‘BAPTISM’ IN ENGLISH

STRUCTURE
ENGLISH MADE SIMPLE
A VEHICLE TO SUCCESS

SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL ENGLISH STRUCTURE

STUDY & TEACHING MATERIAL
MODULE ONE (1)

PRODUCED BY: MR. CATHBERT N. SIAKACHOMA – IBEX HILL SCHOOL

LUSAKA - ZAMBIA

CONTACT : E-MAIL: [email protected]

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TRANSFORMATIONS (REWRITES)
 Most of the pupils find it difficult to deal with rewrites. Basically, rewrites involve
addition, omission, replacement, alteration and synthesis.
(a) Addition: This means that the transformed version has more words than the original.

 Mukupa lent me a suit.

Examples

 I borrowed a suit from Mukupa.

(b) Omission: This means that the transformed version has fewer words than the original.

 English is being taught by Siakachoma.

Examples

 Siakachoma is teaching English.

(c) Replacement: This means that the transformed version has structures that have been
substituted by others.

 He was intelligent but he failed the test.

Examples

 Although he was intelligent, he failed the test.

(d) Alteration: This means the forms of some original words have been changed.

 You were supposed to go to town.

Examples

 You should have gone to town.

(e) Synthesis: This means that at least two sentences have been joined together to form one.

 The man has died. I saw him yesterday.

Examples

 The man whom I saw yesterday has died.

N.B: Note that one question can involve two or more of the cases above.
Note also that the tense of the original sentence must be the same as that of the transformed
version except for two situations, as shown below.

i. Changing direct speech to indirect speech and the other way round.

 John said, “I am going to school.”

Example

 John said that he was going to school.

ii. Dealing with the unreal past.

 It is a pity that the pupils are disobedient.

Examples

 I wish the pupils were obedient.

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 Rewrites are usually taken from some structures that will be discussed in this paper.

STRUCTURES
A. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

 When we want to write down what a person has actually said we normally use direct
DIRECT SPEECH

 The actual words spoken are placed between inverted commas, i.e. quotation marks.
speech.

Examples
1. Maleele said, “It is cold today.”
2. “Who was the last person to leave?” asked Conrad.

 From example 1 above, Maleele said, is a speech tag, and while “It is cold today.” are
actual words spoken, (by Maleele).

DIRECT SPEECH – PUNCTUATION RULES

I). If the speech tag comes before the direct speech;

 We put a comma after the speech tag.

 We open with inverted commas before the first words of the Direct Speech.
 We begin the direct speech with a capital letter.
 We close with inverted commas after the final punctuation mark of the direct speech.

Examples
1. Mumba said, “It is very hot today.”
2. Chad asked, “Where is my car?”

II). If the speech tag comes after the Direct Speech;

 We open with inverted commas before the first word of the Direct Speech.
 We begin the direct speech with a capital letter.
 We close with inverted commas after the last punctuation mark of the Direct Speech.
 We add the speech tag, beginning with a small letter and ending with a full stop.

 “It is very hot today,” said Mumba.

Examples

 “Where is my car?” asked Chad.

 “Someone, help me!” cried the drowning man.
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  If the direct speech is a statement, we use a comma instead of a full stop as in Rule I.
But if the direct speech is a question or an exclamation, we use a question mark or an
exclamation mark as in Rule I example 2 and Rule II example 2 respectively

 As indicated above, direct speech refers to the actual words that a person has spoken.
INDIRECT SPEECH

Example
Conerlius said, “The pastor wants to see you Godwin.”

 When we use Indirect Speech or Reported Speech, we give meaning of what the
speaker said without using the actual or exact words that were used.

Example
Conerlius told Godwin that the pastor wanted to see him.

NB: Note that we do not use quotation marks when we write something in Reported Speech.

 Whenever we turn direct speech sentences into Reported Speech, there are certain rules
RULES IN INDIRECT SPEECH

that we follow.
There are changes involving:-



Tense


Pronouns
Expressions of time and place

A). TENSE CHANGES

Tense Changes are necessary when the reporting takes place a day after the direct speech was
spoken.

However, tense changes are usually not necessary if the reporting happens soon after the direct
speech.

Example
The garden boy receives a visitor at his boss’ house and goes in the house to tell him
about the visitor outside then returns out to tell the visitor the report.

 Observe:
1. Garden boy said, “Boss you have a visitor outside, can he enter?”
2. The boss said, “I can’t see him now, I am busy.”

To report the direct speech to the visitor from the boss, the garden boy may say;
3. My boss said that he can’t see you now. He is busy.

Take note that whenever we answer to rewrites, we often change the tense unlike the above
example.

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The table below summarizes some of the necessary changes a student should try to observe
while in an examination room.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORT SPEECH

Present Continuous Past Continuous
She said, “I am eating some food.” She said that she was eating some food.

Present Simple Past Simple

She said, “I often eat some food.” She said that she often ate some food.

Past Simple Past Simple Or Past Perfect

She said, “I ate some food.” She said that she ate some food.

Present Perfect Past Perfect

She said, “I have eaten some food.” She said that she had eaten some food.

Future Conditional
She said, “I will eat some food.” She said that she would eat some food.

B). CHANGES INVOLVING PRONOUNS

 This is another type of changes students should learn or take note of when rewriting
direct and indirect speeches.
 The illustration below helps to show how these or such a change goes.

1. Direct Speech: Komana said, “I have already done my homework.”

Reported Speech: Komana said that she had already done her homework.
2. Direct Speech: The girls said, “We shall wash our clothes.”
Reported Speech: The girls said that they should wash their clothes.
3. Direct Speech: The teacher said, “I’m not feeling well.”
Reported Speech: The teacher said that he was not feeling well.

From above, we can see that pronouns change as summarized below.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

I he/she
Us them
We they
You he, they, she, him, her, them
Me her or him
My his or her
Mine his or hers

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 C). CHANGES IN EXPRESSION OF TIME AND PLACE
 This is the third possible change which should also be considered to be taken note of
when changing from direct to indirect speech or vice versa.
The following summarizes this rule.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

now then
today that day
yesterday the previous day or the day before
last week the previous week or the week before
tomorrow the following day or the next day
that time that time
here there
this year that year
next year the following year
last year the previous year

Examples
1. Direct Speech: Mweembe said, “I’m doing the work now.”
Indirect Speech: Mweembe said that she was doing the work then.
2. Direct Speech: Mweembe said, “I will do the work tomorrow.”
Indirect Speech: Mweembe said that she would do the work the following day.

Remember that questions may either come in a way that you will need to change from indirect
speech to direct speech. For such, the same can work inversely.

SAMPLE REWRITE QUESTIONS

1. A: The doctor asked Merrin if Lonely was telling the truth.
B: “Merrin,……………………………………………”
2. A: She told Cathbert that Conrad was back.
B: “………………………..,” she said.
3. A: “Jane, your car has a puncture,” said Simwale.
B: Simwale told ……………………………………..
4. A: “Where have you been?” the teacher asked Grace.
B: Grace was asked ………………………………..
5. A: The pastor said, “I would have died.”
B: The pastor said that ………………………………
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 B. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
 This is another structure from where rewrites are formed.
 There are many ways of expressing condition but the main one is using “if” clauses.
 Basically, there are three types of conditional sentences and each type of conditional
sentence has a different meaning.

(i). Likely or Probable Condition

 Under this type, there is a likelihood that something might happen given a situation.

Example
 If Cathbert asks Cynthia, she will marry him.
The above example means that Cathbert is likely to ask Cynthia to marry him.

(ii). Unlikely Or Improbable Condition

 Here it is unlikely that something will take place.
Example
 If Cathbert asked Cynthia, she would marry him.
 The above means that it is unlikely, or improbable that Cathbert would ask Cynthia to
marry him.

(iii). Impossible Condition

 This indicates that nothing had happened or taken place.

Example
 If Cathbert had asked Cynthia, she would have married him.
 This means that Cathbert did not ask Cynthia to marry him.

Formation of Conditional Sentences

a) Likely or Probable Condition
If – clause is formed by using if+ present simple e.g. If Cathbert asks Cynthia,
Then the main clause will be future tense

E.g. she will marry him.

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b) Unlikely or Improbable Condition
If – clause is formed by using if+ past simple e.g. if Cathbert asked Cynthia,
Then the main clause will be formed using would +verb.

 She would marry him.

Example

c) Impossible Condition
If – clause is formed by using if+ past perfect e.g. If Cathbert had asked Cynthia,
Then the main clause will be formed using would +present perfect.
Example
 She would have married him.
From the above example, it can be seen that a conditional sentence has two clauses, i.e. if –
clause and the main clause.

 If Cathbert asks Cynthia, (if – clause) She will marry him (Main clause)
Example

Now take note that the same sentence can also be written beginning with the main clause.

 If Cathbert asks Cynthia, she will marry him.

Example

Or
 Cynthia will marry Cathbert if he asks her.

Note note that we use a comma when we begin with the “if- clause”.

 If Cathbert asks Cynthia, she will marry him.

Example

But no comma is used when we begin with the main clause.

Example
 Cynthia will marry Cathbert if he asks her.
From all the explanations above, the condition seems to affect the result.
Some conditions do not affect the result.
Using “even if” in a conditional clause mean “whatever happens”, affects the results.
Examples
 Even if Cathbert asks Cynthia, she will not marry him.
 Even if Cathbert asked Cynthia, she would not marry him.
 Even if Cathbert had asked Cynthia, she would not have married him.

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The above examples indicate that the condition does not affect the result.

Compare

1. If Conrad explains, his mother will believe him.

and
2. Even if Conrad explains, his mother will not believe him.

Some Other Conditional Expressions

a) “but for”
 This one is used to show a negative condition.
“but for” instead of “if it had not been for”.

Examples
1. I would have died but for the arrival of the commandos.
2. But for the arrival of the commandos, I would have died.

“But for” can be followed by a noun phrase.

 Mr. Matyola would have paid off the loan but for the bad harvest.
Example

“But for” can be followed by a noun clause.

 Coin would have come to the party but for his mother falling ill.
Example

b) “providing/provided (that)”
 This also means the same as “so”/ “as long as”.
 But note that “that” in speech is usually omitted but not always.

 I will go with you to town providing that you pay my bus fare.
Examples

 I will go with you to town provided that you pay my bus fare.
 I will go with you to town as long as you pay my bus fare.
 We will play with Birushya provided he stops fighting.
Instead of
 We will play with Birushya if he stops fighting.

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 c) “supposing/suppose (that)”
 Either of the above normally introduces questions and are used in the initial position
 In speech or in the conversations, it is normal to omit “that”

 Supposing (that) John asks Mary, will she marry him?

Examples

 Suppose (that) Maimba was posted to Blantyre would you go with her?

Instead of
 If Maimba was posted to Blantyre, would you go with her?

d) “if only”

 Can be used to express regret.

 If only I had listened to my mother’s advice, I wouldn’t have been suffering.

Example

 Can also be used to express hope or longing

 If only she sends money soon, I will not hesitate to go back home. (hope)
Examples

 If only I would eat something, I wouldn’t feel so dizzy. (hope or longing)

e) “not until”
 This gives a certain goal for anything to take place, if not reached, then no action.

 Not until you give them something will they leave you.
Examples

 Not until they are beaten will they stop.

f) “unless”
 “unless” is usually used to mean “if …….not”

 If you do not study, you will fail the exam.

Examples

 Unless you study, you will fail the exam.

 They will get lost if they are not given proper directions.
 They will get lost unless they are given proper directions
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 g) Using Inverted Forms

 Had I known it was going to rain, I would have brought my raincoat.

Example

To mean:
(If I had known it was going to rain, I would have brought my raincoat)

Note that a negative inversion is only possible with the full form of the verb.

 Had it not been for Sister Lyempe, I would have got lost.
Example

SAMPLE REWRITE QUESTIONS

1. A: I spent all my money, so I did not help you.
B: If …………………………..
2. A: You cannot pass the exam if you do not work hard.
B: unless………………………..
3. A: Had it not been for this puncture, we would have been in Lusaka.
B: But for ……………………….
4. A: I will lend you my watch if you promise to return it on Friday.
B: Provided ……………………………
5. A: They will not leave you until you give something.
B: Not until ……………………………..
6. A: Mubanga did not know that he was such a drunkard, otherwise she would not have
married him.
B: If only ………………………….
7. A: Your friend helped me a lot or else I would have died.
B: Had it…………………………..

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C. STRUCTURES OF RESULT
Some sentences express result.
There are two ideas where one is a result of the other.
Common expressions that are commonly used to join the two ideas in expressing a result
include:-



Therefore


For this reason


As a result
Consequently

Example

Therefore
The headboy was kind. For this reason, he was liked by everybody.
Consequently
As a result

Types of structure of result

Therefore, for this reason, as a result, consequently
Here two sentences are used to express result

Examples
1. The bride arrived late. Therefore, the wedding party was delayed.
2. He trained very hard. For this reason, he won the fight.
3. Cathbert lost his money. As a result, he could not buy anything.
4. Fwanyanga is a cheerful boy. Consequently, he has a lot of friends.

Not that a comma just after the expressions or result, e.g. “therefore”, is vital in this type of
sentences

a) “so”
In this type, the two ideas are joined into one sentence using “so”
A comma is needed always before the word “so”

 The pupils were late. They were punished.

Examples

 The pupils were late, so they were punished.

 The bag was very heavy. I could not carry it.
 The bag was very heavy, so I could not carry it.

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 b) “so…that”
 Here the two ideas are joined by “so………that”.
 Between “so” and “that” there should be an adjective or an adverb.
Adjective – word that describes a noun e.g. big, pretty, interesting.
Adverb – a word telling more about verb e.g. slowly, later, nearly.

 Maimpa is so happy that he is always smiling

Examples

 Kevina was so slow that she was left behind.

c) “such (a)……that”
 In this type, we use “such (a)…that” to join the two ideas into one sentence.
 We use “a” when referring to a singular noun and remove it when referring to a plural
noun.

 Chikwanda was such a kind man that he was liked by everybody.

Examples

 They were such kind men that they were liked by everybody.
 A: The game was so interesting that we enjoyed watching it.
B: So interesting was the game that we enjoyed watching

SAMPLE REWRITE QUESTIONS

1. A: Mary was very annoyed. Consequently, she slapped her husband.
B: So ……………………………..
2. A: The film was so good that I went to see it again the following night.
B: It was such…………………………………..
3. A: Maleele was a fast runner. He beat everybody in the race.
B: Maleele was such…………………………………
4. A: I was very exhausted. For this reason, I went to bed early.
B: So ………………………….
5. A: The boy was very hungry. He could not utter a word.
B: The boy was so…………………………………
6. A: Jackson is so fat that he cannot wear these trousers.
B: Jackson is too………………………………..

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D. STRUCTURES OF REASON
 Under this type of structure are two clauses like under conditional sentences.
 There is a main clause which shows the results (or effect) of the other subordinate

 The other clause shows the reason (or cause) of an action and answers the question
clause.

“why?”

Examples
because
1. He was punished since he was late.
as

main clause reason

Because
2. Since he was late, he was punished.
As

reason main clause

Note that the words “because, since and as” mean the same and are interchangeable.
We use a comma to separate the two clauses where the sentence begins with the reason clause.
Example
 Because it was raining, they wore raincoats.

We do not use a comma when the sentences begin with the clause.

 There wore raincoats because it was raining.

Example

The subject in the reason clause may be the same as the one in the main clause.

 Jane didn’t buy the book because she didn’t have enough money.
Example

The subject may also be different as in:-

 Ibex Hill School won the debate competition because Mary Queen of Peace School did
not prepare adequately.

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 “Seeing/now that”
 Apart from “because”, “since” and “as”, reason can also be expressed using “seeing
(that)” and “now (that).”

 Seeing that you have finished your work, you may read your library books.
Examples

 Now that you have little time left, you will need to travel by taxi.
 You can start eating seeing you have offered your prayers.
 She can get her money now she is in need of it.

“now (that)” is best avoided when the action happened in the past.
We may also express reason using a participial phrase but this is rather formal and uncommon.

 Being uncertain about the correct answers I consulted a friend.

Examples

 Knowing he had just been paid, I asked him to lend me some money.
 Being aware of the pupils’ weaknesses, the teacher gave them more examples.

SAMPLE REWRITE QUESTIONS

1. A: The members of the church praise the new priest because he is very helpful.
B: Being……………………………….
2. A: The man was arrested because he had stolen a goat.
B: For ………………………………………
3. A: Since you have fully covered the syllabus, you may study on your own.
B: Seeing that ……………………
4. A: The boy decided to book a Taxi because he wanted to be in time for he exam.
B: Wanting ……………………
5. A: Since you have finished writing the exercise, you may hand in the books for
marking.
B: Now that…………………………………

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E. STRUCTURE OF COMPARISON
 Some of the word form used for comparison include comparatives and superlatives

 These are used for comparing two things or people.

(a) Comparative forms

(b) Superlative forms

 These are used for comparing more than two things or people.
(c) Regular forms
 The comparatives and superlatives of adjectives and adverbs are formed by adding – er
and -est.

Examples
Positive Comparative Superlative
tall taller tallest
slow slower slowest
near nearer nearest
fast faster fastest

The comparatives and superlatives of words which have two or more syllabus are formed by
putting more and most before the positive form.

Examples
Positive Comparative Superlative
interesting more interesting most interesting
poisonous more poisonous most poisonous
careful more careful most careful
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful


Spelling rules
Normally –er and -est are added to the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives
and adverbs which end with -er, -y or -ly.
 If a word ends in –y, the “y” is changed to “I” before adding –er or –est.

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Examples
Positive Comparative Superlative
clever cleverer cleverest
pretty prettier prettiest
silly sillier silliest
naughty naughtier naughtiest

Irregular Form
 Some adjective and adverbs and adverbs have irregular forms of comparisons. These
include:-

Examples
Positive comparative superlatives
good /well better best
bad/badly worse worst
far further furthest
little less least
much/ many more most
old elder eldest (people only)
older oldest (people and things)

We use comparative + “than” when comparing two people or things.

Examples
 Butterflies are more colourful than grasshoppers.
 Ben is younger than his sister.
 I have a bad cough. I think it is worse than yours.

Another way of comparing two people or things is by using (the + comparative).

“the” can sometimes be omitted.
Examples
 My brother has two wives but the younger wife is prettier.
 Jane is the elder of the two sisters.
 Yasin and Chanda are intelligent but Yasin is (the) more intelligent.

We use the + superlative to compare more than two persons or things.

The superlative form is used to indicate the greatest of the least degree among three or more
things.
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Examples
 Jordan ran the fastest.
 This is the biggest piece in the pot.
 My daughter got the best results in her class.
 She is the most. Beautiful girls in the class.
Those with two or more syllabus normally take most before the positive.
Example
Positive Comparative Superlative
Brilliant more brilliant most brilliant
Expensive more expensive most expensive
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

We change adjectives to the superlative form by adding –est to their positive form.
Examples
Positive Comparative Superlative
dark darker darkest
hot hotter hottest
big bigger biggest
large larger largest

a) “as ……as”
 When we compare two people or things that are in some respect equal, we may use
“as…….as” expression.

 The girl is as beautiful as her mother.

Example

 Your car is as small as John’s.

Similes
 The expression “as …….. as” is also used in similes .

 The wood was as hard as iron.

Example

The simile in the above example is as hard as iron.

The wood was being compared to an iron which is considered to be a hard metal.

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Examples of similes includes:-

 As proud as a peacock  As slow as a snail

 As cold as ice  As blind as a bat
 As light as a feather  As easy as ABC
 As quick as lightening  As stubborn as a mule
 As strong as a horse  As white as snow
 As black as pitch

b) “not as………..as” and “not so ………as”

 The expressions “not as …… as” and not “so …… as” are used to compare two people
or things that are unequal.
 The expression is the negative form of the “as ……as” expression.

Examples
 Positive: Peter is as fat as his wife.
 Negative: Peter is not as fat as his wife.
or
 Peter is not so fat as his wife.

c) “the same …. as”

 The expression “the same …… as” is used to compare two people or things that are
equal.

Example
 Nankulo attended the same school as his brothers.
 Is your shirt the same colour as mine?

d) “like” and “just like”

 Like and just like are used to express similarity.
 Note that like has the same meaning as “the same …… as”.

Examples
 Dungwe’s uncle treats him (just) like his own son.
 That bus is (just) like Conerlius bus.

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 (i). “the + Comparative + the + Comparative”
 This expression is used to show a parallel increase, that is, to show that one thing
happens because of another and that the two things happen at the same time.

Examples
 The more he eats, the fatter he gets.
 The higher you climb, the harder you fall.
 The more you spend, the less you have.

“Comparative + and + Comparative”

 This expression is used to show a gradual increase.
(ii).

Examples
 The bus went faster and faster.
 The situation at the University is getting better and better.

(iii). Participial Phrase

 Participial phrase can be used to express actions occurring at the same time.
Examples
 Digging in the garden, he found an old coin.
 Listening to the radio, Joan brushed her teeth.

Take note that some phrases with conjunctions can show actions occurring at the same time
too.

Examples
 While digging in the garden, he found an old coin.
 Joan brushed her teeth while listening to the radio.

But be careful with conjunctions because some of them change the meaning.

Examples
 After digging in the garden, he found an old coin
 Before digging in the garden, he found an old coin.
 Joan brushed her teeth after listening to the radio.
 Joan brushed her teeth before listening to the radio.

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NB: Note that if the sentence begins with the main clause, the comma is omitted.
If the sentence begins with the subordinate clause, the comma is used before the main clause.

Examples

1. While digging in the garden, he found an old coin.

subordinate clause main clause

2. He found an old coin while digging in the garden.

main clause subordinate clause

NB: Note that participial phrases generally come at the beginning of the sentence.
Be careful that the doer of the action in the participial phrase is the same as the subject in the
main clause.
You can’t say:-

 Having done his homework, I went home.

SAMPLE REWRITE QUESTIONS

1. A: As Jane admired John, she increasingly grew fond of him.
B: The …………………………………………………………
2. A: James is fatter and more careless than any other pupil in the school.
B: James is the………………………………………………….
3. A: The difficult of interesting an audience increases with the length of speech.
B: The longer …………………………………………………
4. A: I don’t watch Television. I have better things to do.
B: I have ………………………………………………………
5. A: This is the most important festive of all.
B: No other ……………………………………………………

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F. STRUCTURE OF PURPOSE
 There are different ways of expressing purpose and these are highlighted below.

a) “to” + verb
 This is the infinitive form of verb used
 An infinitive form is where you have the “to” form of a verb .e.g. to walk, to like, to
explain.

 Cornelius went to Bulgaria to study Mechanical Engineering.

Examples

Cornelius’ purpose in going to Bulgaria was to study Mechanical Engineering.

 They gave Wallace a carving of an elephant to remind him of his country Zambia.
The purpose of giving Wallace a carving of an elephant was to remind him of his country,
Zambia.

b) “in order to” and “so as to”

 These are other expressions used to show purpose.

Examples
 I went to Shoprite in order to have a drink
 I went to Shoprite so as to have a drink.
 I borrowed a book on astronomy in order to/ so as to learn about the sun, the moon, the
stars and the planets.

From the above examples, we can see that the two expressions (“in order to” and “so as to”)
can be interchanged or can be used in place of each other to show purpose.

a) “for + noun”
 This is another expression to show purpose.
 This is demonstrated below.

Examples
 I went to a hotel for a drink
 I invited Hakainde home for a chat
 We went out for a walk.
 Usually when expressing a purpose using “for‟, there should be a noun mostly in
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 infinitive form.

b) “so that‟”and “in order that”

 These are other ways of expressing purpose.
 They also have the same meaning and are interchangeable.

Examples
 I went to a hotel so that I could have a drink
 I went to a hotel in order that I could have a drink.
 Henry covered his face so that/ in order that no one would recognize him.

c) Other expressions
 with a view to
 in case
 lest

The above are also used to express purpose.

Examples
 He cheated her with a view to winning her heart.
Take note that with a view is followed by “to” + verb -ing.
NOT: with a view of winning
OR
With a view to win
BUT: with a view to winning
Win + - ing

 Take this umbrella with you, in case it rains.

 Lest it should rain, take this umbrella with you.

 “Lest” is used to express an action done with a purpose to avoid risk or because of the
possibility of something.
 Check the different ways in which the two expressions (“in case” and “lest”) are used
in the examples above, be careful whenever you use each of these and use each as
demonstrated above.

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SAMPLE QUESTIONS OF REWRITES
1. A: Ben left home so as to have a drink.
B: Ben left home for……………………………………………………
2. A: Take this umbrella with you in case it rains
B: Lest …………………………………………………………………
3. A: Lest it should bite passersby, the dog was tied to a tree.
B: In case ……………………………………………………………..
4. A: The woman applied fertilizers to her field. She wanted to make the soil fertile.
B: ………………………………so as ……………………………….
5. A: The girl remained in class at break time in order to steal her friends‟ pens.
B: With a view………………………………………………………..

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G. CO – ORDINATORS
 Co–ordinators are also called Joining words.
 These are used to join words, phrases and clause in sentences.
 Some common co-ordinators are shown below.

a) “and” and “but”

 We use “and” and “but” when there is a relationship between the idea in the first part
of the sentence and the one in the second.
 We use “and” when the ideas are closely related.
Examples
 He worked hard on his farm and produced a lot of maize.
 She jumped in the air and shouted loudly.

 We use “but” to show contrast between the first and the second ideas.
Contrast means to differ noticeably.
Examples
 Katongo felt sick but he played the game.
 Mununga likes playing tennis but he doesn’t like netball.

b) “either …or”
 This means “one or the other of”.
 Here it means that there is a choice between two possibilities.
Examples
 Either Mbesuma or Kalusha would be the replacement.
This means that there is a choice between Mbesuma and Kalusha for a replacement.
 You can either sit here or on the other chair
This means there is a choice between you sitting here or on the other chair.

c) “neither … nor”
This means “not one” and “not the other”, “even not any of”.
Examples
 Neither Grace nor Mazala is coming to the party.
Meaning Grace is not coming for the party and Mazala is also not coming for the party.
 Neither Chitembo nor Cathbert was at school.
Meaning Chitembo was not at school and Cathbert was not at school too.
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Take note that the common mistake in using “either… or” and “neither...nor’ occur with the
verb used.

The verb should be in singular form.

1. NOT: Either Joan or Muna are beautiful.
BUT: Either Joan or Muna is beautiful.

2. NOT: Neither Joan nor Muna are lazy

BUT: Neither Joan nor Muna is lazy

d) “both …… and”
 This means „the one as well as the other‟ or „not only …… but also …‟
Examples
 Both Katongo and Mbesuma are obvious choices
 Meaning Katongo is an obvious choice and so is Mbesuma.
 Meaning not only Katongo is an obvious choice but also Mbesuma is an
obvious choice.
 Both Maimpa and Kabaso were left out.
 Meaning, not only Maimpa was let out but also Kabaso was left out.
 Wankumbu is both short and beautiful.
 Meaning, not only is Wankumbu short but also beautiful.

Special use of “either” and “neither”

1. Either
 This means “any one of the two persons or things.”
a) Either can be followed by a noun.
Examples
 Either answer is correct.
Meaning both answers are correct.
Example
 Kabaso can write with either hand.
Meaning, Kabaso can write using his left or right hands.

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 b) “Either” can be followed by “of” + a noun or pronoun.
Example
 You can ask either of your parent’s for permission.
Meaning, you can ask your father or your mother for permission.
c) “Either” can be used by itself.
Example
 “There are two questions in this section,” the teacher said, “and you can answer
either.”
Meaning you can answer any of the questions from that section

2. Neither
 This means „not one of the two persons or things‟.
(a) “Neither” can be followed by a noun.
Examples
 Neither answer is correct.
Meaning, both answers are wrong.
 Maimpa Mumba can write with neither hand.
Meaning, Maimpa Mumba is not able to write using his left or his right hand.
(b) “Neither” can be followed by of + a noun or pronoun
Examples
 Niven answered neither of the questions.
Meaning, Niven did not answer any one of the two questions
 I’ve listened to both speakers but neither of them impressed me.
Meaning, not any one of the two speakers has impressed me.
(c) “neither” can be used by itself
Examples
 “Do you take water and beer? Masuwa asked me.
 “No I take neither,” I replied.
Meaning, I do not take any of the two types of drinks, water and beer.

 Take note that when using “neither” …… and “either” …… in a special way, be careful
with the nouns or pronouns you will use.
 When “neither” or “either” is followed by a noun, the noun should be in a singular
form, as well as the verb.

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Example
NOT: Either answers are correct.
BUT: Either answer is correct.
 While “neither” or “either” is followed by “of” + “a” or pronoun, here, the noun or
pronoun should be in a plural form.

The verb used remains singular not plural.

Example
NOT: Neither of the speaker is present
BUT: Neither of the speakers is present.
NOT: Either of the boy is good.
BUT: Either of the boys is good.

SAMPLE REWRITE QUESTIONS

1. A: Both my brother and my sister do not know how to cook nshima.
B: Neither …………………………………………………………………….
2. A: School certificates examinations are long and hard.
B: Not only ………………………………………………………………….
3. A: Jackson and Given do not attend lessons regularly.
B: Neither……………………………………………………………………
4. A: Chitembo cleans his teeth and combs his hair every morning.
B: Not only…………………………………………………………………..
5. A: Grace and Mervis are good girls
B: Either …………………………………………………………………..
6. A: Both cars are small.
B: Either…………………………………………………………………

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H. INTENSIFIERS
 Intensifiers are adverbs which strengthen, or give emphasis to, other words.
 They include words like:
 Fairly  Too  Just
 Rather  Hardly  Almost
 Quite  Barely  Nearly
 Very  Scarcely

(a) “fairly” and “rather”

 “fairly” and “rather” can both mean “little” or “moderately”.
 However, “fairly” suggests a more positive attitude than rather.
Example
 I’m fairly certain that I’ve passed the exam.
 He looks rather tied.
 This book is fairly interesting, but that one is rather boring.

(b) “Quite”
 “quite” has two different uses
 It can mean “completely”.
Example
 You are quite right

 It can mean “a little less than”

 In other words, it is used to slightly weaken the adverb or adjective that follows.
An adverb is a word which tells us more about the verb, e.g. slowly – he walked slowly
An adjective is a word that describes a noun, e.g.:-
 big – a big car
 new – my new car.
 interesting – the book is interesting.
Examples
 The composition is quite good
 The car is quite big.

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(c) “very” and “too”
 “very” means “to a high degree”.
Example
 The tea is very hot.
 “too’ means “more than is necessary”.
 In simple language, “too” means “more than what is required”.
Examples
 This tea is too hot to drink.
 It is too late to go shopping.
You check that:-
NOT: He is too rich.
BUT: He is very rich.

NOT: It is very heavy to be pushed.

BUT: It is too heavy to be pushed.
Take care where you use these intensifiers
You should not use “too” when you mean “very”.

(d) “Hardly”, “Barely” and “scarcely”

These are near negatives.
(i). “Hardly” and “scarcely” have the meaning “almost not”.
Example
 Mercy has hardly/scarcely finished laying the table.
We often use „hardly‟ and „scarcely‟ with „any‟ and „ever‟.
Examples
 There is hardly/scarcely any water left in the bottle.
 He hardly/scarcely ever speaks to me.

(ii). “Barely” is used to mean “not more than” or “only just”.

Examples
 There are barely four oranges left in the basket
 We have barely ten minutes to complete the exercise.

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  “hardly”, “scarcely” and “barely” can all be used with “when”.
Examples
 We had barely sat down when the teacher told us to stand up again.
 He had hardly recovered from the beating he received from the thieves when he was
involved in a road accident.
 The teacher was scarcely out of the classroom when Bwalya started shouting
Take note that “hardly”, “scarcely” and “barely” can be used at the beginning of the
sentence.
Examples
 Scarcely had they left the school grounds when thieves came in.
 Hardly had she left when I called in
 Barely had we sat down when the teacher told us to stand up again.

(e) “just”
This can have a similar, but not the same meaning to “barely”, “hardly” and “scarcely”.
Examples
 The football just missed the wind.
 He just managed to pass the exam.

“Just” is often used with “only”.

Examples
 We only just succeeded in winning the prize.

(f) “no sooner”

 This is used in the same way as “hardly”, “scarcely” and “barely” but take note that
instead of using “when‟ use “than”.
Examples
 No sooner had I reached the airport than my luggage was written.
 No sooner had we left the bank than the police came in.

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SAMPLE REWRITE QUESTION
1. A: As soon as they left the school grounds, thieves came in.
B: Scarcely …………………………………………………………
2. A: She was about to leave when I called in.
B: Hardly ………………………………………………………….
3. A: The pupils stood up as soon as the teacher entered the classroom.
B: Barely …………………………………………………………….
4. A: The girls started throwing stones into the river as soon as their mother left them.
B: No sooner ……………………………………………………….
5. A: Immediately she entered the room, I left.
B: No sooner…………………………………………………………

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I. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES
 Voice in English structure refers to or means the form of a verb that shows whether the
subject of the verb does the action (active voice) or whether the action is done on it
(passive voice).
 This indicates that there are two voices in English: the active and the passive.
 Most English sentences are constructed in the active voice.

a) ACTIVE VOICE
 The active voice is the types of sentence which shows that the subject is performing an
action.
 The verb in such sentences expresses an action that the subject is performing.
Example
 The pastor killed the dog.
(Subject) (Verb) (Object)
(action)
 The teacher sent Selako out
(Subject) (Verb) (Object)
(action)
 From the examples above the subject clearly performs an action on the object.
 It can be seen that:
Example 1
 The pastor – the subject/actor/performer
 Killed – action being performed.
 The dog – the receiver of the action.
Example 2
 The teacher – the subject/actor/ performer
 Sent – action performed
 Selako – the receiver of the action

NB: Take not that the subject does the action here.

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 b) PASSIVE VOICE
 The passive voice is the type of sentence that shows that the subject does not perform or
act but action is done on the subject not by the subject.
 The subject under the voice is the receiver of the action and is called an agent.
Examples
 The dog was killed by the pastor
(Subject) (Action) (Performer)
 Selako was sent out by the teacher
(Subject) Action) (Performer)

 The passive voice is used mainly for the following reasons:

a) When the agent/doer of the action expressed by the verb is unknown.
Example
 They were injured in a nasty road accident
 Unknown motorist /cyclist
b) When the event is more important than the doer.
Example
 The wedding was postponed to a later date because of the funeral.
 Postponement is more important than what effected it.
(c) With specific verbs like:
 accustom to  ensnare  actuate
 underpay  inure  sate
 debauch  shoehorn  bedevil
 enliven  miscast  sway
 defrock  satiate  etc

Examples
 They are accustomed to a life of austerity.
 They won’t be injured to our epicurean lifestyle, for they have not been blindly
ensnared by our insatiable lust for materialism.

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Generally, the passive is found by using the verb “to be” followed by the past participle.
Example
 He enjoyed being flattered
 In this example we have the infinitive form of the passive – be + past participle;
 The – ing form of the passive + the –ing form of be + past participle. Take note that not
every sentence in the active can be changed to the passive.
 The passive should be restricted to the three uses already shown above.

Active passive
Subject Object
FORMULAE: Object Subject
one auxiliary two auxiliaries
two auxiliaries three auxiliaries
three auxiliaries four auxiliaries
 There are sixteen verb tenses in the active voice, but just ten verb tenses in the passive
voice.

Active verb Passive

1. Simple present
(Be = am/is/ are) (Be = am/is /are + past participle)
2. Present continuous
(am/is/are + …..ing) (am/is/are +being +past participle)
3. Past continuous
(was /were +……ing) (was/were + being past participle)
4. Past simple
(…..ed or others) (was/were +past participle)
5. Future simple
(Will/shall + infinitive without ‘to’) (will shall + be + past + participle)
 Take note that American English makes no difference between will/would and
shall/should
 Purists, however, insists that:
 I/we take shall/should
 You/he/she/they/it take will/would.
 They stress that if I/we take will/would and You/he/she/they/it take shall/should then we
are dealing with modal auxiliaries.
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6. Future continuous
(Will/shall + be +…..ing (no passive form)
7. Future prefect
(Will/shall +have + past participle) (will/shall + have = been + past participle)
8. Future perfect continuous
(will/shall + have +been +...ing) (no passive form)
9. Present perfect
(has/have + been + past participle) (has/have +been +past participle)
10. Present perfect continuous
(has/have +been +present participle) (no passive form)
11. Past perfect
(has + past participle) (had + been + past participle)
12. Past perfect continuous
(e.g. had been chasing) (no passive form)
13. Present conditional
(would/should + verb) (would/should + be + past participle)
14. Present conditional (continuous)
(Would/should + be + - ing) (no passive form)
15. Perfect conditional
(would/ should + have +past participle) (would/should + have + be + past participle)
16. Perfect conditional continuous
(should + have + be +…ing) (no passive form)
Note that: if the subject in active voice sentence is a pronoun, (e.g someone, somebody, he,
she, it, etc), we do not usually show it when changing such a sentence into the passive voice
form.
Examples
 Active voice: someone took Luwi’s dress
 Passive voice: Luwi’s dress was taken.
 NOT: Luwi’s dress was taken by someone.

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SAMPLE REWRITE QUESTIONS
1. A: It will need a genius to operate this machine.
B: A genius ………………………………………………………………
2. A: The school is visited regularly by a team of inspectors.
B: A team of …………………………………………………………….
3. A: A passing car knocked down and killed a dog.
B: A dog ………………………………………………………………
4. A: The student borrowed three books and a magazine from the library.
B: Three books…………………………………………………………
5. A: Chanda, a talented Zambian female footballer, assisted Yaliwe.
B: Yasin ………………………………………………………………..
6. A: Malaria causes most deaths in Zambia.
B: Most deaths in……………………………………………………….
7. A: The girls sweep the classroom everyday.
B: The classroom ………………………………………………………
8. A: Wankumbu’s father wrote a letter to the Head teacher,
B: A letter ……………………………………………………………..
9. A: Late President Chiluba initiated the peace talks to the Democratic Republic of
Congo.
B: The peace talks …………………………………………………….
10. A: The soccer governing body ranks Zambia among the top twenty soccer champions
in Africa
B: Zambia is ranked ……………………………………………………

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 J. DETERMINERS
 These are words that are used before nouns in order to show which thing you mean.
Examples
 The car – the is a determiner.
 Some cars – some is a determiner
 This section will only look at the commonly used determiners in English exams.

a) “much” and “many”

 “much” is used with uncountable nouns.
 “many” is used with countable nouns to mean “a large amount” or “a number of”.
Examples
Uncountable Countable
much space many cars
much water many teeth
much cream many books

 “much” and ”many” are often:-

1. Negative statements.
Example
 There isn’t much noise today.
 She didn’t get many plates with her.

2. Questions
Examples
 Isn’t there much noise today?
 Did she get many plates with her?

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 b) “A lot of”, “lots of”, and “plenty of”
 These have the same meaning.
 They are used instead of much in positive statements and as alternative to many.
Examples

 Maleele has
a lot of
lots of money.
plenty of
much

 Cathbert has lots of

a lot of
friends.
plenty of
many

Rewrite sample
1. A: There were many people present at the party.
B: A lot ……………………………………………………………
Answer - B: A lot people were present at the party

SAMPLE REWRITE QUESTIONS

1. A: Many plates were sold last week.
B: A lot of ………………………………………………………….
2. A: There is too much dirty down there.
B: (Rewrite using “plenty of”)
3. A: The car has a lot of oil on it.
B: (Rewrite using “lots of”)
4. A: I saw many people with lots of things
A: I saw ………………………. with plenty …………………………..
5. A: There are many mansions in heaven.
B: (Rewrite using “lots of”)

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K. TIME CLAUSES
 Time clauses always begin with Time Conjunctions such as:
 before, while, as soon as,
 after, as, immediately
 when, whenever, till, until, since.
Note that the Time Clause can come at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
If it comes at the beginning we insert a comma between the Time Clause and the Main Clause.
Example
 Before Lumba came, the pastor was already here.
The pastor was already here before Lumba came.

(a) As/when/while
 We use these words to indicate that something happened when something else was
going on.
 We use past simple tense for the shorter action and the past continuous for the longer
lasting action.
Examples
 As/when/while I was cooking, the door fell.
 The man came in as /when/while I was listening to the news.

We can use as/when /while in a similar way with the present simple and the present continuous
tense.
Example
 He always laugh as/when/while he is singing
as/when/while are also used to show that two actions were happening at the same time.
 The past continuous tense is used for both actions.
Example
 John was dancing as/when/while Titus was singing.
Take note that we do not use the future tense in a time clause, we use the present simple
instead.
Examples
 I am going straight home when the bell rings.
 As soon as she goes out, we will eat her food.
 All the pupils will remain quite while the exam is in progress.

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 b) Using the present participle
 Sometimes we change the time clauses to phrases containing a present participle.
 In such sentences, make sure that the performer of the action in the present participle
phrase is the subject of the main clause
 Take note that whenever we start with a subordinate clause, we put a comma before
connecting the main clause.
Example
 Running down the street, I saw my dad.
Examples of Rewrites
1. A: As Luwi ran down the corridor, she waved a piece of paper at Cathbert.
B: Running down the corridor, Luwi waved a piece of paper at Cathbert.
2. A: Mwansa sat silently while she thought about her future.
B: Mwansa sat silently thinking about her future.

SAMPLE REWRITE QUESTIONS

1. A: The children jumped up and down. The children shouted at the top of their voices.
B: Shouting………………………………………………
2. A: I looked over my shoulder. I realized that I was being followed.
B: Looking ……………………………………………………
3. A: The fire swept through the village. The fire burned everything in its way.
B: Burning………………………………………………..
4. A: I walked home from school. I found fifty thousand kwacha note.
B: Walking …………………………………………………………..
5. A: Mutinta realized all the problems she was likely to face. Mutinta abandoned the
plan.
B: Realizing …………………………………………………………….
6. A: We did not know what to do. We asked Nankulo to show us how to operate the
machine.
B: Not knowing ………………………………………………………….

END…………!
WATCH-OUT FOR VOLUME TWO (2)

Remember That Prayer with Hard Work and Determination Leads To Success

Contact: [email protected]
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