners
of a hexagonal prism and one atom at the center of each of the two hexagonal faces.
(b) Face-centered cubic (fcc) structure. In this structure, there is one atom at the center of each
of the six faces of the cube and eight atoms at each corner.
(c) Body-centered cubic (bcc) structure. In this crystal structure, we can imagine eight of the metal
atoms occupying all corners of a cube and another atom at the very center of the cube.

These different structures affect certain metallic behaviors particularly strength and ductility.
Because of the close-packed nature of the atoms, the attraction between the atomic nuclei and the
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surrounding electrons may occur in all directions and we can say that the bonding in metals is
nondirectional; this means that upon the application of pressure, a metal will deform rather than
break.

II. PROPERTIES OF METALS

Metals are recognized as a type of matter that exhibit the following physical properties:
1. Metallic luster. Metals appear shiny and lustrous (i.e., they reflect light) when they are
fractured, cut, or polished.

Figure 3a.2.1. Metallic vs non-metallic luster

2. High thermal and electrical conductivity. Metals have electron clouds where the valence
electrons can be removed easily. This means that a metal atom’s electrons are highly mobile
and are able to pass on heat-induced vibrational energy easily.
These valence electrons are also responsible for allowing metals to conduct electricity more
easily than other materials. When exposed to an electric field, these electrons move across the
lattice of the metal structure like billiard balls hitting each other one after another.
Conductive metals like Cu, Au, and Ag have atoms with only one valence electron which
moves more freely and is able to pass on more energy. Metalloids or semiconductor metals on
the other hand have four or more valence electrons which means that their electrons cannot
move as freely in the metal’s lattice. This also means that even though they can still conduct
electricity, they are less-efficient at it compared to conductor metals.
3. Malleability. Metals can be hammered or rolled into thin sheets. As we have mentioned, the
bonding of metal atoms is nondirectional. When compression forces are applied to a metal, this
causes the atoms of the metal to just roll over each other into new positions while maintaining
their metallic bonds with each other.
4. Ductility. Metals can be stretched and drawn into thin wires without damage or breakage. This
property also results from the nondirectional bonding of metal atoms.
While metals are malleable and ductile in general, some metals are more so than others.
Those with more close-packed structures (FCC and HCP structures) are generally more malleable
and ductile than those with the BCC structure.

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 Figure 3a.2.2. How metallic crystal structure affects ductility

III. CLASSIFICATION OF METALS

Ferrous vs. Nonferrous Metals
This is the most general/broad classification of metals. Ferrous metals, as the name implies,
contain iron (“ferrum” being the Latin name for iron). Iron (Fe) is a very abundant element (80% of
the inner and outer cores) and although difficult to find pure in nature, it is present in many minerals.
It is also relatively cheap due to the fact that it is relatively easy to refine. When combined with
other metals in alloys, or even by itself, it displays different properties which results in its versatility
as an alloying component. Ferrous metals are also magnetic and strong but are prone to corrosion.
Around 90% of all manufactured metals contain iron.
Non-ferrous metals, like brass, on the other hand do not have iron in them. They do not have
any magnetic properties. The most common non-ferrous metals used in the industry are Cu, Al, Zn,
Ti, Pb, Co, Sn, and Ni. The non-ferrous metals and the alloys based on them have names that are
based on their element’s names (e.g. copper alloy, aluminum alloy, etc.)

FERROUS METALS
Properties Uses
Pig Iron/Crude Iron - Cannot be welded - Rarely used by itself
(92% Fe, up to 3.5% C and - Can be hardened but not - Mixed with other metals or
other impurities) tempered elements in making steel
- First product in the smelting - Brittle (not malleable)
of iron
Cast Iron - Magnetic at a certain degree - Making pipes and sanitary
(Iron with up to 2-6.7% C) - Does not corrode easily fittings
unless exposed to saline - Making gates, lamp posts,
water railings, etc.
- iron that has been
melted, poured into a- Cannot be used in forging - Making machinery parts and
mold, and allowed to cool because it is a bit brittle agricultural tools

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 Wrought Iron - Magnetic - Tough materials such as
(iron with less than 0.08% C) - Ductile, malleable, tough rivets, bolts, and nuts
- Not affected by saline water - Decorative/ornamental iron
and can resist corrosion works like gates, outdoor
-iron that has been heated stairs, railings
and then worked with tools - Can be welded but fuses with
difficulty

Steel - a. Carbon steel

(iron, small amounts of C +- High tensile strength - Depending on C-content, can
other elements in various %’s)- - the amount of load or stress that can be be used for moderate to high
At present, over 3500 grades handled by a material before it stretches pressure applications
and breaks
of steel are available in the - [ I-beams, metals for bridges,
market. -
tubings, drill bits, etc.]
- High strength-to-weight ratio
a. Carbon steel -
b. Alloy steels
- Low-carbon steel aka mild- High durability (harder than
- stainless steel (high in
steel. (<0.25% C) pure iron)
chromium) is 200x more
- -the ability to withstand wear,
- Medium-carbon steel (0.25- pressure, or damage
resistant to corrosion than
0.6% C) -
mild steel so it is good for
- High-carbon steel (0.6% C or - kitchen utensils and medical
Other alloying metals are equipment.
greater) added to enhance various
- properties (weldability, - tool steel (contains Mo, V,
ductility, corrosion Co or W) has high hardness
b. Alloy steel and can be used in chisels,
resistance, etc.) depending
(iron with other alloying on what the steel is needed etc.
elements like Mn, Ti, Cu, Cr, - some high-alloy steels are
for
Ni, Mo, W, V, etc.) also used in the automotive
and shipbuilding industries

NON-FERROUS METALS
Even though all metals share some similar mechanical properties, individually they have
properties that may or may not be advantageous for certain applications. These individual properties
can be exploited by mixing various metals in different proportions when creating alloys. Some of the
most commonly used non-ferrous metals in the industry are:
a) Aluminum (Al)
- extracted from its ore: bauxite and is the 2nd most abundant element on earth (8.1%)
- can form alloys with most metals and is easy to machine
- light but strong, corrosion and oxidation resistant (aluminum reacts with oxygen to form a
very thin Al2O3 layer that then protects the underlying metal)
- high electrical and thermal conductivity but is non-magnetic/paramagnetic
USE: can be used to contain food and drink, household appliances, food processing equipment,
electrical power transmission equipment, etc.

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b) Copper (Cu)
- Extracted from its ores through smelting at very high temperatures
- Like silver, it has very high conductivity compared to other metals but is significantly cheaper
- Extremely malleable and very ductile → easy to shape
- Cu-base alloys are heavier than iron
USE: Cu-alloys can be used in pumps, valves, and plumbing parts, and more commonly in
electrical wiring; can also be used decoratively due to the distinct colors of its alloys; brass (Cu-
Zn alloy) is good for low friction applications like locks, bearings, and other applications in
flammable environments
c) Titanium (Ti)
- Strong yet lightweight and corrosion resistant (by virtue of a passive oxide film)
- High thermal stability (even up to 480°C), strength
- Reacts readily with oxygen so melting and casting processes must be done in a vacuum
USE: Aerospace industry, military, and biomedical applications, marine components
d) Zinc (Zn)
- Low electrochemical potential
- Corrosion resistant and has good castability
- Third most used non-ferrous metal in alloys
USE: Primary use is to galvanize steel to prevent corrosion; can be used in marine applications
because it can protect valves and undersea pipes and fittings thru cathodic protection
e) Lead (Pb)
- Soft and has low melting point
- Corrosion resistant and highly machinable
- Is toxic and may have byproducts that cause serious health complications
USE: car batteries, radiation protection, cable sheathing and ammunition; solder (Zn-Pb alloy) is
used to join electrical components and metallic items

SUMMARY
1. Structure of Metals
a) Hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure.
Atoms occupying all corners of a hexagonal prism + one atom at the center of each of the
two hexagonal faces.
b) Face-centered cubic (fcc) structure.
One atom at the center of each of the six faces of the cube + eight atoms at each corner.
c) Body-centered cubic (bcc) structure.
Eight metal atoms occupying all corners of a cube + 1 atom at the very center of the cube.

2. Properties of Metals
a) Metallic luster
b) High thermal and electrical conductivity
c) Malleability
d) Ductility

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 3. Classification of Metals

Main classification of metals

FERROUS NON-FERROUS
- Pig iron - Copper
- Cast iron - Aluminum
- Wrought iron - Zinc
- Steel - Tin
a. Carbon Steel - Lead
b. Alloy Steel - Cobalt
- Nickel, etc.
And their alloys
.

References:
1. Askeland, D. et. al. (2010). The Science and Engineering of Materials (6th Ed). Cengage
Learning, Inc.
2. Mortimer, Charles E. (1975). Chemistry: A Conceptual Approach (3rd ed.). New York: D. Van
Nostrad Company.
3. Russell, A. M; Lee, K. L. (2005). Structure–Property Relations in Nonferrous Metals. Structure-
Property Relations in Nonferrous Metals. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

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