Automobile, | Engineering:CONTENTS Chapter a lavtropuction pas 1, Definition . 24 3. Compenents oa suo ' 4. Theanine 1 4.1. Frame oe 2 4.2. Suspension system 3 ‘3a en 3 4 cts : i 5. The pow pn i 6 Thetrnsmtaon jc ; 7. The auxiliaries 2 ® Thecontan b 9. The stpernaes cme 10. Clasico of awtometis | 2212 HL. Automotite bay snes 6 MA. Carboiies nT TTI 11.2. Bodie or tanspon vices’ “18 3. Tworwheckertoutes 22 + Theory queaions TU * Questions for vi Ua * Mulipfeehoie questions ©1219 ASSIS COS a2 1. Invoduction 2 21 2 Conventional const a 21. Funetions ofthe frame | 3} 22.Loadsonthe ame v2) 22231 Frame construction | - 2.4, Materials for frame 3. Subframes . . 4. Defects in frames 5. Frameless constriction 6. Vehicle dimensions * Theory questions. * Questions for viva ' Multiple choice questions 3. CLUTCHES 28-73 1 Mefinition 2... 8 Requirements of clutch... 28 3. Types of friction clutches . . - 4. Principle of friction clutches... 5. Dry friction clutches . . Chapter Page 5.1.Cone etch 20 52Single plate etch 3 3. Diaphragm spring type single plate clutch a 54, single pate clutch with Wal flywheel |. 5.5, Design details of single plate clutch || a2 5.6, Multiplte clutch 5.7. Semi-eentifugal cintch 58. Centrifugal clutch 6. Clutch operation (6.1, Mechanical operation 6.2. Electromagnetic operation 6.3. Hydraulie operation 64, Vacuum operation 65.Cluch-by-wire . 7, Wet clutch 8. Clutch components 9. Clutch plate z 5 10. Clutch facing aa saun 10.1, Requirements ofa good elutch facing’ . 59 10.2. Types of fiction materials 6 10.3. Common clutch facing materials. 61 1. Other clutch components ert 11.1 Pressure plate wees a 112. Release levers |) || 2 M3.Cover 2. 2 114, Straps tae ean Springs . 8 11.6. Throwout bearing 63) 12, Pretimi inary inspection of clu 13. Clutch adjustment. wo 68 4. Clutch overhaul wel 6 14.1, Removing the catch eat 14.2. Disassembting 14.3. Inspection and Service... . . 64 14.4. Assembly 1 65 14.5. Refitting the clutch»... - 65 15. Clutch refacing ... . a 66 16. Clutch trouble shooting 6 17. Fluid flywheel... , 6 17.1. Constmuetion - - . 61 17.2. Torque transmission... . 68 173, Characteristics... 6«a Page | Chapter © | @rawecmene Page eee anaes ae Automatic transmission - = 109 ee : SAL Principle 1 Comparative catch data of some 5 $3. Comparison with manual us indian automobiles. - - 170 transmission a References ‘i 6. Overdives No easel 6.1. Control of the overdrive Ne Nem oe a 62. Layeockoverdive 01222 10 . WV. eee va nsmission | * UY “Sitges qos eee oe A TRANSMISSION—1 74-101 7.2. Advamages . . read 1. Introduction : iB 7.3. Miscellaneous Ae: 2 Function of transmission a Toroidal CVT. Ms 3 Necessary of transmission... 74 @ Hiomaed Nanaia bs 5.1 Toul resistance tothe vehicle motion 74 9.1. Types = 23 3.2 Trctveeffon 1B 10, Modern Shift Control Techniques” ra 33, Transmission necessity = = = « « 5 I. Audi DSG Manual Gear Box = petemmion 18 | 12. ZeroshitTransmission Technology |” 2S 6 Sliding mesh gearbox |... 8 ee eeiremt 7. Consist mesh gearbox soso. 80 References ||. - ie Biome | Ream 2 eho | RRR oes ee 1 ple choice questions ay 911. Mechanism with gear lever on top 6. THE DRIVE LINE, 130-167 ftransmission case... 86 1. Drive Line okie 5 Be 92. Mechanism with gear ever on 2) Propeller shaft... 0 steering columa wee B ‘Half shafts wees : 133 10, Labeication of gearbox | | 93 4) Universal joints... 136 MI. Teanferton : a 5. Analysis of Hooke's joint 13 a (6. Propeller shaft overhaul Loe “T/ Propeller shaft trouble shooting 148 7 & Final drive 19 3) | & Ditteremit 1st ion 10, Rear axte + 156 a M Rearane dives 158 c : Sgn 1.1. Hotchkiss drive 158 S TRANSMISSION Sinem 11.2. Torque tube drive 138 ic transmission. = 12. Rear axle shaft supporting o, 18 Erich grbox oe = 12.1. Semi-floating axle 2 Deteminaton of ped ria ot 12.2. Full-floating axle 160 = lic geartrains. @ 12.3. Three quarter floating axle . . 160 Ws | 13, Rearanlrcating saeco _ Rear axle trouble shooting ane rs Improvements in 4-wheel drive. 2 te * Comparative rear anle data of some = indian automobiles . ot + References insChapter + eon ‘questions ne + Numerical prot is * Questions for viva 18 * Malte choice questions 168 ¢ ‘SUSPENSION, SYSTE! se 1 Intothnnt se aoe a Objects of suspension a {98 basic requirements, ia con ssn sing io Pes OF susp i Leal springs 0 6.1, Construction 10 62 types 6 64. Material. . 6.5. Tapered leat spin “al springs Gee 8 Fibre compost et springs Coil springs ‘Torsion bars Ling 5. Rubber springs i hock absorbers (Dampers) ta 10. tnrodation i 10.2. Telescope type sock shi © 9 10.3, Lever arm type shock absorber... 181 104, Shecksbrter at is 105. Electronical conte seek absorber 12 10.6 Future ends in 11) Independent suspension, 184, 2 iavinvodueion 184 112. Font whee etd sxe) independent sspenion 185 11.3, Rear wheel (live axle) independent suspension . 187 12. Stabilizer orani-sol device 130 13, Delphi active stabilizer bar system 190 14, Inerconectd suspension systems 191 2 5CAir suspension = - 19 ‘L6-Hydrolastic suspension. 192 17. Daimler Bene vehicle suspensiona <<. 183 17.1, Constructional details . 2. 1946 17.2. Working . wth . 195 18, Hydragas interconnected suspension system . inate =. 195 19. Delphi Magneride . . . « 198 20, Continental Electronic Air suspension . . 199 2f7 Bose suspension system, 139 22. Suspension system trouble shooting 199 = Comparative susperson dase indian automobiles Omer “ory gies ee * Multiple choice questions aa ONT AXLE AND STEERING x Tntroduetion’, a weet 2. Front axle. > ey 4. Factors of wheel alignment a © Sesine geomet rn 62. King Pin Inclination * Seem x + 258 259 1 Multiple choice questions 9, WHEELS AND TYRES 261-308 261 1 noduction «=~ 3 Typesof wheels == + 261 Th Dike wheels = 6-27 * 261 2.2. Wire wheel. +27 263 2 Tianealloy cat orfrged wheel «~~ 266 a, Apel dentin ancora 007 27 4 Te. a 267 5. Desirable tyre properties - 2 268 6 Typpsofyres = « - 2 269 Basic construction 2 269 G2.Use 10 lim 63. Ability trun fl 7B 2, Camatypes wees 24 & Comparison of radial-and bias-ply tyres. 275 9, Tyre materials. 29 10. Considerations in read design 280 M1, Tyresection eee 281 21 282 12, Tyre designations... - - - 13. Matching tyres to wheels. . » (3 Tyre wear indicators. 2 TS Narmge nes me 16. Tyre colour. . . . : 284 17. Effect of air pressure on tyre performance 284 J Bletofempente ene prse «25 9) actors affecting tyre 285 20. ‘Tyre manufacture : ws iid Chapter s Page 51, Dunlop “Deneve” OE pe: 39. Self-inflating a yee pressure monitoring s¥sem » FR inroduetion : “a 232. TYPES «se 301 33.3, Typical TPMS - . - a fa, precautions eaacine Ne (eS 32 Fe. Wheel and re oul so a Wretiparaive wheel and te data of Some indian automebiles 40s + References « oe 306 J theory questions 506 4 questions for viva = « ae Multiple choice questions « « ae 10, BRAKE} 309-346 1. Principle =a 309 2. Braking requirements » wees 309 2% Brae efrciency and stopping distance. 209 4, Fading of brakes +310 5, Weight transfer 310 6. Wheel skidding 313 F Types of brakes 314 7.1. Purpose 314 7.2. Location 314 73, Construction - 314 74, Method of actuation 315 755, Extra braking effort 315 8, Drumbrakes. 2-077 23i5 #1 Construction and types «<< «+ 315 #2. Factors influencing braking effect . . 317 83, Theoretical analysis 317 3) Disc brakes +39 9.1. Construction 319 9.2. Construction features » 321 19.3, Comparison of dise and drum types - 32° 10. Mechanical brakes/~ 324 10.1. Brake shoe operation . « 324 10.2. Linkage - : 325 10.3. Brake compensation 1: 36 11. Girling mechanical brake 327 11.1. Construction and working au, 11.2, Compensation & 37 @ Hydraulic brakes > a 38 12.1. Layout and components. - 38 122. Two shoe leading brake - - « a 2.3, Brake shoe adjusters - - « 36 12.4, Automatic brake adjusters 331 125. Bleeding of hydraulic brakes « - 12,6, Advantages of hydraulic system127. Lica Gitng x Brake tig 1. Brake system for + References 4 Theory questions + Numeral problean, * Questions for vine ‘heel ide tection HR Surin Page bat + Multiple choice uesion, ha jo ARAKES—it Ms 1. Bksthic brakes Nrw394 2 Servo brake systems a7 21. Serva mechanigyy ur 22. Mechanical servo mechan Me 3. Powerhaakes : Me 4 Vacutim serv brakes » 2 5 Brakes with hydraulic hooey = 6 Engine exhaust brakes a 1. Air bakes 8 TH Layout. ||| a 7.2. Unloader valve = 73. Reserve = 74. Brake valve || || 2 75. Hand contro valve zy 76. Brake chamber x0 Slack adjuster 56 78. Wagner airbrake 365 2.9. Advantages of airbrake 36 B Hand brate 366 9. HilPholding device 368 10. Etecsc parking brake eons oath 10.1. TRW's concept parking brake |= 371 1. Broke drums eeeea mone neg) 12 Brake shoes 33 1. Brake tinings a BA Types a 132 Attachment of brake linings... 377 4. Dise brake pads vs 'S, Anttock Brake Systems (ABS) 380 16 Inspection of brake system mI 1. Adjustment of brakes an 18 Replacing brake ining = Servicing dise brake an 32 Brake maintenance aS 2 State ofthe at 4 32 Rezenerative brake system “ay 3h Bsstnc-hydraulic combi brake = 3g Siemens VDO's electronic wedge brake «388 Carhon-ceramic brakes uo, Chapter %, 3 4 5 io 1 8 9 13, ACCESSORIES 1 2 Page Brake system selection criterion 37 Braking system trouble shooting &- 388 * Comparative hake data of some indian automobiles. ow + Reterces x1 + Thcory questions 301 + Questions for iva 392 393 (TING SYSTEM ~ 8395-409 Ling system Ys Wiring ereuit > 93 Wes wr Heaaghns +100 ‘Aiming of heats 408 hing swathes 40s Indicating Fights 06 Lighting system wouble shouting 07 Trends for automotive ling 407 + References 408 + Theory questions 408 Questions foeviva ss) 408 + Malte cote questions | 09 410-429 Inodueton . 410 Direton indicators «| | #10 2.1. Trfieators of Semaphore 310 22 Flashing inieators 310 Havard Masers a2 Hom. ti ai 5: Speedomete an SL Speedometer | flan 52. Odometer ats Tachometer aia Windsereen wipce aia Windsereen washer * ate Wipertess windscrsen a0 Heated witlsercen a7 Yenilating system lan Heating stom lan Airconditioning 2 Mirors a Sun visors 25 Sliding soot * 425 Central locking Facity 2s Foner windows 26 Lockable tank cap 46 Roof eaier, 226 Winch Bs Laser speed gun an© Page | Chapter 25, ‘Tools for tyres 26, ‘Tyre remover 27, Wheel balan 3k. Brake testing equipment 3p. High pressure washing equipment 30. Engine analyzer «= + Fi yalautie press and arbor press 32. Spark plug testing and cleaning machine . 497 pomeler a Chapter 23. Vehicle tracking system! «= Theory questions ‘Questions for viva «= Multiple choice questions 14, BODY 1. Requirement ruetional details 1s of automobile body 2. Go 3. Power door locks 3h chusis dy 4, Remote entry Yu, On-board diagnosis on Meri foe bay work ee atom viral est ck a Painting : 38 Rauipment forrepenting « BA 7. Rust protection « « : 37, precautions tobe observed =. - a TThoory questions « ma 700 a J questions for viva - os for viva go SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS J Rlunipte choice questions « a Safety vonsiderations «+ + : 2. State of the art saety systems 454 17, AUTOMOTIVE MATENIN'S eos 3. Safety sensors - os . 459 . 2 Steel 5 504 J Latest approach to automotive safety - - - 460 2 : 5 5. Pedestrian protection . 463 : shin gaeeieens 05 ian Pe 4, Magnesium - nee 506 G. Safety features of a racing car. . «= « » 464 «Theory questions : 465 Si Thana Sat ESe 507 1 Questions for viva - : 465 6: Corer wee a =a : . 7. Phasties gone nny es OP 16, AUTOMOBILE snopEQuieMeNT 467-503 7.1. Types : 507 1. Introduction 72, Characteristics : 508 Screw drivers ia 73, Applications , fools. 509 SSpanners 2 469 8. Ceramics . Sespsio Plittie.,.0 be 0 ee a3 9. Silicones... se + 7 5u Hammers 66+ + : Li. to. Naural 0 sul Chisels nee wee +. 44 11, Smart materials... +» 7 . SH Files. « DUTT ats 12. Mass reduction and materials. «+ =» 312 Hacksaws = + - Dats f Rererenices = + : 513 1 Cleaning tools agaaes so 8 J theory questions «+ + 238 “Tools for tubes ilian 5 Questions for viva lili s ‘Tapes and dies see y ee eA - ATION: Drilling machines and twist drills aig | 18 REG! ULATION AND STANDARDIZATE 533 Reamers a9 1. Introduction ¥ . SiS |. Soldering tools - 479 2. Automobile Law. = 2. 516 Grinder . - + » * . + 2.1. Motor Vehicles Act. 2. 56 Beneh vice « «+++ = : 480 2.2. Registration of motor vehicles 317 Measuring tools Dolio e480 25. Driving lence « : 317 Chain pulley block a3) 24. Control of trafic «+ cage ST Lifting Jacks and axlestands = «+ + P 2a compe against third party sks = «31 Creeper « : = 484 2.6, Cims for compensation 518 Taeearing eauipment. « 2484 a Teallie signs « 518 Battery testing and charging equipment 485, 3. Central Motor Vehicles Rules ow Blectrie equipment = = + + 485; 4. Vehicle safety standards and egutations 519 oe fe = 486 $ Chassfiation and definition of vehicles a2Chapter 5. High security registration plates. 7. Bnforceinent of emission norms ‘Theory questions * Questions for viva 19. MISCELLANEOUS ToPIcs 504 Automobile industry in India 1 History 1.2. Recent scenario 2. Auto components industry in India 3. Auto Policy 4. NATRIP 5. Automotive Associations 6. Driving hints 6.1. Basic road manoeuvres 6.2. Driving techniques for special 6.3, Emengency situations 6.4, Miscellaneous 7. Checking and inspecting vehicle before a long trip 8. Milestones in the development of automobile 9. Car inspection 10, Vehicle maintenanes |, ‘Tips for preventive maintenance 12, 12.2. Types of finance 12.3. Rate of interest 12.4 Incentives . 12.5. Net borrowing rate 12.6, The deciding factor 12.7. Miscellaneous 12.8. Documents required « Theory questions Questions for viva. . 2). VEHICLE CHASSIS SPECIFICATIONS 5 Ford India Ltd. . 555 — Introduction. . Hindustan Motors Li, ‘The Premier Automobiles Lid. India. « ‘Standard! Motor Products of India Ltd Audi India... « BMW India Pvt. Lid. Daewoo Motors India Lt. at India Automobiles Lid General Motors, India. - Page su 52 522 22 ~$54 524 524 525 2332 534 536 538 - 539 39 sat sai 542 342 543 545 548 348 550 + 550 550 2551 551 331 351 S5i S51 532 552 659 555 356 337 361 362 562 562 = 568 568 568 i Chapter 1" 12. L i 15, 16, 17 18 19. 20. 2 2, B, 24, 25, 26, 2, 28 2» 30. 31 32, 3 34, 35. 36. 7”, 38. 39. 40. al, a2. 43. 44, 43. 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, sl 52, 33 34, Honda Siel Cars India Ld. Hyundai Motor India Lid. Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd. India ‘Mahindra Renault, India Maruti Suzuki India Ltd, Mereedes Benz India Nissan India Reva Blectric Car Co. india ‘Skoda India Lid, Tata Motors... Toyota Kirloskar Motor Lt, India Volkswagen India Lid. Volvo Car India. . ‘Ashok Leyland Ltd. India ‘Asia Motor works Lid, India Bajaj Tempo Lid, India Eicher Motors Lid, India Force Motors Lid. India Swaraj Mazda Lid, India Volvo India Pv, Ltd, « “Tatra Vectra Motors Ltd, India Chrysler UK., Lid. Rolls Royce Motors (car division) U.K. Morgan Motor Co. Ltd., U.K. Vauxhal Motors Ltd, U.K. AC. Cars Lid, UK... . Austin Rover Group Lid., UK. Land Rover, UK... 2s. Citroen Cars Lid., France & UK. Automobiles Peugeout, France Daimler Chrysler, Germany Volkswagen Germany . . Dr. Ing. H.CF Porsche Aktiengessellschaft, Germany. BMW. Germany . Alla Romeo, Italy Ferrari S.p.A. aly . ‘Volvo Intemational Development Corporation, Sweden ‘Steyr Daimler-Pueh AG, Austria, Ford Motor Co., US.A. General Motors, US.A. Leyland Motor Corporation of Australia Lt, Nissan Diesel Motor Co, Lid, Japan ‘Toyoto Motor Corporation, Japan. Hyundai Motor Co. Lid,, Korea * Questions for viva ‘+ Multiple choice questions Page 568 568 568 568 387 587 587 596 396 599 = 604 604 2 607 508, ou 612 613 613 614 ou sts 616 616 616 616 616 2 622 622, on oa 20 635 637 2 638 + 639 640 6st 6a oad 654 + 655 637 637 658, 659APPENDIN—C APPENDIX—D «id Some common signs from st schedule of Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 Selected indian standards concerning automotive vehicles... romotive industry standards Preventive Maintenance - 660 om 680. APPENDIX—E arr NDIX—F APPENDIX—G APPENDIX—H. INDEX. . Basies of electron computers ‘hnical tern Automobile websites Softwares for vehicle design and production O86 . 097 wos 2. 699— 704Introduction 1. DEFINITION ‘An automobile is 2. HISTORY Worlds’ first three-wheeled automobile with Ou Sermany in 1885 and was granted patent on 2 Germany. vie., Gattieb Daimler and Wilhelm Mi a wheeled vehicle carrying its own motive power unit, ycle petrol engine was built by Karl Benz of th January 1886, At the sane time, another team from laybach built and patented the first motor cycle. on thereafter, Benz. also invented accelerator for speed regulation, battery ignition system, spark Plug, clutch, gear shift and the radiator for cooling of the engine. With these improvements, he started with Production of the automobile, the first in the world, inthe year 1888. However, it was in the year 1893 that the first four-wheeled automobile w: ‘as introduced by him, This was fitted with four-stroke engine of his own design, Almost concurrently, Daimler and Maybach also produced the Daimler works and the Hotel Hermann. Daimler died in 1900 but his production continued. In the year 1927. the companies of Benz and Daimler united uncer the name of Daimler-Benz with a commitment to keep that name till the year 2000, Ger about thirty vehicles during 1890 to 1895 at Production of automobiles in France was started by Emile Levassor and Armand Peugot, using Daimler engines, in 1890. The First American car with a petrol engine is said to have been designed in 1877 by George Baldwin Seldon of Rochester, New York, although he built an automobile only in 1905. In UK., although the first petrol car was made by Malvern in 1894 followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895, yet it was Harry J. Lawson, who first started production of automobile in U.K. in 1897 Large scale production-line manufacturing of automobiles was started by Ransom Eli Olds in 1902 and the concept was vastly expanded by Henry Ford. Since 1920s, almost all automobiles have been mass- produced resulting in lower costs, All round development in the fields of design and manufacture of automobiles has resulted in vast improvements in their efficiency, comfort and safety, with consequential tremendous increase in their use worldwide, Whereas Benz produced only 25 vehicles and Daimler-Maybach made almost 30 vehicles in first five years of their production, 63 million cars and light trucks were produced worldwide in the year 2005. 3. COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE The main units of an automobil 1. The basic structure, 2. The power plant 3. The transmission system,AW TOMONIE EHH Ne A -Phe auilionte 5, The cunts 6. The superstraetnes Liniig 1 to S above constitute autonsbile elas quiver 10,1 HE ANIO prwor 1TH RASTC STRUCTURE, sels ani Lyte Vrhis is the anit an whieh are to bo built th Tyehicle, It consists af the Frames the suspen indo oF the unils uyperate ny nate, XI 4.1, Frame ‘There are two distinet forms of construction in commen Hs 1. "The conventional pressed steel frame to which all the me the bundy is superinposed. 2,The integral of Trametes construction in wich the bey strueture i functions of body and frame, the units nora to the boxy. “The ffametess construction i, however, possible only in the ease ofa closed cary pillars, door pillars and rear pannel are essential fond-taking parts of he strucitnes f _— = vehi amis av aw denigned an fo combine the then being attached direetly ly attached to the frame the Hoof, yereon PROPELLER SHAFT “TRANSMISSION (GEAR 80%) FRAME SHOCK ABSORBER SUSPENSION SPRING BRAKE cs ile, showing mai (Couteay~ Dame Rane Acne nets seenINTRODUCTION "frameless construction has the following advantages over the conventional framed construction (Reduced weight and consequent sav ing in fuel consumption. (i#) Lower manufacturing cost (iii) During collision the body crambles, thereby safety to the passengers (i) compared to framed construction lower body stability of the automobile. However, these advantages are accompanied by the following disadvantages also: © (@ Reduction of strength and durability (i) Economical only if frameless construction is adopted in mass production. (iii) Increased cost of repairs in case of damage to body during accidents. (i) Topless cars are difficult to design with the frameless construction. Apart from above two types of construction, in some old models of Volkswagen, Germany, which incorporates features of both of these types. In this a pressed steel floor, suitably strengthened by some longitudinal and cross members, inclu- ding the central longitudinal steel tube, called “backbone’ was used. y absorbing the shock due to impact and thus providing Position may be obtained, thus resulting in increased compromise has also been adopted in many cases, ¢.g. 4.2. Suspension System ‘The objects of suspension are: 1. To provent the road shocks from being {ransmitted to the vehicle components. Fig. 1.2. (a) Suspension system of Nissan CM80 truck (front) 2.To safeguard the occupants from road (Covrtesy—Nissan Diesel Motor Co. Ltd, Japan) shocks. 3. To preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in motion. There are two distinct types of suspension systems: 1. The conventional system, in which the road springs are attached to a rigid beam ale. Fig. 1.2 (6) Suspension System of Nissan MC80 truck (reat) ; 2. The independent system, in which there is (Courtesy—Nissan Diese! Motor Co. Ltd., Japan) no rigid axle beam and each wheel is free to move vertically without any reaction on the other wheel. 4.3, Axles ‘The weight-carrying portions of the-axles, whether it may be front or rear, may be considered as beams supported at the ends, loaded at two intermediate points (the spring centres) and subjected to the following loads: |. The vertical load at the spring centres due to the weight of the vehicle. 2. A fore and-aft load at the wheel centre due to driving or braking effort. 3. The torque reactions due to drive or brakes. ' 4. A side thrust at the radius of the tyre due to centrifugal force when rounding a curve. ‘There are three distinct types of live rear axles. (@) fully floating type (b) three-quarter floating type (©) semi-floating typeAUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING, jead axle, is almost invariably’ a simpie in heavy vehicles, being & dea Oe pins or ball joins. A conventional front axle stil ban ote section forging connected with stub a 4. Wheels ity ports ears, primarily Wires wheels have heen used mainly on spots crs, pinay 09 othe 1 and quickness in changing the wheel. Howser a preside whee has displace hes fora rcinary fe Suh wie Sm ofa el ng ped io ole etn fi ahd rand ity bd in eso account of their light weigh, d these for all ordinary position by welding. Light alloy wheels are curr formula wheels’ 5. THE POWER PLANT. a © vehicl ctions which the vehicle or ‘The power plant (engine) provides the motive power forall the various func OF it, may be called upon to perform, be either of g a c| park- ‘The power plant generally consists of an internal combustion engine which may ignition, or of eompression-ignition type, {rawever, the ga-turbines has also been used succesfully in certain cars, though the ccst has been a disndvantage in spite of their better performance compared to ILC. engines. " Flectric motors powered by batteries have been used as motive. power plant for automobiles. Sora tions of an 1.C, engine and an electie motor have beoy successfully employed in hybrid vehicles, peat Cheray-powered systems have also bet trod. bra vee ‘most promising future power plant is the one based on fuel cells, which Would give zeroreniarg vehicles, any Fig. 13. Engine for 1981 mode . (Courtesy-—Ford Motor Soea a INTRODUCTION 6. THE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM. ‘The transmission system consists of a clutch, a gear box even sx different ratios of torque output to tor ue output org input a propeller shaft towanuattne ont the gearbox to the rear ane anda diferental ear a dsibue te final trgee ale Rane wheels. Fig. 1.4 shows a layout of the transmission system of an automobile. . CaF a Co {also called transmission) giving fous, tive or FF , Cc —+ 1! | rene. mie HI FRONT- iF ial tt ty ENGINE 7 18 ee a ‘The functions of a transmission system are: 1. To disconnect the engine from the road wheels when desired. 2, To connect the engine to the driving wheels without shock. 3. To vary the leverage between the engine and the driving wheels. 4. To reduce the engine speed permanently in a fixed ratio. ‘5, To tum the drive through a right angle. 6. To make provision for the flexing of the road springs which causes a relative movement between the engine and the driving wheels 7. To make provision for the flexing of the road springs which causes a relative movement between the engine and the driving wheels, The various components which perform these functions ar: Clutch Its purpose is to enable the driver to disconnect the drive from the road wheels instantaneously and t0 engage drive from the engine to the road wheels gradually while moving the vehicle from rest Gear box (Transmission) : The gear box or the transmission provides the necessary leverage variation between the engine and road wheels. Bevel pinion and crown wheel: ‘They urn the drive round through 90° and also provide a permanent reduction in spesd. The permaniAUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING REAR BEVEL © AXLE PINION HOUSING Fig. 1.5. Rear axle showing bevel pinion, crown wheel, differentia, axle housing and wheels (Courtesy—Nissan Motor Co. Ltd, Japan) redduetion is necessitated because of the fact that speed of the engine hs to be maintained at optimum level tall times, yet a minimum value of torque has to be made available to the road wheels. Universal Joins “They provide for the relaive movement between the engine and the driving wheels due to Me road springs. g of Differential : While taking tums, the driving wheels must turn at different speeds. This is done with the help of differential “The engine atthe front with the rear axle as the driving axle was the dominant system for both road and competition vehicles till 1980s due to cost and limitations in chassis and suspension knowledge and technology. Heavy engine was placed in front for stability and rear wheels were driven because it was toasier and loss expensive to do so and also because rear-wheel drive gives best traction under acceleration. Moreover, before the advent of modem high torque capacity constant velocity joints, independent suspension on the driving axles of a high-powered vehicle was very expensive and not reliable with U-joints and sliding splined axles, Simpler swinging axles had handling problems due to excessive camber variation, All these considerations were favouring then, the use of front engine, rear drive axle design, which is still being used in heavy vehicles and racing cars, The advantages of such a system are: |. Simple construction, The front axle is not burdened with stecring and power transmission both. Due to this the suspension of each axle may be optimized for each specialized purpose. 2, Better traction under acceleration under dry conditions, During acceleration, vehicle weight is transferred backwards toward the rear wheels and away from the front wheels, thus increasing traction. 3. No Torque steer. 4, Rear wheel drive, being nearer the point where a trailer art 4 rm Targe loads during towing, iculates, helps steering especiallyINTRODUCTION ™ Various disadvantages of this arrangement ae: More weight. There are more components of the transmission. Besides form the transmission tunnel 2. Less interior space. especially in passenger ears. Less room forth the transmission tunnel. Has a tendency to overster. 4. Difficult handling on low grip surface (wet road. ce, snow. etc.) ast pulled. 5. Higher cost. Instead of using the long propeller shafts and transmitting the pow! umber of altemative methods have been used 1. The engine power is transmitted to the front axle which is nearer common form of transmission layout in modern vehicles. Most fro transverse engine mounting driving the front wheels via drive shafts linked through ‘The advantages of this system are: Fig. 1.6. Audi 50 with front drive and engine atthe front (Courtesy—Volkswagenserk, Germany) (W The propeller shaft is eliminated and the linkage for clutch and the transmission is simplified. This results in: (a) Low chassis height (b) Lighter construction. (©) Lesser mechanical inertia in the power train which means greater fuel economy. ii) The engine pulls the car rather than pushing it, avoiding skidding tendeney. thus provi especially on snow-covered roads. (diy Better road adhesion is oblained in this ease because larger part of the weight of the automobile is taken on the driving whesl, the engine transmission being placed direcly over the davving wheels.AUVOMORIAL ENGIN ARINY ent winks GY prasthor unierstooting -eTAEACTOHITIS NIKE IS py HoH agp si lef Ae weshwoo ASK the river Hosins eoMEINE OF the verbo, Too wait A ppmekagoa entively ay the ene evsnypat tinea Mas bain vento tune ithe HOO pA WHC Asus LE MerEAsEAT MIELE spay rower, agonal by the following isadvin ages a Js whet a An this ease the divine wooly, Maye 40 He stootedt hs Wh Mikes sho whole rangement cogpheatet Velocity joints have to Be uses i his eases He cattse ONMINAEY UMKVEENAT ORS Bo o syeed thretations give lay (aay Also the ommmjrmsent of the cttomobile weight on the driving: wheels is reduced When yoing yp ‘eoop grantionts. This restlts int etoase of tractive effort when it is needed MOS (a) Moraner. on level twas inereased ooneenteation af Weight a the fowE fonds TO-MAKE the sleeting slighly heavier {etn front engine, front whoet drive vehicles, the thant ave supports abotl Ovo OF the vehicle aveight, this contributing to understeer (A) Lack of weight shifting to the driving avte during aeceteration makes this arrangement les sited for eaving cars which ave neatly all rear whee! drive, However, since front wheel drive vehicles have engines directly over the diving shaft, the protlem arises only in estrenne conaltions, (wii) Tongue steer ean be a problem on such vehicles with higher torque engines (eater than 210 Nay, Torque steer is the tendency of some front wheel dive ears to pull to the Left oF righ under hand acceleration, (oi) Traction disadvantage during towing, there being lesser weight on the pear whe (4x) CV joints wear out nach faster than in ease of tear wheel drive vehicles: (a) Drive shaits may limit the amount by which the front wheels may tun, thus increasing the tuning circle of the vehicle compared to war whee! dive vehicles, nother arrangement which has also been used is to place the engine at the rear with the rear ade as the live axle, In this ease the advantages are: ) The disadvantage in the feoat engine with front wheel drive while going up the slopes is obviated Gi There is increase of weight on the driving wheels while going up, thus giving better tation through improved road adhesion iii) Front axle construction is simplified which is used for steering only. {G) The absence of propeller shaft allows to decrease the chassis height and the front of the ca amenable to a better design from the point of view of streamlining, (©) In this arrangement noise and heat are carried away trom the passengers and the front of the vehicle can be designed for better visibility because of the absence of the engine, (0) The silencer system and exhanst pipe in this ease need not span the entire Length of the vehicle al can be mone compact. However certain disadvant ages are also there in this ca spe. (2) The increased weight of the vehicle in the rear causes the same to become unstable at hi Gi) Complicated linkage is required to operate engine, clutch and the transmission. (Gi Due to the positioning of the eng c the cooling efficiency is reduced. (iv) Lighter weight atthe front tends to cause overstcering conditions which is very sensitive 0. winds and is considered somewhat dangerous. - (©) The engine and transmission units being relatively more difficult to access, servicing am take longer time. (9 As the petrol tank now has to be placed at the front, it may be dangerous in 08s collision oot 8INTRODUCTION 3 19 joos o i are the driving wheels, ! et Thes Ww may be all-wheel drive (AWD) Te fr the four whe ystems ate designed for full time all-spocd , and, genovally all Ne far whoobs Hive (AWD ord AD ANON All avtiogt ative sytem ade driving, mai on a AWD duces wheel slippage and provides greater driver conch aoe ae aint ae have ns Waser va oad system andl is not mea for lF-road use. On tho waht han, aor ee tal at ) pruners / -——ehuren fda) ‘i — 4] Yr i CAT Fig. 1.7, Layout ofthe transmission system ofa four wheel driven automobile two-speed transfer case, designed mainly for low-speed, off-road driving. Often. only the rear wheels are driven in normal operation with four-wheel drive selected only for extreme conditions. ‘The layout of a four wheel driven transmission is given in Fi. 1.7. In this there is @ transfer box (also called auxiliary gear box) in audition, which divides the torque equally between the front and the rear axles. In the figure, A’s are the universal joints on the propeller shafis, whereas special constant velocity universal joins B, B have to be provided in the front axle, because of large angular _move~ ments involved during steering Further, there is a provision in the ‘control of the transfer box so that Fig, 1.8, Transfer box congo! lever (Courtesy —Daituler Benz Aktiengesellschall, Geemany)0 cat) drive eM se 19, Twohee (a Geom * Fem i Benz Aktict welischaft, Germany) = ve 18 the upper lever is gear Box contol wired. In Fi Y In position wheel drive come: normal rear wheel drive is weed when not FEA 5 into use (Fig. 1.10). front wheel drive may be disengag Meatg, whereas Tower one is the transfer BOX. ol Feet engaged (Fig. 1.9). shite wth the Tever!? position ‘SA’, fou Fig. 1.10. Four whos dive engaged (ouresy--Daitler Benz Aktengesllschal, Germany) | advantage of the four whe! drive is that when the front wheels fall into a ditch. they can be driver out, ing power driven. In the case of ordinary wo wheel drive, where only the rear ‘axle is the live set car will have to be exersed in such a situation but even then it will not be certain always that the front wheels would come out. OF course, this advantage has to be paid for in terms of hi Jher initial cost 3s ret ay additional running cost because of extra fuel consumption. The main Treammercial vehicles where heavy loads have to he carried, six wheels are used it ‘Thos x: cated, six wheels are used instead of four. posshiliy of skidding is reduced Bocas ofthe adiional adhesion between the road and the wheels it this ase, Ten a te ye stich hiss done non. two rear ales are used insted of usual of€ While in the other case a single rear axle carrying two wheels on each side (Fi 7 e later gement is simple ce ls on each side (Fig. 1.11) is used: The 8 ore imple and cee han the mals 3 terest ye (Fi 1112), However single a¥# pe fas the disadvantage of inconvenience in changing the inner wheels. Further st ae aie likely to get lodged in between the twin tyres and cig tromtie®Fig. 1.11, Truck chassis with single rear axle (Courtesy—-Nissan Diesel Motor Co. Ltd. Japan) ‘CWSSHT cwe1kT GCVW: 45000 kg (99200 fb) GCVW: 83000 kg (183000 Ib) ee Engine: ROBT, 330 PS lia iv eo Engine: RD10, 350 PS fa i a aera yt Fig. 1.12. Truck with twin rear axle (Courtesy—Nissan Diese! Motor co. Ltd. Japan)AUTOMOBILE F2 we, 7. THE AUNILIARIES The principal one out of these—in that it equipment. This can be subdivided into four systems 1. Supply system—Battery and generator. 2. The star 3. The ignition system—Battery and magneto ignition. 4. Ancilla (a) Dri (b) Signalling hom, direction indicators and the brake light (c) Other lights—imerior roof lights, pane! light and reverse light if fi automatically when reverse gear is engaged) (d) Miscellaneous-—radio, heater, fans, electric fuel pump, electric windscreen Wiper is common to almost all types of ve! y devices— 1g lights—head-lights, side-lights. tail-light umber-plate illuminal 8. THE CONTROLS The controls consist of: 1. Steering System. 2. Brakes. 9, THE SUPERSTRUCTURE In those cases, where frameless construction is not adopted, there must be a sp the body attached to the frame while in case of frameless construction, th hoth, The body contains the passenger and the luggage space, besides the engine compartmnent “The shape of the body depends upon the ultimate use for which the vehicle is meant Fig. .13to 1 depict various types of superstructure (bodies) for different vehicles. oy ) te) Fig. 1.13, (a) Ford Cortina G.L. Sedan, (6) Cortina GHIA Sedam, (c) Cortina GL Wegon (Courtesy—Ford Motor Co. of Australia Ltd.)NTRODUCTION Fig. 1.14. Tata Safari (Courtesy—Tata Engineering and Locomotive Co., now Tata Motors, India) Fig. 1.15. Bell Air Coupe 1981 (Countesy—General Motors Canada, Ltd.)— AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING L.16. TR-7 PRO Series 1980 Sports Car Leyland Motor Corporation of Australia Ltd. Fig. 17. Mercedes-Benz Cross-country vehicle (Courtesy—Daimler Benz Aktiongesellschaft Germany) | ) | eeeINTRODUCTION 9 Fig. 1.18. Various bodies for Nissan Diesel CK20 seties trucks (Courtesy—Nissan Diese! Motor Co, Lid, Japan) Fig. 1.19. Mercedes-Benz bus (Courtesy—Daimler Bena Aksiongosellschaft, Germany) 10, CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOBILES san be classified from the point of view of various considerations as follows: Automobiles ¢ 1. Use (i) Mopeds (i Motor cycles, scooters (iii) Cars, jeeps (iv) Buses and trucks 2, Capacity (i) Heavy transport vehicles (HT:V.). Examples a (ii) Light transport vehicles (L-T-V}), like ears, jee trucks (ie, lorries) & buses. te.16 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING. 3. Make and model (i) Bajaj ‘Pulsar’, Royal Enfield ‘Bullet’, Honda *Externo’ etc (ii) Premier ‘Padmini’, Hindustan ‘Ambassador’, Maruti $00 ete (iii) Tata “Indica’, Leyland *Cheetah’, Ford ‘Ikon’, General Motors *Corss’ ete 4, Fuel used (i) Petrol vehicles, eg., scooters, motor eycles, cars (petrol models). (ii) Diesel vehicles, e.g, buses, tucks, cars (special diesel models), 5. Body style (i) Closed cars such as saloon, coupe etc (i) Open cars like sports car, convertible ear etc. (iii) Special styles such as estate car, station wagon ete 6. Wheels (i) Two wheelers, eg. scooters, motor eyeles, mopeds (ii) Three wheelers like autorickshaws, tempos. (Git) Four wheelers, eg, cars, jeers. (iv) Six wheelers, eg. trucks, buses. 7. Drive {i Whether the vehicle can be driven siting towards right or lft side, (@) Left hand drive eg, American vehicles for use in U.S.A. (b) Right hand drive e.., Indian vehicles. (ii) Whether the front axle, rear axle or both axles are driving axles. (a) Front wheel drive, eg. Volkswagen cat, Maruti car (b) Rear wheel drive: Premier, Ambassador cars (c) All wheel drive: jeeps. 8, Transmission (i) Manual, in which ordinary rash type gearbox is used. The examples are, most of the Indian cars i) Semi-automatic having ato pedal ansission using manual operation of the standard gear Pa with automatic clutch control. These ae obsolete now. . iy pay automat employs wansission that wses combinations of epcyclic gear tains and rogue converters, e.g. cars with Mercedes ‘7G-Tronic’. iv) Continuously variable: with a transmission which case select any desired drive ratio within its Goue. eve, Audi with ‘Multitronic’, Honda with ‘Mulkimatic’ (9) Autrnated manal, Le, the cars with transmissions that are basically manual, but operated fydraulically and electronically, eg, Audi with ‘DSG' 1, AUTO BODY STYLES ALL. Car Bodies (@ Closed cars : (@ Saloon or Sedan—Has two or four doors, a single compartment with two rows of seats and @ Fixed roof which is at full height upto the rear windows. There is a separate luggage SP8°° Tally atthe rear. The term ‘saloon’ is British, whereas ‘sedan’ is used in USA. (6) Harchback—A saloon with a door atthe back i called hatchbackINTRODUCTION ” (© Coupe—tn this type there is only one row of seals for two persons. Only two doors are provided, An ordinary ‘saloon’ with roofline at decreased height is also called coupe ‘sometimes, The term G.T. (grand touring) added to ‘coupe’ means a car of performance whieh is better than th (i) Limousine—Large, six-seater or bigger passenger compartment and often driven by a chauffeur, Driving compartment is separated from the rear compartment by a sliding glass division, (6) Fast buck—The root slopes down at a smooth angle to the tai of the ear and there is no separate door at the rear end, (ii) Open cars (a) Sports—The term commonly used for a relatively small, low slung ear with a high performance engine and exellent handling, (b) Convertible—The root in this is of soft fotdin With these provisions the car may be either open or enclosed, (c) Cabrio coach or Semi-convertible—A vehicle with a root, where a retractable textile cover often nets as a large sunroof. An old style, is found rarely in moder cars. (@) Coupe convertible—A type of convertible coupe with a rigid roof that can be retracted inside the lower part of the vehicle body. type and windows of special wind-up design. ii) Special stytes ¢ (a) Extate Car—A saloon ear with the passenger roof extended right up to the rear end. Rear door for loading with rear seats usually collapsible. (b) Station Wagon—A cae with a significant capacity to carry loads, with a full-height body all the ‘way to the rear end. Load-carrying area can be approached from the rear door(s). (©) Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV). A vehicle built on a truck chassis, but is shaped much like station wagon, 11.2, Bodies for Transport Vehicles Examples of stich vehicles are vans, trucks or lorries, buses, coaches ete. A brief description of each type follows: (a) Van—These are light transport vehicles. There are seats at the front and the luggage space at the tear. The side doors are usually of sliding type. The rear door is used for loading or unloading. (b Truck —These are heavy goods commercial vehicles with all the axles attached to a single frame. Generally twin wheels are fitted on the non-stecred axles. Depending upon the load capacity, there are two or more axles. (© Articulated vehicle—This is also a heavy goods vehicle consisting of a tractor and a semi-trailer. ‘The tractor provides the motive power while the trailer carries the goods. The two units are connected together by means of a fth-whecl coupling (Fig. 1.20). This type of vehicle has smaller turning circle than the rigid truck. Moreover, the trailer being detachable, the tractor can directly ‘move off after reaching destination with some other trailer unit without having to wait for unloading and re-loading. However, in this there is less traction available. Moreover stecring is more difficult as the trailer wheels do not follow the same path as the tractor wheels. (@) Bus—These are used for carrying large number of people over short distances often in a dense traffic. Not much space for luggage is provided, but there is adequate visibility for the passengers to know where they have to get down, Usually there are two doors, the one at the rear for mounting, and the one at the front for getting down, Sometimes, the buses have two floors. Such buses are called double-decker buses. * (©) Coach—These are used for transporting passengers over long distance and are therefore provided with luxurious interior with comfortable, adjustable seats and amenities like video.AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING sive view FirTH wieeL couRLiNs = ror view Fig, 1.20, Fifth whee! coupling in an articulated vehicle 11.3. Two-Wheeler bodies (a) Standard like—Basie form of the motor eyele, also known as ‘street bike’. (b) Cruiser—The bikes wherein the riding position with the hands up and the feet forward with the spine erect, is quite comfortable for long distance riding, (0) Sport bike—Also called ‘performance bikes’, these are much lighter and smaller than the cruisers. During driving the rider has the hands low, Feet backwards and the spine inclined forward. (A) Tourers—With extremely large airings and bodywork, these bikes have a very upright and comfortable riding position. (¢) Sport Tourers—A hybrid between sport bikes and tourers, it makes convenient long distance travelling at higher speeds, (0 SeoterThese wo Iwona {vith smaller wheels, small engines and a configuration which fect on a running board and knees together, g) Moped—With a k it i la on: 5 @ ener yale lower capacity engine, usually 50 cc, mopeds are a hybrid between bicycle and ‘THEORY QUESTIONS 1. Whit are the main components of an au 2. State briefly, the history of aulomobile 4. Discuss the functions of the transmission 3 ission system in automobil 4, Compare the merits and demerits of mil Somes OF the frameless consiaction with those of the conventional framed omobile? Describe all of them briefly,INTRODUCTION 6, Describe various component-layouts for automobiles and discuss the advantages and disadvantay 7. How do you classify automobiles? Explain in detail giving examples, 8. Discuss various styles of car bodies giving examples, 9. Name important transport vehicles and describe the salient features of each, QUESTIONS FOR VIVA $ of each 1, What is an automobile? 2. Name major components of an automobile, 3. State the advantages of frameless construction, What are its disadvantages? 4. Name the two types of vehicle suspension, 5. To which loads ate the vehicle axles subjected? 6. Name different types of live rear axles, : 7. What type of wheels are usually employed in automobiles? 8. Apart from 1.C. engine, what other types of power plant are used in automobiles? 9. State the functions of automobile transmission system, 10, What is the object of providing a clutch in an automobile? LL. Why do we provide gear box in a vehicle? 12, What is the fonction of universal joints? 13. Name a few layouts of automobile components, 14. What advantages are there is ease of front whee! di 15, What is the main advantage of the four wheel drive vehicle? 16, What is a transfer box? 17, Name the major electrical components in an automet 18, State various considerations on the basis of which automobiles are classified. ical examples of cars with (a) rear whcel drive (b) front wheel drive. 20. What are the salient features of a (a) saloon car (B) coupe (c) estate car (a) van (e) articulated vehicle? 21, Name a few types of transport vehicles MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS Mark the correct answers : 1. The basic automobile structure consists of the suspension system, axles, wheels and (a) sicering () brakes: fo) frame @ lights 2. Compared to framed construction, the frameless construction of automobiles is economical (a) always (®) when produced in small quantities (©) when produced on large scale (@) never 3. Most commonly used power plant on automobiles i, (a) LC. engine () gas turbine (oy batery (@) none of these 4. The purpose of gear box in an automobite-is to (@) vary speed (©) vary torque (6) provide permanent speed reduction (4) to disconnect the road wheels from the engine when desired 5. The evoling system of automobile engine is most simple when the engine is placed atthe (a) front (@) centre (6) rear on the left (€) rear on the ight6. In case of fourwhcel driven vehicle AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING (2) eltch operating linkage i simplied (6) cooling system is simplified (6) the roud adhesion is increased 7. The example of a saloon is (@) Premier ear (©) Leyland bus & The example of a hatchback ig (@) Maruti 800 ™ (©) Ambassador Nova (a) the road adhesion is decreased (H) Tata wuck (@) none of these (6) Premier Padmini (@) Fiat 100 i [Key = 1. (), 2. (€), 3. (a), 4. (B), 5. (4), 6. (c)s 7. (a), 8. (a)}The Chassis Construction 1, INTRODUCTION 1. The chassis of an automobile (@ Engine and the radiator. (id) Transmission system, consi (iii) Suspension system, (iv) Road wheels, (©) Steering system. (vi) Brakes, (oti) Fuel tank. Alll the components listed above Consists of following components suitably mounted ng of the clutch, gear box, propeller shaft and the rear axle are mounted in cither of the two ways, viz, the conventional con- Faction, in which a separate frame is used and the frameless or unitary construction in wich ws separate ame is employed. Out of these, the conventional type of constuction ix being vsed presently only for heavy vehicles whereas for car the same has been Chassis are classified as : © Conventional contol, chassis, in which engine is mounted in front of the driver's cabin, This type of arrangement avoids full utilization of the space. (i Semi-forward control chassis, in which engine is 50 mounted that half of its in the driver's cabin Thereas the other half is in front, ouside the driver's cabin, Tata SE series of vehicles are example of this type of chassis, (iti) Full-forward control chassis, in which the engine is moun Obviously maximum utilization of space is achicved in this vehicles are example of this type of chassis. 2. CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTION In this type of chassis construction the frame isthe basic unit to which v: and body is bolted onto the frame later on ed completely inside the driver's cabin. is type of arrangement. Tata E series of ‘rious components are attached 2.1, Function of the frame 1. To support the chassis components and the body. 2. To withstand static and dynamic loads without undue deflection or distortion 2.2, Leads on the frame |. Weight ofthe vehicle and the passengers, which causes verical bending ofthe side members, 2. Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bump or hollow, which results in longitudinal torsion‘ AUTOMOBILE ENGINEER .e usual road level. ‘ce while taking @ turn, which result in lat latory, with other wheels at th due to one wheel lifted (or tower wind, comering for 3, Loads due to road camber, side trending of side: members -tos may eause that particular wheel to remain 44 Load due to whee! impact with road obstacles (ny ane that pari whee staal eh ar ae tends to move forward string the FE parallelog bers in the vertical plane tend the side mernt ling to in a general collapse. 5, Kingine torque and braking torque ten 6, Sudden impact loads during a collision, which may result i 2.3. Frame Construction ‘Asimplitied diagram representing the frame (Figs 21) show the longitudinal members A and the croy members B, The frame is upswept at the rear and front (0 Accommodate the movement of the axles due tp Springing, It also Keeps the chassis height low. The frame is ‘narrowed down at the front either as shown in es a smaller turning circle. C are the brackes bearings for spring shackles. They also take te (a) or in (b) to have a better steering Jock, which gi ‘The extension of the chassis frame ahead supporting the body. El are the dumb irons to act as thumper brackets. Brackets E are meant for mounting the springs whereas its extension beyond the rear axle is called rear of the front axle is called frome overhang, overhang. FRONT ‘Since the commercial vehicles hi Fig. 2, Frame shapes, these, Because in these Vehicles, ground cieaanee Se loads fo i Ben whe paces fi cnaracton eh tupsweep at the front or rear (Fi fave only straiy Ficient space is otherwise availabe Fig. 23), ight memb ro ‘The engine ers without taper towards the | clutch and the trans sion are all bolted together to form one rigid assembly WH"THE CHASSIS CONSTRUCTION 2 Pig 22. Chassis tame foram Ashok Leyland vehi (Coutesy-—Astok Loylannl Lis, Ilia) mounted usually on the front end of the frame, Ie is supported on the frame at three places by means of rubber blocks. This help to isolated the engine from wal shocks an the body from the engine vibrations. Morvover, this method accommodates any misalignment between the engine or the transinission relative to the frame oF the boy Fig. 2 contre to 163 depicts a chassis frame for an Ashok Leyland vehicle, while frame with an X-member in the visting forve (used in older Daimler vehicles) has been shown in Fig. 2.3 Fig. 23. Chassis fame for an old Daimler vehicle, ‘A double feame (Fig. 2.4) increases the resistance to bending, ensures an even distribution of the load oon the chassis frame and eliminates the need fora subframe. ‘Various cross-sections used for the side members or cross-members of the chassis frame are shown in Big. 23. It is scen that the channel section [Fig. 25 («)] and square box section [Fig. 2.5 (b)] have bending slifinesses ax © and 7.2 compared to a solid square with equal eross-seetional area whose stiffness is taken as L_ Due to this reason, both these sections are used extensively for side members. Sometimes the box Section is formed by welding a plate to a channel section [Fig. 25 (c)] or by welding wo channel sections [Fig 25 (ah] Hat section (Fig, 2.5 (¢)] is sometimes used alongwith channel section, for erass-members. For heavy-duty applications, side members may be formed by placing two channel sections back to back Fig. 25 ()]. The side-and the cross-members are usually joined by riveting, However, the sub-seetions are usually joined by lap-welding.. AUTOMOBILE ENGINEER Fig, 24. Mercedes Benz double chassis frame. (Courtesy—Daimler Benz Aktiengesellschat, Germany) (@ norme: © JULI © v Fig. 2.5. Frame sections—(a) channel section, (b), (c) and (d) box sections (e) hat section, (f) double channel or L-section, ~ Q N N N y 2.4, Materials for frame Steels used for pressed frame are mild shect steel, carbon sheet steel and nickel alloy sheet steel. The Composition of a nickel alloy sheet steel as specified is given below : Carbon 0.25—0.35 per cent Manganese 0.35—0.75 per cent Silicon 0.30 per cent maximum Nickel 3 per cent Phosphorous 0.05 per cent maximum Sulphur 0.5 per cent maximumTHE CHASSIS CONSTRUCTION a An aluminimum alloy called *Alpax’ has also been used as frame materials. ‘TABLE 2.1. SIDE MEMBER STEEL SPECIFICATIONS - Tit Sit Pls Garbon Seal Plus [7pevent nicl Se Pa arhon (percent) | 0.18 — 0.20 [ano | 025 — 0.35 | | Manganese (percent) | 0.40 — 0.6 1 0.50 —0.70 0.35 — 0.75 i licon (percent) | 0.7 (max) (0.07 (max) 0.05 (max) Phosphonows (norcent) 05 (max) 0.05 (max) (0.05 emax) Sulphue ¢peweent 0.05 (max) 0.0 (ax) 0.05 (max) Ukimate Strength (MPa) 450 — S00 500 — 670 550 —720 Yield Strength (MPa) ns 250 320 long 20 pervent mi 20 percent min 20 peresnt min ot 100 mim on 100 mi ot 100 mm TABLE 2.2. MATERIALS USED FOR FRAME BRACKETS Materials Mechanical Propentcs verage) Yield strengih Uinate Tensile Strength Blongation _ (3tPa) (tea) Mild sect 240 350 20% i Medium carbon stel 400 650 24% 146 nickel 490 670 20% Va ste 260 370 156% on $0 mam Soft steel 200 330 224% on 50 mum, Iron (Black heart) 260 370 fed 3. SUB FRAMES Normally the various components are bolted directly to the main frame. But many a time, these components are mounted on a separate frame called sub-frame, This subframe is further supported by the mnain frame at three points. In this way the components are isolated from the effects of twisting and flexing ‘of the main frame, The advantages of sub-frames are : 1. The mass of the sub-frame alone helps to damp vibrations. 2. The provisions of sub-frame simplifies production on the assembly line and facilitates subsequent overhaul or repair. 4, DEFECTS IN FRAMES The only prominent defect that usually occurs in the frames due to accidents is the alignment fault. ‘This may be checked by means of a plumb line. The vehicle is placed on a level surface and by suspending plumb line from four different points on each side of the frame. thei position on the ground is marked. ‘The Yehicle is then taken away and the diagonals are measured between corresponding points. These should not dilfer by more than 7 or 8 mm. If any of the corresponding diagonals do differ by more than this amount, the frame is out of alignment. The possible cause, then, may be any one of the following : 1. The dumb irons or side members may be bent 2. Cross members may be buckled 3, Some rivets may be loose or broken. Ifthe damage to the frame members is small, they can be repaired by means of a hydraulic jack andAUTOMONILE ENGI MEER NG puke is more, the bent frame member may be heated {0 straighten i, Ano Another the damayed part nl weld « tiew one instead. ng irons, 10 the allemative may be to et LESS CONSTRUCTION § type of construction heavy the floor is strengthened by eruss-men ‘ne also used alongwith this type of consteuction, Fig. ¢ members used ine 1 construction ate eliminate nbers and the body, all weld! together. In some eases the suber 2.46 shows frameless chassis for Nissan Dicsel han’ Douly proper and frameless chassis componients are welded togethcr to form a rigid, integral monocoque ‘nit for extra strength and durability, 2.6, Frameless chassis for buses /—Nissan Diesel Motor Co, Ltd. (Cou 6. VEHICLE DIMENSIONS ‘Two important dimensions used to describe the size of an automob size of an automobile of the framed ned oF the frameless y type are : (i) Wheel track— the off-side. (ii) Wheel base—This is This is wansverse distance between the ‘yreso-ground cenies on on the near-side and the longitudinal distance between the centre tines of th 168 Of the front and ‘and the reat axles. THEORY QUESTIONS 1 Explain bviety the vrous pe of css cnsrcton with th hep fava diagram M FMS. Make a list of vous components mounted on the chassis. Write a brief note on sub-framnes, ; How do you check the alignment of chassis frame? Explain clearly. QUESTIONS FOR VIVA i a frame? are the functions of a hassis construction. ents: mounted on the cha What Name three types of ch Name various compon 4, What are the loads comin 5. What is the effect of wei! assis frame.2 “euassis CONSTRUCTION inbers while comeriny wo places? me 4 Wha type of siesies are promuced inthe side 4 iy are the side members ofa frame upswept a A Why is the frame narrow at the front? has maxinwun resistance (0 (7) bending, (if) torsion? ierials used for chassis frames and body? 10, What are the m MULTIPLI Mark the correct ans voce amir of points at whic the engin clutc-gear hex unit x sported the class ane (a) one (b) wo fey dd) four 2, Weight of the vehiicle prod (a) vertical bending (o) torsion (all of U 3, The frame may get distorted (0 a parallelogram shape die (0 (a) weight of vehicle {(b) weight of passengers (c) comering Force (d) wheel impact with road obstacle ‘4c Lateral bending of the frame side members may be caused on aecount oF assengers (b) side wind () braking torque (a) weight of (oy engine torque 5, ‘The most effective section against bending is @) reclangular bar (b) round bar (o) round hollow tube (dl) square hollow section [Key : 1. (©, 2. (a), 3. (d) 4. (6), 5. DI6 1. DEFINITION 4s when de Clutch isa mechenism which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted. when desired, incident with that of the First. to a second shaft the axis of which is 2. REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH . 1. Torque transmission : The clutch should be able to wansmit the maximum torque of the engine under all conditions. It is usually designed to transmit 125 to 150 per cent of the maximum engine eee ior factor As the clutch slips during engagement. the clutch facing is heated. Clutch temperature is the majo This requires that the clutch facing must maintain a reasonable coetficient of limiting the elutch capacity a re ‘ friction with the mating surfaces under all working conditions. Moreover the friction material should not crush at high temperatures and clamping loads. 2. Gradual engagement : The clutch should positively take the drive gradually without the occurrence of sudden jerks. 3. Heat dissipation : During clutch application, large amounts of heat are generated. The rubbing ces should have sufficient area and mass to absorb the heat generated, The proper design of the clutch surf should ensure proper ventilation or cooling for adequate dissipation of the heat. 4. Dynamic balancing : This is necessary particularly in the high speed clutches. 5. Vibration damping : Suitable mechanism should he incorporated within the clutch, to eliminate noise produced in the transmission, 6. Size : The size ofthe clutch must be smallest possible so that it should occupy minimum amount of space. 7. Inertia : The clutch rotating parts should have minimum inertia. Otherwise, when the clutch is ed for gear changin, the clutch plate will keep on spinning, causing hard shifting and goa clashing re in spite of synchronizer. 8. Clutch free pedal play : To reduce effective clamping loud on the carbon theust bearing and wea hereof, sufficient clutch free pedal play must be provided in the clutch, 9, Ease of operation + For higher torque transmissions the operation of disengaging the clutch must ot be tiresome to the driver. TYPES OF CLUTCHES ; / The following are the main types of clutches : 1. Friction clutches 2. Fluid flywheel fiction is caused j: The friction clutches work on the fact that friction ‘when to rotating when two rotating discscLUTeRES comme i880 COMIACY with each other. On the othe Nu no 08 RADE the other by means sane He MS Ayes ons he Wan of eens Friction clutches may be dry or the wet ty hs used hecaane of mainly the haces OTe 19 28 overwheling majority f vehicle dry wpe ot a eee of matty a = Re coast ot friction in the wet ype, However the Wel (ype of inseaningly Put io vse im moder eee ONE ANE ry type ReSaUse Of ich hey ae Pena ae All these types will now be described in detail 4 PRINCIPLE OF FRICTION CLUTCHES The principle of a friction clutch may be explained hy Fig. 3 rinse oa y ine! by means of Fig. 3.1 ctaisnay ioe Cb revolving at some sped, say Wen. Sha and the dine D eyed toi S00 that H comes pute the chutch is not engaged [Fig. 3.1 (a), Now apply eame ecat forse acne and D will ome ino ares ith te C, AS 000 asthe contact is made. the force of fon beteeen upon fetion fone peed 2 Sonscquenily the disc D will also stat revolving. The spesd wt D dererds gradually. the speed of Dent est it 2 is proportional to the force W applied. If W is increased Recomes canal eed of D will be increased corespondingly till the stage comes when the speed of D omes equal to the speed of C. Then the cluich is said to be fully engaged (Fig, 3.1 (0)) e} fo BB 3 -feLit ee es 7 UU (@) ) Fig, 3.1. Principle of fiction clutch, torque transmitted & = effective mean radius of friction surface. The ey cluiches have been derived at appropriate place Then T= uWR el) Thus we see that the torque transmitted by a friction clutch depends upon three factors ie. y, W and . This means that increasing any or all of the above factors would increase the amount of torque Wl slutch can transmit, However, there are upper limits in each of these cases. pressions forthe same for different types of in this chapter, (2) Coefficient of friction, 1 This depends upon the materials comprising friction surfaces. The coefficient of friction values for commonly used materials for friction clutch are given in Table 3.1.0 AUTOMOBILE: ENGH NER, ‘TABLE 3.1. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION FOR (CLUTCH FACING MATERIAL {— sno. ‘Material Coefficient of Friction 027 : fe eal a 3 Catton Fabric 04-05 4 Asbestas-base materials 0.35 -0.4 5 SSW3.AF (non-asbestos) 0.28 0.36 6. HWK 200/Non-asbestos 0.39 ~ 0.40 ‘Most of the clutch friction materials have different coefficients of friction under static and g, onditions; the dynamic coefficient being slight tan iy ies than the static coefficient. The fiction cours cfiven matesal also varies with operaing condition, such a temperature, pressure and rubbing yet teice vaviations are usually furnished by the material manufacturers and are helpful in designing qx) to operate under specified conditions. As such, the values ofthe frietion coefficients given above ag gat representative values. h (6) Axial Pressure, W “The maximum value of Wis limited to that which a driver ean exert without undue strain, This is oy to be about 100-120 N. The other limitation is the type of material for friction surfaces, eg. for lethe clutches maximum allowable pressure is 50 kPa and for Ferodo lined clutches 130 10 200 kPa. Where gop ‘cooling of the plates is possible a pressure of 300 kPa could also be attained as in case of asbestos ig Ferodo clutches. (©) Effective Mean Radius of contact surfaces, R ‘The value of R cannot be increased beyond 2 certain maximum which depends upon the spar available in the particular type of vehicle. 5. DRY FRICTION CLUTCHES ‘The following types of dry friction clutches will be described here: 1. Cone clutch 2. Single plate clutch 3. Multiplate clutch 4, Semi-centrifugal clutch 5. Centrifugal clutch 5.1. Cone Clutch Fig. 3.2. shows a simplified diagram of the cone clutch. In this type the contact surfaces are in the form of cones as shown in the figure. In the engaged position, the male cone is fully inside the female cone so that the friction surfaces are in complete contact. This is done by means of springs which keep the male cone pressed all the time. ‘When the clutch is engaged, the torque is transmitted from the engine via the fly wheel and the male cone to the splined gear box shaft. For disengaging the clutch the male cone is pulled out by means of the lever system operated through the clutch pedal thereby separating the contact surfaces. Advantages “The only advantage of the cone clutch is that the normal force acting on the contact surfaces in this case is larger than the axialCLUTCHES i force, as compared to the simple single plate clutch in which the normal force acting on the contact surfaces is equal to the axial force. Disadvantages This type of clutch is practically obsolete because of certain inherent disadvantages: 1 Ifthe angle of cone is made smaller than about 20° the male cone tends to bind or join the the female cone and it becomes difficult to disengage the clutch ‘ 2. A small amount of wear onthe cone surface resulls in a considerable amount of the axial movement of the male cone for which it willbe difficult to allow. ofthe axial movemen Design details Refer Fig. 3.3. Let r;= inner radius of friction surface rr, = outer radius of the friction surface Consider a differential element at radius r and Then area of this differential clement, dA, is given by, dA = Inrds ‘Then normal Joad on the differential element is, dr dP = p-dA = 2npr 5 Where p is the intensity of pressure normal to the friction surfaces. ‘Axial load on the differential element is, ji tr ing = 2epnle dW = dP sin@ = 2npr—F sin = 2 npn *. Total axial load on the clutch, w faw =2n Fonte G2 and total torque transmitted, r= J nde vote (" | = 2 f year G3) sin O2 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING Equations (3.2) and (3.3) can be integrated by considering (0 Uniform pressure intensity ic. p = constant. This condition is experienced when t surfaces are perfectly coniacting each ether (i) Unitorm rate of wear. Wear depends upon the int further depends upon r. Thus for uniform rate of w (@ Uniform pressure intensity sity of pressure p and vel (ear, pr = constant. of rubbi Eq, (3.2) can be wi =me Which is independent of the cone angle, From Eq. (3.3). 7 = We i Par = 2A ip Ay =3sine Wo [by substituting from Eg. (3.4)] where, (3.6) i) Uniform rate of wear . From equation (3.2 w= npr f dr = 2pr(r, ~ 1m) ‘an 2 °° Ripr = RMP Lp = EMP G2 2 138) From equation (3.3), Tia ing 17H ing le = 1) = apres] SEG + | = teen {by substituting from Ea, (3.71 Cut of equations (3.6) and (3.9), the later gives more conservative results and can be safely used for ne clutch. the dese ta erk gone clutch isto be designed for an engine developing 11 kW at 1000 pam. The width Passe te taken to be 0.2 of the diameter and the cone angle may be kept at 25°. The maxim of the faceCLUTCHES 3 dimensions of the pressure between the contact faces ix 80 kPa, Determine the clutch and the axial force required, Assume ft = 0.2! Solution, Uniform wear of eluteh friction Hining is assumed, Let) wn, 1, = ouer radius of the eone face in mm, width of the cone face. Then, W = npr (ry—n) {Eq. 3.7] W = 2m X08 1 (ry—n) = O16 Rr (r=) (a) noth vowniesent, 4 =02(25 2!) «ats Also: ‘ind where 6 = semi cone angle = 12.5° = 2 +n) = .2sin 125° = 0.433 1.09 s W = 16 m4; (1.09 rj ~ 7) = 045277 Toth 109 +r _ 209% x 2sin® 2sin 12.5° 433 82h _ 11x 108 x 60 5 7 = MIO OO 105 x 10° Nem Now T= WR ++B.10) b 10S x 10° = .25 x 0452 7 x 4.827 7, aL 105 x 10° - o "= 5% oHsD x aeay = 1925 % 10 124.4mm 1.09 rj = 1.09 x 124.4 = 135.6 mm b= 24 + my) = 2U2A + 135.6) = 520mm Axial foree, W = .0452 77 = .0452 (124.4)? = 699.5N 5.2. Single Plate Clutch A simplified sketch of a single plate clutch is given in Fig. 3.4. Friction plate is held between the ‘lywheet and the pressure plate. There are springs (the number may vary, depending upon design) arranged cireumferentally, which provide axial force to keep the clutch in engaged position. ‘The friction plate is Mounted on a bub which is splined from inside and is thus free to slide over the gear box shaft. Friction facing is attached to the friction plate on both sides to provide two annular friction surfaces for the ‘ransmission of power, A pedal is provided to pull the pressure plate against the spring force whenever itis ‘quired to be disengaged. Ordinarily it remains in engaged position as is shown in Fig. 3.4.‘ AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING When ine clutch peuws 1s pressed, the pressure plate is moved to the right against the force of ye springs. This is achieved by means of a suitable linkage (not shown in Fig. 34) and a thrust bearing. Wag this movement of the pressure plate, the friction plate is released and the clutch is disengaged, In actual practice the construction of the clutch differs. The pressure plate, the springs, the lease levers and the cover form a sub-assembly, called the cover assembly which can be mounted dircetly toe engine block, of course, placing the clutch plate in between the flywheel and the pressure plate with ine clutch shaft inserted in, Fig, 3.5 depicts in a simple way, this arrangement. =I panes UrWHEEL, \ LUTCH PEDAL E ‘ULCRUM PIN EARING :LUTCH SHAFT p—cuuren SHAFT Ny ReLease Leven Puare n — RELEASE PRESSURE PLATE teves CLUTCH PLATE FRICTION LINING CLUTCH SPRING maar ow Fig. 3.4. Single Plate Clutch, Fig, 3.5. Simplified diagram showing the working of a sin plate clutch, Photograph Fig. 3.6 depicts clearly components of a single plate clutch of Ford V8 truck. Fig. 3.6. Exploded view of a Single Plate Clutch (Ford V.8 tuck) 1. Flywheel, 2. Clutch plate, 3. Cover assertCLUTCHES Advantages 1, With the single plate clutch, gear cha movement is less in this case, 2. It does not suffer from disadvantages of cone clutch ic, binding of cones ete. and hence it is more reliable, 1 than with the cone clutch, because the pedal Disadvan ‘As compared to cone clutch, the springs have to be more stiff and this means greater force required to be applied by the driver while disengaging. clutches used in various vehicles manufactured in India have been shown in Fig. 3.7 to 3.10. Referring Fig. 3.8, in the assembled position release levers (2) rest against the centre opening of the cover pressing (1). There is an eycboll nut (7), which causes the strut (9) to pull the pressure plate against the springs, thus holding together the assembly. When the cover is bolted onto the flywheel, the pressure plate is further pushed back against the springs, causing them to be compressed further, which ttle springs (3) serve to prevent the undesirable noise due to release levers ‘The single pla relaxes the release levers. Anti when the clutch is in the engaged position. 5.3. Diaphragm Spring Type Single Plate Clutch The construction of this type of clutch is similar to that of the single plate type of clutch described 1. Cover 2. Release Lever 3. Anti-Rattle Spring 4, Pressure Plate 5. Thrust Spring. 6. Release Lever Plate 7. Eyebalt 8. Eyebolt Nut 9. Release Lever Plate Retainer 10, Release Lever Pin Exploded view of cover assembly of a single plate clutch for ‘Premier President’, “Hindustan Arabassador, “Bajaj Matador’. Mahindra Jeep FC-1SE-160" etc ‘(Courtesy—Automobile Products of India Ltd.)AUTOMOBIEN ENGINE 1 Anti-Rattls Spi J. resstine Pate Vest Spring vebolt Bycbote Nut 8. Release Lever Pin 9, Strut 10, Bertute for Strap 1, Bolt for s i 4 3 7. Fig. 3.8, Eyploded view of cover assembly ofa single pla ‘Ashok Leyland Truck’, “Dodge Thick clutch for "Bedford Truck (Hind Motors, + ete, (Courtesy—Automobite Products of India Ltd) O wy ingle Plate cluteh for Tata ‘Truck (a) Cover sembly, I ‘over assembly, (b) Cluteh plate (Courtesy —Cluich, Auto Private Ld. eS Phragm springs (also called Belleville springs) Sondivion, the diaphragm spring is of conical ey above except that here di coil springs. In the free are used instead of the ordinalyy (Fig. 3.11), but when assenCLUTCHES 0 Fig. 3.10. Single plate clutch with ceramic clutch plate (For Tata vehicles) (Countesy—Gujarat Setcos Cluteh Ltd.) it 1s constrained to an approximately flat condition beeause of which it exerts a load upon the pressure plate. Fig. 3.11. Diaphragm Spring. (Courtesy—Laycock Engineering Ld., England)AUTOMOBILE EG) = INEER) + A. Cover | B. Diaphragm spring C. Clutch plate D, Retaining ring E, Pressure plate F. Release ring Fig. 3.12. Diaphragm spring type clutch. (a) engaged, (b) disengaged (Courtesy—Laycock Engineering Ltd., England) A. Cover B. Diaphragm spring = Cluteh aie ‘friction plat D. Retaining spring E, Pressure plate 8m spring type clutch England) Fig, 3.13. Exploded view of a diaphra (Courtesy—Laycock Engineering Lid9 SLUTCHES |A diaphragm spring type clutch is shown in Fig. 3.12, where Fig. 3.12 (a) shows the clutch in the Fig. 3.13 and 3.14 further depiet respectively the exploded and the cut-way photographic views of this clutch, Fig. 3.14. Cutaway photographic view of a diaphragm spring type clutch ‘(Courtesy—Layeock Enginegring Ltd., England) Ikis seen from the above figures thatthe diaphragm spring is supported on a fulerum retaining ring so jarded as a simple lever. The pressure plate E is movable wrough the spring can be regi done by providing a series of equally spaced that any section th the cover. This is axially, but itis fixed radially with respect to t Togs east upon the back surface of the pressure plate (Fig. 3.13). The drive from the engine flywheel is transmitted through the cover, pressure plate and the friction plate to the gear box input shaft “The elutch is disengaged by pressing the clutch pedal which actuates the release fingers by means of a release ring. This pivots the spring about its Fulerum, relieving the spring load on the outside diametes thereby disconnecting the drive. An alternative method of providing drive in this clutch is shown in Fi; straps of spring stcel ace placed equitatraly so that thei outer ends are rived fo the cover, aaa er to the pressure pate. Drive is transmitted from the cover fo the pressure plate vie the straps along lines of action through the strap rivet centres. Spring flexure of the straps permits the axial movement of the pressure plate relative to the cover. 3.15 and 3.16. In this, three while theirA. Cover B. Fulerum ring C. Diaphragm assembly D. Underpressi E. Straps F Pressure plate 2.15. Exploded view of a diaphragm spring clutch employing a strap-drive cover assembly. (Courtesy—Layvock Engineering Lid, England) [g 316 Conway phooumpbic view ofa dapegm ‘Courtesy—Laycock Ey spring clutch ey sincering Ltd, Englands ploying a strap drive cover assemblyHTCUBS intages of the diaphragm sp This type of clutch has now virtually superseded the earlier coil spring design in many cou 8 ranging upto 270 mm. in diameter, although in case of heavy vehicles, the coil spring type are still b use of the difficulty to provide sufficient clamping force by a singe wzin spring. The diaphragm spring, however, offers certain distinet advantages (Weis a more compar ‘Thus compact design results in smaller eluteh ing type clutch, means of storing en housit (HAs the diaphragm spring is comparatively less affected by the centrifugal Forces, it can withstand higher rotational speeds. On the other hand, coil springs have tendency to distort in the transverse direction at higher speeds, (ii In case of coil springs, load-deflection curve is linear. Therefore with the wear of the elutch lac the springs have less deflection due to which they would apply less force against the clutch plate On the other hand in case of diaphragm spring, the load-deflection curve is not linear (Fig, 3.17), ‘Therefore, in this ease, as the clutch facing wears, force on the plate gradually increases, which means that even in the worn out condition, the spring force is not less than its value in case of new clutch, Further, itis also seen from Fig. 3.18 that the load-deflection curve depends upon the 4s, where h is the free dish height and tis the thickness of the spring. Therefore, inthis ease with suitable design, the load-deflection curve can be improved to give lower release loads. (i) The diaphragm acts as both clamping spring and release levers. Therefore, many extra parts like struts, eye bolts, levers etc, are eliminated in the diaphragm spring, because of which tie loss of efficiency due to friction wear of these parts also does not occur, which results in the elimination of squeaks and rattles. Loan —= (@) (WITH CoML SPRING) (8) (WITH DIAPHRAGM seaINiG) Fig. 3.17. Typical characteristic curves of (a) coil spring type, (6) diaphragm spring type clutches. engncod wom catch engaged now chic, C-dsngagel dich, D. comple pedal tae (Courtesy-—Laycock Engineering Ltd, England) 2 to increase in the operating load. Self-adjusting clutches With use, the clutch facing wears, leading to increase in the operating hes developed by Luk’ of Germany use a load sensor (sensor-diaphragm spring) to activate its wear compen sation by tuning a ramp ring. Thus not only the operating loads have been decreased but the clutch service = eela | a AUTOMODILE ENG also increased by about S0% without any ant change im the operating lad wer te ” service life. 4. Single plate elutch with dual mass lywhecl It 'is “seen that to isolate the transmission effectively from engine vibrations, the mass moment of inertia of the transmission should be inesoused without incr ing the mass to be shified. This has teen done by using a dual mass flywheel. Luk of Germany was the first manufacturer to develop such e eek In this the mass of the conventional lywheel is split into two. One mart continues to {vt ratio on the load-deflect belong ta the engine's mass moment of nei, wile PE Biff Mt ao on the ode the other part goes to increase the mass moment of ; a aut Of the transmission. The two decoupled masses (primary and the secondary flywheel) are linked, * spring/damping system (Fig. 3.19). The clutch function is between the secondary mass ang the eaeammission. An incidental advantage of this is that shifting of transmission is now caster because of je lesser mass to be synchronised. The synchronisation wear is also les. The dual-mass flywheel is quite efficient at reducing neutral gear ratle and improving min transmission shift quality in performance cars, It may even be more important in heavy-duty diese) trucks where it suppresses larger torsional spikes which can damage transmission gear teeth. With the wear of engine's intemal moving parts, deterioration of the fuel injectors’ performance, Gréine mounts’ deterioration, ete. with age, the intervals of torsional vibration to be damped by te Gual-mass flywheel grows longer, ths increasing the amount of damping operation tobe performed bye flywheel shortening its life, ono —m oeftecTiON = —__ 5.5. Design details of Single Plate Clutch Refer Fig. 3.20, Let r, = inner radius of the friction surface. ry = outer radius of the friction surface. = intensity of pressure normal to friction surfaces. Consider a differential element at radius r and of width dz Then axial load on the differential clement, dW = pdA = pdmrdr +. Total axial load on the elutch, wean J prar 3.10) and Total torque transmitted, G.I) Now equations (3.10) and (3.11) can be solved ether by taking p= constant (uniform pressure intensity) or pr = constant (uniform rate of wear). Fg. 320, Single plato cach.Conventional Clutch ‘Flywiiot with Cuten \ ‘Clutch Dive with Toralon Damper A's Dual Mass Flywheel Primaty Fiywtiewt eh PdLHAMAME ox ® Bnginn BM Gearbox Torsional Fluctuation Secundary Nywteet with Cluteh Fig. 3.19 Torsional fluctuation damping with dual mass flywheel (Courtesy-Luk Gmbh & Co., Germany) \ » off wy ; | | Gearbox io Time 4 a ine(9 Uniform pressure intensity . From Eq, (3.10), W= xpd _ a From Eq. (3.11) T= = G.13) Effective mean radius, G.14) (@ Uniform rate of wear From Eq. (3.10), W= 2x0, — ny) +G.1S) From Eq. (3.11), T = mupr(e - A) +-GB.16) =F O40) Cnr, rl = ww Effective mean radius, R = 7@*% as) Now in an actual single plate clutch, there are 2 pairs of friction surfaces, ++ Eq. G.I) is modified as, Solution, ; Let rj = inner diameter of the clutch facing in mm. rq = outer diameter of the clutch facing in mm, as - 3.17) Then R=7— & ) . (a) fc wear. — pr = pity = Pot = constant. p will be maximum where ris minimum ie. r = 7 : 2 @) Pree Pith = 7G XM ) (Bq. 3.15) Also Axial force W = 2 (pr) (ry - 7)AUTOMOBILE EENGINER, RING tuting Eq. (b) into Eq. (3.15) y “\qan-n == wa te( 7p) 02" i 10 o Further. Torque. 7 = 2HWR tui “ 1s « 10m) «2 03 15 x 108 = 2x 132m 7 = (1.808) x 100 = 121.8mm ry = 1.2r, = 146.1 mm oan > We Go) (218) Example 33. An automobile clutch has a clutch plate of 160 mm inside and 240 mm ouside diameters. Six springs in the clutch provide a total force of 4.8 KN, when the clutch is new and each spring is compressed 5 mm. The maximum torque developed by the automobile engine is 250 Nm. Determine ) factor of safety for the new clutch and (ii) the amount of wear of the clutch facing that will take place before the clutch starts slipping. Assume coefficient of friction for the facing is 0.3. Solution. 1828N 240 Outside clutch plate radius, 7, = 5° = 120 mm Inside clutch plate radius, qm 1 80mm “otal axial force of new clutch, W = 4.8 x 10°N refficient of friction, n= 03 ‘Torque that can be transmitted by the new clutch, T 2WR Assuming uniform wear te 80 se mm T=2x 03 x (48 x 10°) x 100 = 288 x 10°Nmm = 288 Nm (i) ©. Factor of safety for the new clutch. = 3p = 1182 (ii) We have T=2nWR we 2nR Wow, = 250. 1000) _ ins = 3X03 x 100 7 AITON = 4.17 KN -. Decrease in force from the new condition, till when stip will just occur 63 KN = 630N ‘s. Decrease in force of each spring =euurents “as 4800 a toad of SP ly, cael spring is compressed § mm under Peerease in compression of eich spring = 35> x 105 = .66 mm Amount of faci Example J, Determine the size of the eluteh plate suitable for an Ambassador car employing a single pte type of fiction cute and developing 37.5 RW at 4200 cpu. The inside diameter ofthe clutch plate is 06 times its ontside diameter and itis to be ensured that even after a loss of 30% of the engine torque due to wear of the chitch facing, the clutch does not slip. ‘The intensity of pressure on the Facing is not 10 execed 70 KPa, Assume t= 0.3. i Tee develo hy ths engine« POYS MU x 60000 ee (RPM) = ISAO 26 59m = 45200 Nom Desig true, = 13 5 15240 © 10890 Nom 2h WR - «+ (Eq. 3.18) Wa 2x19 “ea 315) Now. where, » = intensity of pr side clutch pl i, = outer clutch plate radius PP = Pry 1 =.07 F=.07 X67) = 082.1, Substituting the above into Eq. (3.15) W = 2m (042 5) (=6 79) = 0336 73 pa tte Stat tn -i}4- sure (e radius = 0.6 1, 08 1, Substituting W,R and pt in Bq. (3.18) 110830 = 2 x 0.3 x (0336 r3) x (.8%,) = .0506 r3 rh = 2,187,393 ty = 129.8 mm Outside diameter Inside diameter Exainple 4.5. Single plate friction clutch isto be designed for an Ashok Leyland bus developing 80.85 AW at 2400 pain, The maximum torque developed however is 376 Nm at 1600 rp.m. A maximum wear of clutch facings of 3 mm is to be allowed, when the clutch must transmit at last 25% excess torque. A a Ie ig = 0-6 is considered reasonable. (i) pressure intensity of 190 kPa ean be safely allowed and ratio “aleulate clutch plate dimensions (i) 1°9 springs are used and inital spring force is to be 1.2 spring force after allowable wear of 3 mm, find out the spring stiffness. Assume coefficient of fi imes the Solution. Design jorue, T= 125 x 316 = 470 Nm = 470000 Nmm 2 Pressure intensity, p = «19 N/mmAUIOMUILE ENGINEER, Let outside radius = fornm hen inside radius, 7; = 0.6 rm 1.34 (i) Now. 7, = 0.6 1,1 tax W = 2x (Poa 1) Fo 5 Is 6 2865 13 = 2K (A9 X 6 t0) (to tty Gtotte. gy, pe Bh Mts Bre Substituting in Eq. (3.18). 470000 = 2 x 0.35 * 2865 ry % 8 Fo . 470000 ____ = 999444 = 2x 35 x 2865 x 8 iy = 143.08 Outside cluteh plate diameter = 2, = 286.16 mm Inside clutch plate diameter x (64,) = 171.7mm in worn out condition, Weom = -2865 1, = 2865 (143.08) = 5865 N (ii) Axial spring fore Axial spring force in new condition, Whey = 1.2 x 5865 = 7038 N Decrease in force due to wear of 3 mm = 7038 ~ 5865 = 1173 N 1173 Spring stiffness = g5cg 7 N/mm 5.6, Multiplate Clutch The multiplate clutch is an extension of single plate type where the number of frictional and the metal plates is increased. ‘The inerease in the number of friction surfaces obviously increases capacity of the clutch to transmit torque, the size remaining fixed. euLcauM Alternatively, the overall diameter of the clutch is em reduced for the same torque transmission as a single plate clutch. This type of clutch is, therefore, used in some heavy transport vehicles and racing cars where high torque is to be transmitted. Besides, this finds application in case of scooters and motor cycles, where space available is limited. ied diagram of multiplate clutch is given below (Fig. 3.21). The constriction is similar to that of single plate type except that all the friction plates in this case are in two sets, £e., one set of plates slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other one slides on splines on the pressure plate hub. Altemate plates belong to each set (Fig. 3.22). ‘SPRING CLUTCH SHAFT: FRICTION LINING CLUTCH PLATES Fig. 3.21. Multiplate Clutch.CLUTCHES ig} © Fig. 322. Friction plates of a multiplate clutch. (a) Plates with outer teeth, (b) Plates with inner teeth Design details 111 otal number of friction plates in the multiplate clutch, then, number of pairs of contact surfaces, ==) Then the torque equation, (Eq, (3.1)] is modified as, T= (-)nWR 3.19) Accordingly, (@ For uniform pressure intensity, 4 2 nf Te) pw2 : +B.20) DN aws 4) (ii) For uniform rate of wear, T= wn aw(2$%) G21) late clutch is to be designed for a motor cycle whose engine develops maximum limited to 100 mm and the Example 3.6. A mult torque of 13 Nm at 3500 rpm. The external diameter of the clutch facings inner diameter may be assumed to be 0.2 times the external diameter. The maximum intensity of pressure may be taken as 80 kPa and H = 0.3, Calculate the number of plates. Solution. External radius of the friction facing, r, = 100mm Intemal radius of the friction Facing, 1) = 0.6 ry = 60 mm = 0.08 N/mm? Maximum intensity of pressure, Prnax Assuming uniform wear, Effective mean radius, R= L% 2 = S10 «6 sy Total axial force, W = 2. (pr) (r,—n) «ABQ, 3.15) 2 max) (ro 71) = 2 (08 x 60) (100-60) = 1206N Now let m = number of clutch plates Then T= (u-1)HWR (Eg, 3.19) (13 x 1000) = (m= 1)0.3 x 1206 x 80 sean. | + 449 = 5.59 = 6say. m= 1+ O35 x 1206 x 8048 5.7, Semi-centrifugal Clute may be ings MY Par eral torgae eansmission whe CN [applying designed so that they have suffice TT ape no pressures as 10 amen powered engines, te cles sone on of erired_may ‘be considerable and IMS ee esrng te clutch becomes faigying OM Ae rfugal ‘Tp obviate this trouble, the help is taken Mae rnsmit the 1 orce The clutch springs are designed to transmit spec forrest apecds, while for higher speeds, COMME, aarti torgue transmission. Such type of clutches are © semi-centrifugal clutches ‘ Fin 3.23 shows a semi-centifugal clutch, Three hinged and wuighted fevers are ranged at equal itera: ONe of these is shown in Fig, 3.24 on enlarged scale. This lever If having folerum at A and is hinged to pressure plate at B. The 5 upper end of the lever is weighted at C. D is the adjusting S screw, by means of which the maximum centrifugal force on the pressure plate can be adjusted. To reduce friction, the levers Ferw Net fre mounted on needle roller beatings on the pressure plate. At ig 3.95, Semi-centif moderate speeds the pressure of the springs is sufficient 10 ig, 3.23. Semal-cenlrihigil chach transmit the required torque. However at higher speeds, the weight C, due to the centrifugal force moves bout 2 lenin n thrby pring the pete pa, The centrifugal force is proportional to the squae Ba eed ot Sera pre level is attained. Fig, 3.25 shows the variation of force onthe ition ENGINE SHAFT: pressure plate | p-cover FORCE ON THE PRessume PLATE Fig. 324. Details of lever in ‘semi-centrifugal clutch, Fis. 3.25. Vari ‘rls os om ue pce ‘emi-centinugal clutch.cuuTcHEs 5.8. Centrifugal Clutch In the fully centrifugal type of clutches, the springs are LLIN eliminated altogether and only the centrifugal forte is used > « apply the required pressure for keeping the eluich in soe engaged position The advantage of the centrifugal clutch is that no ScNO* separate eluieh pedal is required. The clutch is operated . automatically depending upon the engine speed. This means that ear can be stopped in gear without stalling the engine Similarly while starting, the driver can fst select the gear, q y pt the car into the gear and simply press the accelerator pedal. This makes the driving operation very easy Buoke SiarT LUTON start Fis. 3.26. shows a schematic diagram of a centrifugal Fig, 3.26 Pincinleof Centrifugal Catch, clutch. As the speed increases, the weight A flies, thereby 37% Prncinle of Centrifugal Clutch operating the bell erank lever B which presses the pate C, This force is transmitted to the plate D by means of springs E. The plate D containing friction lining is thus pressed against the flywheel F thereby engaging the clutch. Spring G serves to keep the clutch disengaged at low speed, say, 500 rpm. The stop Hf limits the ‘amount of centrifugal force, ‘The operating characteristics of this type of clurch will be then as shown in Fig. 3.27. ‘CENTRIFUGAL FoRce oe Ta00 engine Speco —P Fig, 3.27. Characteristics of Centrifugal Clutch, wi erted by spring centrifugal force at a particulac speed, while force Q exerted by sprit aoe tn nb figure shows the net fore on he plate D for various engine ade flat by means of stop H. Force P is proportion: Gis constant at all speeds. The firm lin speeds, At the upper end the curve is m 6. CLUTCH OPERATION : ge. However, other means of led mechanically through « linkage. However, of r oa Genel. the Sleds er ee esi. have also boen used. Al these willbe described in the Speration viz, electrical, hydrau following briefly 6.1, Mechanical operation 8. On pressing the clutch pedal, the shaft A p wn in Fig. 3.21 ‘The clutch linkage for this purpose is shown in Fig. SS]so 2B, actuates the rele: ‘disengage the clutch. Ger jal force of about 106) ums, which moves the fork lever and then throwgh shalt bearing, This movement is further conveyed to clutch levers (0 leverage from 10:1 10 12:1 is employed that would require pedi travel of 75 mm: siT10m panel 995 ite ecuree Fuutr (Reveaseo oat position Thee otay Fotr Taken ue THRUST. BEARING FORK Fig, 3.28, Clutch linkage. Fig. 3.29. Clutch free pedal play. When the clutch pedal is pressed, the thrust bearing is not pressed immediately. Rather 2 pat pedal movement is purposely kept idle (Fig. 3.29). This is done to avoid a rapid wear of the thrust and the clutch plates and is called clutch free peda! play. Usually this is kept about 25 mm at the pedal 6.2. Electromagnetic operation This type of clutch has been employed on some Renault cars. The construction and working of clutch may be understood by means of simplified Fig, 3.30. A is the engine flywhec! incorporating the winding B. Clutch plate C is lined with friction surfaces and is free to slide on splines on the clutch shaft. D is the pressure plate, The winding B is supplied with current from battery dynamo. When the winding B is energized, it attracts the pressure plate D, thereby engaging the clutch. When supply to winding B is cut off, the clutch is disengaged, There is a clutch release switch in the gear lever. ence ser This switch is operated as soon as the driver holds the gear lever to change the gear, cutting off current to the winding and thus causing clutch disengagement, Ordinarily the winding is connected to engine dynamo. At lower engine speeds, dynamo output is also low which makes the force in winding very small. Three 3 SS Fig, 3.30. Electromagnetic clutch.‘cuuTeHes a ns je, drovided in the clutch (not shown) to balance this reduced electromagnetic force at low speeds, thus disengaging the clutch Perle shaamal operation, the electromagnetic force of the winding is regulated by means of an Sestod the rnlatance nich self is controled by means of accelerator pedal At he acceleration pedal pressathe resistance is gradually cut, thus increasing the clectromagecne force, src ws abetic typeof clutch is best suited where remote operation is desired since no linkages sth operating ets STgBHEMENL. A major limitation of this type is thal of heat capaci snot Sarto atne temperature is limited by the temperature rating of te insularon ck Gee magnetic coil Another disadvantage is its higher initial cost, 6.3, Hydraulic operation Jn heavy-duty mechanically operated clutches with high clutch- spring pressure, the force required by {fa oriver to release the clutch becomes excessive. This can be remadiot by the use of hydraulic operation. Is be OF operation is also suitable for vehicles in which the clnch Pedal and the clutch have to be located too far away from each other. Hydraulically operated eleach may be cither single plate type or the ‘mote modern multiplate type. Both are described below 1, Hydraulic single plate clutch Fig. 3.31 shows a hydraulically operated clutch. When the clutch Pedal is pressed the fluid under aerate cm the master cylinder reaches the slave cylinder which is mouted on fe charcy itself. The fluid nde Pressure actuates slave cylinder push rod which further operates the chun na fork to disengage cuurcH Peokt! FL LES vin Loasres crlinoeR SINGLE PLare. a Uh Fig. 3.31. Hydraulically operated single plate clutch ee TCH RELEASE