African Security Review

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Trend and pattern analysis of incidents of rape

during the period of Covid-19 pandemic in
Adamawa state, Northeastern Nigeria

Saheed Babajide Owonikoko, Jude A. Momodu & Jamila B. A. Suleiman

To cite this article: Saheed Babajide Owonikoko, Jude A. Momodu & Jamila B. A. Suleiman
(2023): Trend and pattern analysis of incidents of rape during the period of Covid-19
pandemic in Adamawa state, Northeastern Nigeria, African Security Review, DOI:
10.1080/10246029.2022.2159464

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2022.2159464

Published online: 10 Feb 2023.

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AFRICAN SECURITY REVIEW
https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2022.2159464

Trend and pattern analysis of incidents of rape during the period

of Covid-19 pandemic in Adamawa state, Northeastern Nigeria
Saheed Babajide Owonikoko , Jude A. Momodu and Jamila B. A. Suleiman
Centre for Peace and Security Studies, Modibbo Adama University, Yola, Nigeria

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Sexual violence cases in Adamawa State have been frequently reported. Received 25 January 2022
Yet, the interrogation of the phenomenon has not received adequate Accepted 13 December 2022
scholarly attention. Unfortunately, unusual high incidents of rape
KEYWORDS
were recorded in the state in 2020 prompting an examination of the Rape; Covid-19; Adamawa
trend and pattern of incidents of rape in the state. Data were State; North East; Nigeria
collected from police records of incidents of rape and interviews were
granted to perpetrators, police officers and parents/guardians of
victims. The study shows that the highest cases of rape were recorded
in July, and Yola North Local Government Area of the state recorded
the highest number of incidents of rape. All the perpetrators are male
whose ages are within the range of 18 and 33 years while the
majority of the victims are female, mostly minors. Covid-19 outbreak
and the containment mechanisms employed in the state were the
major factors in the escalation of rape cases. The lockdown policy of
the state created situations like loss of jobs, dwindling economic
resources and shut-down of state apparatuses of security especially
the police which increased motivations for offenders to commit the
crime of rape as well as contributed to the vulnerability of the victims
of rape.

Introduction
Humanity has been frequently attacked by pandemic throughout most of its recorded
history.1 Such diseases did not only impact the health and medical conditions of the
people, but they also had a significant socio-economic impact on the people. Nigeria, just
like other countries of the world, has always had her fair share of encounters with ravaging
pandemics ‘imported’ into one part of the country and then spreading to other areas of
the country. A typical example in history is the Influenza pandemic of 1918–1919. The diseases
began in Europe during the period of World War I and started diffusing to other parts of the
world. From vessels and ocean liners from Europe and America, it crept into Sierra Leone, Gold
Coast and Nigeria.2 From Lagos in Nigeria, it spread to other major cities like Ilorin, Benin and
Kano. From Kano, the disease spread to other parts of Northern Nigeria especially Maiduguri
and Yola, the present-day Adamawa State following trade routes.3 The impact of the pan-
demic was much more than the number of people who died in the course of the spread of
influenza.

CONTACT Saheed Babajide Owonikoko [email protected] Centre for Peace and Security Studies,
Modibbo Adama University, Yola, Nigeria
© 2023 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 S. B. OWONIKOKO ET AL.

Again in 2019, a century after the attack of the influenza pandemic on humanity, another
novel virus called Covid-19 struck. Nigeria recorded her first case of Covid-19 on February 27,
2020, and it thereafter escalated to a total of 76,207 by December 17, 2020, with 1, 201 deaths
recorded across the 36 states and federal capital territory in Nigeria.4 The number of people
who contracted the virus and those who died from contracting the virus are just a few of the
impacts of the virus in Nigeria. As in all other places of the world, mechanisms used in the
containment of the spread of the virus were closure of economic and social activities to
reduce contact among the people. These came with many other socio-economic impacts
such as increased hunger, loss of livelihood earnings, reduction in social interaction, loss of
school days, reduction in learning hours, and so on. These further had significant implications
for peace, security and stability, especially as there was increase in crime rate and confronta-
tion among people who were perpetually locked together.5 One of the records of crime that
soared during the Covid-19 outbreak is sexual violence, especially rape.
Rape and sexual violence had always been a major crisis in the world before the outbreak
of Covid-19. The pervasiveness of the incidents in the world was the reason international com-
munity categorised it as a crime against humanity in international humanitarian law and
drafted many international instruments to prevent pervasive occurrence, intensify punish-
ment offenders and improve provision of care and supports for victims. Rape had been
tagged as an epidemic because of its soaring records in Nigeria even before the outbreak
of Covid-19. A report released by NOIpolls in 2019 indicates that eighty-five per cent of Niger-
ians believe rape cases are prevalent in the country.6
Following the outbreak of the Covid-19 Pandemic in Nigeria and its attendant lockdown as
part of the containment measures, human rights abuses increased significantly across the
country.7 Rape cases also soared significantly during this period.8 Although genuine statistics
on rape in Nigeria is hard to come by, media reports and security agencies’ statements on it
give a better clue. According to the Inspector General of Police (IGP), between January and
May 2020, Nigeria Police Force (NPF) arrested 799 suspects associated with 717 rape cases.9
Adamawa State in North Eastern Nigeria also experienced a worrisome surge in rape cases
during the period of Covid-19. The increasing rate of rape during this period led women to
protest in the state in September 2020.10 For a state that is already battling with the insur-
gency in which large-scale conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) has been perpetrated and
is making the post-insurgency era difficult to manage11, further widespread rape in peacetime
may have dangerous consequences. It may result in depression, post-traumatic stress dis-
order, the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases, self-harm, panic attack, unwanted
pregnancy and suicide.12 Given this, the focus of this study was to examine the trend and
pattern of incidences of rape during the period of the Covid-19 Pandemic in Adamawa
State, North Eastern Nigeria.

Conceptualising rape
Globally, rape is regarded as a form of sexual assault involving the ‘penetration of the vagina
or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person
without the consent of the persons involved’.13 In Nigeria, many legal instruments define
rape. These instruments are The Criminal Code (applicable only in Southern Nigeria)14, The
Penal Code (applicable only in Northern Nigeria where Adamawa State is located)15, The Vio-
lence Against Persons Prohibition Action (mainly functional in Federal Capital Territory, Abuja
but has now been domesticated in some federating states in Nigeria including Adamawa
 AFRICAN SECURITY REVIEW 3

State)16 and Child Rights Act (which has now been documented by many states in Nigeria but
most of the states in North East Nigeria are yet to domesticate it).17 These legal instruments
define rape in different ways with peculiar shortcomings especially the Criminal and Penal
Codes. They perceive rape as being perpetrated only by men against women and not vice
versa. This is not the case because it has also been noted that men can also be victims of
rape and it may be perpetrated by any person, male or female. Second, some of them did
not factor in non-penetrative rape such as oral sex and use of objects or other instruments
aside from the organs as rape. In this way, therefore, a woman can also rape a woman
since this may not necessarily involve the use of male organ. In short, these legal instruments
especially The Criminal Code and The Penal Code see rape as a criminal offence basically
against women/girls and essentially involving only penetration of the vagina. This forecloses
the possibility of man victim or even anal penetration. However, new legal instruments,
especially Violence against Person Prohibition Act (VAPPA) which Adamawa State has just
passed has taken care of that. Therefore, within the Nigerian state and in the context of
Adamawa State Law, rape can be defined as a form of sexual assault involving the penetration
of the vagina, anus or mouth with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ
of another person without the consent of the victim or with incorrectly obtained consent
using force, trick, deception, threat, intimidation, impersonation or fraudulent representation.

Review of related literature

Studies on sexual assault especially rape in Nigeria have gathered momentum and have
attracted the attention of scholars significantly. This is so because of the prevalence of
the epidemic in the Nigerian state. However, studies on rape in Nigeria have mostly con-
centrated on the urban metropolitan/cosmopolitan states of Nigeria. One of the reasons for
the concentration of rape research in urban areas in Nigeria may not be unconnected to
the longstanding belief that criminal activities as such are much more prevalent in urban
centres. Unfortunately, however, studies have shown that peri-urban and rural areas and
states are now serving as safe havens for criminals and as such, are also gathering an
increase in criminal activities.18 One of the criminal activities taking place in these areas
is rape. The North East region of Nigeria, where Adamawa State belongs, has attracted
the attention of scholars because of the activities of Boko Haram insurgency which
began in 2010. Within the perpetuation of the Boko Haram insurgency is also conflict-
related sexual violence (CRSV). This involves people who are subjected to sexual abuse
in the context or as part of the entire scenario of the violent conflict. In this case,
women and girls are abducted and subjected to rape, gang rape, forced marriage and
forced pregnancy. In some cases, women and girls are subjected to sexual molestation
before they can have access to the basic needs of life in internally displaced persons’
camps. Studies have been done on this aspect of CRSV in the North East.19 Adamawa
State is one of the states in which CRSV is rife because of its experience of Boko Haram
insurgency. According to the 2019 Annual Report of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence
of the UNHCR, Adamawa State has the second highest cases of conflict-related sexual
and gender-based violence in the whole of North East after Borno State (UNHCR, 2020).
However, beyond CRSV there are many cases of sexual violence not directly related to
the Boko Haram insurgency. They can be tagged as peacetime/peace-related sexual vio-
lence (PPRSV). In a context where PRSV is prevalent, the outbreak of a pandemic such
as Covid-19 can only help to aggravate the situation.20
4 S. B. OWONIKOKO ET AL.

Material and methods

This study employed a descriptive research design. This study benefited from a larger study
investigating records of rape in Adamawa state for a period of 11 years titled Trend and
Pattern Analysis of Sexual Violence in Adamawa State, 2011–2020. Thus, the database of the
Nigeria Police force, Adamawa State Command (NPF ADSC) on rape was relied upon for
data on rape for the period. There is a section of the NPF ADSC that specialises in monitoring
and compilation of daily records of rape cases across the state through the divisional police
stations in all of the local government areas of the state. However, NPF ADSC is not the only
office that keeps records of incidents of rape in Adamawa State. Adamawa State Hope Centre
(ADSHC), a programme sponsored by the British Council and domiciled in State Specialist Hos-
pital, Yola, also keeps records of incidents of rape in the state and therefore has a database on
rape. However, all the cases referred to the ADSHC were first referred to the NPF ADSC for
documentation before medical treatment is administered on them. Meanwhile, many other
cases will only be referred to the police station but will not go to ADSHC because the
victim may have sought medical attention elsewhere. Therefore, we strongly believe that
data on rape from NPF ADSC will be much more detailed than that of the ADSHC. This is
however not to say that all the cases are reported in the police stations. There are many
cases of rape not reported at all for many reasons. Furthermore, data from NPF ADSC are
much more accessible than that of ADSHC. This is because while NPF ADSC was ready to
avail us of data on rape for research purposes alone, ADSHC was not ready because of the
oath of secrecy on data and also because of the decision to keep the identities of survivors
confidential. Therefore, the utilisation of the NPF ADSC data on rape is considered appropriate
and suitable for this study (Table 1).
Data collected from the large study shows that Adamawa State has experienced a sporadic
increase in incidents of rape but an exponential increase was recorded in 2020. From 46 in
2019, the state recorded 126 cases in 2020. The rate of increase in 2020 shows that the
peculiarity and context of the year in terms of the emergency created by the outbreak of
Covid-19 may be an important factor. Even though the record is much more than the previous
years in terms of yearly distribution observed from the larger data collected, it is believed that
the 126 cases recorded are not a true reflection of the total number of cases recorded for the
year 2020. The actual record may be much more than what is recorded by the NPF ADSC
because rape cases are seldom reported to the police due largely to the unpalatable public
perception of the police in Nigeria as a corrupt institution. Added to this is also the fact
that significant success is yet to be recorded in Nigeria in the prosecution of rape cases.

Table 1. Recorded incidents of rape in Adamawa State, 2010–2020.

S/N Year Recorded Cases of Rape
1 2010 03
2 2011 10
3 2012 18
4 2013 13
5 2014 06
6 2015 03
7 2016 11
8 2017 19
9 2018 27
10 2019 46
11 2020 126
Source: Gender-Based Violence Unit, NPF, ADSC, 2021.
 AFRICAN SECURITY REVIEW 5

Many rapists go scot-free without being convicted; thus, rape victims do not often get
justice.21 In Adamawa State, the conviction of perpetrators of rape has been very poor and
one of the reasons for this is the limited capacity of NPF ADSC personnel to handle investi-
gation before prosecution by the Attorney-General. Although, there is a gender-based vio-
lence desk that handles the investigation of rape cases, NPF personnel attached to the
desk lack psychosocial knowledge for handling or investigating rape. Thus, securing the con-
viction of perpetrators is very challenging and perpetrators often go unpunished. With this
poor record of conviction for perpetrators of rape in the state, victims of rape are discouraged
from reporting to police and subjecting it to court trial is considered a waste of time. In some
cases, however, rape victims usually go through traumatisation arising from their experiences
when being questioned or their statements are being taken down during police interrogation.
Studies have referred to the psychological impact of victims’ experiences with social
system personnel as ‘second rape’ or secondary victimisation to the initial trauma.22 This dis-
courages many relations of rape victims or victims themselves from seeking police interven-
tion. Furthermore, it is expected that the Covid-19 Pandemic itself may also impact the
availability of police officers for reporting rape cases. Many studies have shown how Covid-
19 containment measures such as lockdown, sit-at-home order, social distancing and
restricted movement impact crime records in some countries because mobility restrictions
might have affected people’s ability to report crimes. Furthermore, the pandemic might
also have affected the ability of the security agencies to prevent or respondent to crimes
due to illness arising from contracting Covid-19, absence from duty as a safety measure to
prevent contagion and so on.23 In Adamawa State, one of the police divisions was locked
down as a result of police personnel of the division contracting Covid-19. Upon hearing
the news, all personnel deserted the station and left it empty. For this division, reports of
crimes such as rape around the period for which the station is locked down might have
been evaded. Other factors that often impact on the willingness to report are stigmatisation
of victims in the society and the widespread perception of pre-marital sex as a sacrilege even if
it is through rape. To these victims, these factors may blur their chance of marriage within the
society when they are ripe enough for that. Due to this, they may decide to keep it to
themselves.
There are many media reports on rape cases in Adamawa State and the numbers quoted
show that rape cases reported for the whole of 2020 by the NPF ADSC may not be a true rep-
resentation of the reality. Dr Usha Shaxena, the manager of Adamawa State Sexual Referral
Centre otherwise known as Adamawa State Hope Centre (ADSHC) reported on June 8 that
Adamawa State recorded 299 Cases of Rape in just five months from January to May
(Azeez, 2020). Similarly, on the 7th of October 2020, Adamawa State Commissioner for
Women Affairs and Social Development – Lami Ahmed – was reported to have said that
over 350 cases of rape and sexual assault were recorded in Adamawa State between May
and October, 2020.24 These figures show alarming cases of rape in less than a year in 2020.
However, the records presented were just quoted figures without analysable data. Therefore,
police crime data are still the most reliable for this kind of analysis because they are accessible
and analysable. The data collected were analysed using descriptive statistical analysis invol-
ving charts, frequency distribution and line graphs. However, these data were supported
by qualitative data collected from interviews with perpetrators, police officers and parents/
guardians of victims. Victims were deliberately exonerated from the interview in order not
to re-traumatise them through the interview session that may resonate with the unpalatable
experience they underwent. While 21 perpetrators in police custody were interviewed, four
6 S. B. OWONIKOKO ET AL.

police officers one of which is an officer in charge of Gender-Based Violence in the NPF ADSC
and the three others were divisional police officers (DPOs), and seven parents/guardians of
victims were interviewed. Therefore, a total of 32 respondents were interviewed. Information
obtained from the interviews was transcribed, analysed and presented in form of quotes in
some aspects of the study to corroborate the relevant argument of the study.

Results and discussion

Monthly distribution of incidents of rape in Adamawa State in the year 2020
Data on the monthly incidence of rape in Adamawa State is analysed to understand the ebb
and flow of incidents of rape from January to December. Figure 1 shows the frequency of inci-
dents of rape from January to December of 2020.
Findings revealed that in January, five (5) cases were recorded which accounted for 3.9%
of the cases for the year while in February it increased to seven (7) which accounted for
about 5.6% of the cases for the year. By March, April, May and June, recorded cases
were three (3), four (4), five (5) and 11 which constituted 2.4%, 3.2%, 3.9% and 8.7% of
the recorded cases for the year, respectively. By July, the cases recorded were 49 which
accounted for about 38.9%. However, by August it dropped to 16 which accounted for
about 12.7% of the reported cases for the year. Cases recorded in September, October,
November and December were 7, 6, 7 and 6, respectively. They accounted for 5.6%,
4.8%, 5.6% as well as 4.8%. The period between June and August witnessed a significant
increase in incidents of rape recorded in 2020.
January to May, as well as September to December was the period of the ebb of incidents
of rape in Adamawa State. The period between January and May was the formative period of
Covid-19 in Nigeria and Adamawa State. While the Federal Government of Nigeria quickly
announced the lockdown of places like Lagos to prevent the spread to other parts of the
Nigerian state, business as usual was going on in Adamawa State. However, it is worth

Figure 1. Monthly distribution of incidents of rape in Adamawa State in the Year 2020.
 AFRICAN SECURITY REVIEW 7

noting that inter-state movement into Adamawa State and from Adamawa State to another
was restricted. This means people could go about their business within the vicinity of the
state. While the increase in cases of Covid-19 was recorded in some states in Nigeria and
some mysterious death recorded in some states like Kano, the government of the state
announced a two-week lockdown to prevent ‘importation’ of Covid-19 from the epicentres
in Nigeria in April.25 Unfortunately, the level of enforcement as well as compliance was
very low. A week after the expiration of the lockdown – April 21, 2020 – Adamawa State
recorded its index when one of the returnees from Kano, which had then become an epicen-
tre, arrived in Yola, the capital city of Adamawa State.26 On the 23rd of April, a fourteen-day
lockdown was announced again from April 24 to May 8.27 Although the lockdown was eased
after 14 days, ban on movement from one local government to another, social gatherings,
closure of business outlets and so on was put in place from May till September and compli-
ance was vehemently enforced by the security agents. This period also coincided with a
period of rainfall that usually brings about a cool atmosphere in the blistering temperate/
arid weather of Adamawa State. As a result of this, people were forced to remain at home.
The condition created by the sit-at-home policy imposed by the government of the state
to curtail the spread of Covid-19 provided a conducive environment for the victims and per-
petrators to be locked down and for incidents of rape to take place.
Interviews conducted with police officers as well as parents/guardians show that most of
the perpetrators are intimate with the victims either as relatives, co-inhabitants or neighbours
that Covid-19 containment measures of the state must have perpetually locked down and
confined to a particular place for a long period. Studies have shown that perpetrators of
rape are usually familiar foes of the victims.28 Within the context and period of this study, out-
break of Covid-19 Pandemic and the containment measures put in place by the government
of state led to limited or outright economic inactivity and confinement of people as a result of
lockdown of public places reaching its peak in July/August when lockdown measures were
beginning to be eased. Therefore, economic inactivity and confinement arising from the
imposition of movement restrictions is a significant part of the contributing factors to while
rape cases surge between June and August 2020 in Adamawa State.
While some crimes such as shoplifting, theft, burglary, pick-pocketing may reduce in some
urban centres during the Covid-19 emergency due to the containment measure of sit-at-
home imposed by the state29, inter-personal violence such as rape and homicide may
not.30 With regard to rape and other forms of sexual and gender-based violence, the
Covid-19 pandemic and the lockdown imposed by South African countries have been
reported to have predisposed women to frequent rape and cruelty in the hands of their
abusive partners as lockdown meant that perpetrators could not be evaded and organisations
working to provide protection and support to women were not available.31 The inference
deducible is that the nature of crime and its context matters. During emergency or uncertain
periods such as the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic, these will determine either such
crimes will increase, decrease or unchanged.
Another reason for the increase in rape cases during this period may also be because vir-
tually all the plenipotentiaries of the states were also locked down. In a bid to control the
spread, government offices, ministries, departments and agencies were locked down and
people were asked to work from home. One of the most important plenipotentiaries of the
state that was shut down in Adamawa State was the courts. During the period of lockdown,
no court could open due to government orders on movement restrictions. This is believed to
have had an impact on the capacity of the state to enforce the law within the state. A police
8 S. B. OWONIKOKO ET AL.

officer interviewed explained how the closure of court affected the surge in crime including
rape thus:
When a crime is committed and the perpetrator is arrested, an investigation ought to be carried
out immediately and such a person will be taken to court for trial within a few hours based on
evidence got from the investigation. However, during the large part of 2020, courts were
locked down as part of the mechanism for reducing the spread of the virus. We apprehended
many criminals and did our investigation but courts were not in session to entertain cases. Our
cells were so full of criminals that we could not even take anymore; meanwhile, those in the
cells were already overstaying. We could not arrest again and we were even compelled to
release those in our custody because of habeas corpus. This encourages many people to
commit more crimes because they know that the institution of the state is weak and they may
escape apprehension.32

The point that has been emphasised in the statement of the Police Officer quoted above is
that the lockdown and movement restriction policy of the Adamawa State government in
2020 made the weak instruments of the state weaker. This weakness encouraged many
criminals to perpetrate crimes believing that escaping apprehension is a high possibility.
The lead author coordinated a security meeting in one of the local governments of the
state where stakeholders discussed rising crimes due largely to the close of apparatuses
of government and set up a committee to reach the governor to discuss how to quickly
bring those apparatus back to work. Figure 2 shows the distribution of rape cases in the
21 LGAs in Adamawa State. This chart shows that five LGAs of the 21- Yola North, Yola
South, Girei, Mubi North and Mubi South which are the most metropolitan and cosmopo-
litan areas of the state are responsible for over three-quarter of the cases – 100 cases
altogether. Girei, Yola North and Yola South constitute the area called the ‘Greater Yola’.
These LGAs are not only the most populous in Adamawa State (Adebayo, 2020), but they
also contain a mixture of people because they contain major municipal areas in the
state – Mubi and Yola. Due to insurgency which is currently affecting Madagali and
Michika, most former residents of the two LGAs have mostly relocated to Mubi or Yola.
Thus, these areas are presently the most congested.

Figure 2. Distribution of rape cases in the 21 LGAs in Adamawa State in 2020.

 AFRICAN SECURITY REVIEW 9

Studies have enunciated the relationship between urban areas and increase in violent
crime. Such studies have specifically pointed at expanded population density, clustering of
people as well as special demographic characteristic as factors predisposing urban areas to
increase violent crimes.33 The high population density in an urban area led to a clustering
of people from different backgrounds. Furthermore, urban areas are usually more attractive
to the youthful population in an area because of the availability of paid jobs and other avail-
able opportunities to make money. In most cases, however, this ends up being a mirage for
many as it may be difficult for them to find reasonable engagement opportunities in urban
centres. Where a youthful population are in abundance, violence will not only set in as
Urdal34 has argued, but there will also be an increase in criminal activities especially theft, bur-
glary and rape. Some of the crimes are committed to increase their finances while others are
committed because their level of finance is not able to afford them other opportunities. For
instance, while boredom and dormancy arising from joblessness may encourage sexual urge
in youths, the opportunity to attract a woman may be dwarfed by their low-income stream
caused largely by unemployment/underemployment. Tade and Udechukwu35 show how
this played out prominently among perpetrators of rape examined. The study narrated
how a man lured many female underage children who are petty consumable hawkers into
his room with a token and defiled them because he could not attract adults owing to his
financial challenge. In Adamawa State, boredom and inactivity among the youth in urban
areas created by the Covid-19 containment measure put in place enhanced rape. The expla-
nation of one of the perpetrators interviewed suggests this.
I don’t know what came over me. I have known her for a long time because we stay in the neigh-
bourhood together and I have never thought of having sexual intercourse with her because she is
a small girl … I don’t have a girlfriend because I don’t have money to give to any woman, yet I
always have sexual urges that I need to quench … 36

The narrative of one of the perpetrators indicates that although he had been seeing the victim
for a long time, the thought of having sexual intercourse with her had never preoccupied his
thought because he was always occupied or not around with the victim. However, inactivity
arising from the lockdown enhanced his sexual urge and he took advantage of the vulner-
ability of the young girl. This narrative featured prominently in the interviews with perpetra-
tors. Interviews with stakeholders revealed that other factors responsible for the high
incidence of rape in the urban centres of Adamawa State were drug use, alcohol, coercive
and sexual fantasies (resulting in frequent watching of pornography), peer pressure, hostility
towards women (especially when the male advances are rejected), inadequate institutional
support from the police and judicial system, vengeance, relationship conflict, indiscipline as
well as ritual practices. Covid-19 outbreak and the effect of the lockdown measures
imposed aggravated some of these factors such as drug use and alcohol consumption,
sexual fantasies, and weakness of state protection institutions.
Figure 3 above shows that all 126 rape incidents involved 128 perpetrators and all of the
perpetrators are male. Two of the 126 incidences involved gang rape in which two perpetra-
tors were involved. While female-perpetrator rape in which the victims are male is a possi-
bility37, studies have shown that the perpetrators are usually males. Liama et al.38 in their
study on the analysis of the management of cases of rape seen at Specialist Hospital
Gombe State, Nigeria, discovered that all perpetrators of rape cases studies were male.
Studies such as Akinlusi et al39 and Tade and Udechukwu40 corroborate this and this study
also affirms it. Interview with some of the rapists in police custody shows that inability to
10 S. B. OWONIKOKO ET AL.

Figure 3. Gender of perpetrators of rape in Adamawa State in 2020.

attract or secure a copulation mate for a long period culminated in motivation to rape vulner-
able female victims. Interview session with one of the rapists shows this fervently:

First Author: Why did you rape your victim?

Rapist: It is the devil, sir.
First Author: You mean the devil asked you to rape the victim?
Rapist: No. I mean it is the devil that causes it. I said so because I have been staying with
this girl and I have never had any sexual feelings towards her because I look at her
as a little child but on this fateful day something just crept into my mind that since
I have not had sexual intercourse in a long time and I have the urge and this little
girl is available and nobody is around she can help me satisfy my sexual urge. This
is how the thought started and before I realise it, it happened.41

Apparently, the perpetrator above pointed to the fact that he had not had sexual intercourse
in a long while. Meanwhile, the urge for sex abounded while a vulnerable young girl that he
could exert little power and control on exist within his vicinity, thus the perpetration of rape.
In a study conducted by Tade and Udechukwu, it was discovered that inability to attract a
copulation mate at times it was most needed accounted for some of the rape cases
studied.42 The context of the perpetrators’ prevailing socio-economic conditions as well as
periods of uncertainty created by Covid-19 outbreak within the locality of the perpetrator
and victims provides a thriving environment for this.
Figure 4 shows that 7 of the 128 perpetrators had ages of less than 18 years. This consti-
tutes 5.5% of the perpetrators. Furthermore, 34 and 39 perpetrators had their ages between
18years–25years and 26years–33years. These figures constitute 26.6% and 30.5%. Similarly,
21, 14 and 13 had respective ages between 34years–41years (16.4%), 42years–49years
(10.9%) and 50years and above (10.2%). From these data, perpetrators aged between
18years–25years and 26years–33years constitute the highest of the perpetrators. The age
range accounts for more than 56% of the perpetrators. This age range is considered to be
youthful or adolescent in Nigeria’s context.43 Studies have shown that illegal sexual beha-
viours such as rape are common among youths and adolescents.44 This study also affirms this.
 AFRICAN SECURITY REVIEW 11

Figure 4. Age bracket of perpetrators of rape in Adamawa State in 2020.

Figure 5 shows that 124 victims of rape in the year are females. This accounts for 98.4% of
the victims. Meanwhile, 2 of the victims are males. This accounts for 1.6% of the victims. This
shows that the majority of the victims are females. Extant studies have shown that the
majority of victims or survivors are females.45 However, this study also shows that there are
male victims of rape involved in the data collected. Studies have shown that the rape of
males does exist46 and it could be perpetrated by either females or fellow males. In this
study, however, the two cases of male victims recorded were perpetrated by a fellow male.
This is called male same-sex rape.47
Figure 6 shows that victims whose ages are less than 18 years old are 84. This constitutes
about 66.7% of the victims. Furthermore, 18 years to 25 years are 31 and constitute 24.6% of
the victims. Similarly, 26years to 33years are 10 while 34years to 41 years is one victim.

Figure 5. Gender of victims of rape in Adamawa State in 2020.

12 S. B. OWONIKOKO ET AL.

Figure 6. Age bracket of victims of rape in Adamawa State in 2020.

Meanwhile, 42years–49years as well as 50years and above recorded no victims for the year.
From the figure, victims whose ages are less than 18 years are the highest, constituting
about 66.7% of the victims.
The rape of minors has become a ravaging phenomenon in Nigeria recently. Studies have
attributed this to increasing ritual practice, particularly longevity of life, money ritual or cure
for deadly diseases such as HIV/AID48, encouraging cultural beliefs on early exposure to sex49
and vulnerability of the minor. Vulnerability argument is buttressed by Routine Activity Theory
(RAT). RAT talks about the convergence of three factors before criminal activities can be effec-
tively committed. These are: motivated offender(s), availability of suitable target as well as the
absence of effective guardian. The availability of suitable target and the absence of an
effective guardian speak to the vulnerability of the victims. In order words, the vulnerability
of the victims is a significant factor in the choice of victims of criminal acts including
rape.50 In the context of this study, ritual practice and cultural beliefs are not factors that
explain why rape of minor were much in Adamawa State during the period studied. From
the interviews granted, the parents/guardian and police officers interviewed emphasised vul-
nerability of minor as a major factor that attracted the underage girls to their perpetrators.
One of the police officers interviewed expressed that:
Most of the girls are easily manipulated because they are not aware of the intention of the rapists
for them but the rapist know exactly what he wants to do so he looks for a time that is most appro-
priate or even lure her to a place where she is vulnerable and try to instil fear in her not to shout or
report to anybody what he did to her. If she does, he would kill her. This can hardly be done to an
adult lady without resistance51

A parent of one of the victims interviewed buttressed the point of the police officer cited
above. She narrated how her underaged daughters was targeted and raped thus:
The rapist lived in our compound. He always played with my daughter and I did not read any
meaning into it because I think he is even old enough to be her father but I never knew he
had a terrible plan for her … on this fateful I went out briefly to hawk my small commodity to
get some money to feed my children. I left my children at home because schools had been
 AFRICAN SECURITY REVIEW 13

closed down due to Covid-19. After I came back, I noticed a strange disposition from my daughter.
I knew something had happened to her. I had to press her for more than three hours before she
opened up … He (the rapist) took advantage of the innocence of my daughter and my absence to
lure her into his room and rape her52

The interviews cited above shows that vulnerability of the minor made them susceptible to
rape. The outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic further enhanced the vulnerability of the
minors. Many of them who were supposed to be in school learning were at home while
their parents who were supposed to provide guidance for them had gone for activities
such as hawking, farming and other menial jobs around that could provide food for them
during the lockdown.

Conclusion
This study focuses on incidences of rape during the period of the Covid-19 outbreak in
Adamawa State. The study is predicated on the observation from data obtained from a
larger study on the trend and pattern of incidents of rape in the state – Adamawa State –
between 2010 and 2020 which shows that the state recorded its highest incidents of rape
during 2020. The study, therefore, examined the monthly distribution of incidents, distri-
bution of rape across the 21 local government areas of the state, gender and age bracket
of perpetrators as well as gender and age bracket of the victims. The study shows that the
highest case was recorded in July. Furthermore, Yola North Local Government Area of the
state recorded the highest number of recorded incidents of rape. Meanwhile, all the perpetra-
tors are male and the majority of them have their ages ranging between 18 and 33 years. The
majority of the victims are female, majority of whom are minors.
In our analysis, the Covid-19 outbreak and the containment mechanisms employed in the
state are the major factors in the escalation of cases of rape. The lockdown policy of the state
which created situations such as loss of jobs, dwindling economic resources as well as shut-
down of state apparatuses of security especially the police increased motivations for offenders
to commit the crime of rape as well as contributed to the vulnerability of the victims of rape.
This shows that the impact of Covid-19 is much more than medical; Covid-19 has a tremen-
dous impact on security as well. It is recommended that a similar study should be done in all
the states of Nigeria to know if this is a general phenomenon in the state and to understand
the magnitude of this impact.

Notes
1. Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues and History and McMillen, Pandemic: A Very Short Introduction.
2. Ohadike, ‘Diffusion and Physiological Response to the Influenza Pandemic of 1918–19 in Nigeria’.
3. Ibid., 1395–1397.
4. NAN, ‘Covid-19: NCDC Confirms 1,145 New Infections’.
5. Akanmu et al., ‘The Covid-19 Pandemic and Insecurity’.
6. Jannamike, ‘Rape is Prevalent in Nigeria, Says New Report’.
7. Onuh, ‘Nigeria’s Response to Covid-19’.
8. Amnesty International, ‘Southern Africa’.
9. The Guardian, 16 June 2020 cited in Tade, ‘A Routine Activity Analysis of Selected Rape Cases
During Covid-19 Lockdown in Nigeria’ and Ogunlana et al., ‘Pattern of Rape and Femicide
during Covid-19 Lockdown’.
10. Alao, ‘Adamawa Coalition Protest against Rape’.
11. Owonikoko, ‘Take them to Government House or Aso Rock’.
14 S. B. OWONIKOKO ET AL.

12. Gbahabo and Duma, ‘I Just Became Like a Log of Wood … I was Paralysed All Over My Body’.
13. Mgolozeli and Duma, ‘They All Laughed and Asked Me if I Enjoyed Having Sex with those Guys’, 2.
14. Laws of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and Lagos. 1958. Criminal Code CH.42, vol. 2, Section 357.
15. Laws of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. 1960. The Penal code (Northern Region) Federal Pro-
visions Act Sections 182 and 183.
16. Laws of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Violence against Persons (Prohibition) Act 1, 2 and 3.
17. Laws of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Child’s Rights Act. Part III.
18. Kuna and Ibrahim, Rural Banditry and Conflict in Northern Nigeria.
19. Njoku and Akintayo, ‘Sex for Survival’ and Ogunniran, ‘Conflict-related Sexual Violence in the
North-East Nigeria’.
20. Aborisade, ‘COVID-19 and Gender-Based Violence’.
21. Tade and Udechukwu, ‘Characterizing Rapists and their Victims in Select Nigeria Newspapers’.
22. Campbell et al., ‘Preventing the “Second Rape”’; Campbell, ‘Psychological Impact of Rape Victim’s
Experience with Legal, Medical and Mental Health Systems’; Campbell, ‘What Really Happened?’
23. Nogala and Schroder, ‘Pandemic Effects on Law Enforcement Training and Practice’; Alvarado,
Sutton, and Leopold Laborda, COVID-19 and Police Agency Operations in Latin America and the Car-
ibbean and Lum, Maupin, and M. Stoltz, ‘The Impact of COVID-19 on Law Enforcement Agencies’.
24. TVC, ‘Adamawa Records 350 Rape Cases in Five Months’; see also Livinus, ‘Adamawa Records 350
Rape Cases in Five Months’.
25. Agency Report, ‘Covid-19: Adamawa Gov Signs Restriction Order into Law’.
26. The Cable, ‘Adamawa Records First COVID-19 Case’.
27. Premium Times, ‘Gov. Fintiri Imposes Lockdown in Adamawa State’.
28. Akinlusi et al., ‘Sexual Assaults in Lagos, Nigeria’ and Laima et al., ‘Alleged Rape’.
29. Shayegh and Malpede, ‘Staying Home Saves Lives, Really!’; Hodgkinson and Andresen, ‘Show Me a
Man or a Woman Alone and I’ll Show You a Saint’ and Andresen and Hodgkinson, ‘Somehow I
Always End Up Alone’
30. Abt, Rosenfeld, and E. Lopez, ‘COVID-19 and Homicide’ and Nivette et al., ‘A Global Analysis of the
Impact of COVID-19 Stay-at-home Restrictions on Crime’.
31. Amnesty International, ‘Southern Africa’.
32. Respondent 6, Police Officer, Key Informant Interview, Girei, October 2020.
33. Urdal, ‘Demography and Armed Conflict’ and Verkaaik, ‘Violence and Ethnic Identity Politics in
Karachi and Hyderabad’.
34. Urdal, ‘Demography and Armed Conflict’.
35. Tade and Udechukwu, ‘Characterizing Rapists and their Victims in Select Nigeria Newspapers’, 8–9.
36. Respondent 2, Male Rapist, Key Informant Interview, Yola, 2020.
37. Isely and Gehrenbeck-Shim, ‘Sexual Assault of Men in the Community’.
38. Laima et al. ‘Alleged Rape’.
39. Akinlusi et al. ‘Sexual Assaults in Lagos, Nigeria’.
40. Tade and Udechukwu, ‘Characterizing Rapists and their Victims in Select Nigeria Newspapers’.
41. Respondent 8, Male Rapist, Key Informant Interview, Yola, 2020.
42. Tade and Udechukwu, ‘Characterizing Rapists and their Victims in Select Nigeria Newspapers’, 8.
43. Federal Government of Nigeria, ‘National Youth Policy’.
44. Sharma, ‘Acquaintance Rape Among Adolescents and Youth’ and Sodipo et al., ‘The Pattern and
Characteristics of Sexual Assault Perpetrators and Survivors Managed at a Sexual Assault Referral
Centre in Lagos’.
45. Sodipo et al., Ibid.; Tade and Udechukwu, ‘Characterizing Rapists and their Victims in Select Nigeria
Newspapers’; Akinlusi et al. ‘Sexual Assaults in Lagos, Nigeria’ and Tade, ‘A Routine Activity Analy-
sis of Selected Rape Cases During Covid-19 Lockdown in Nigeria’.
46. King, ‘Sexual Assaults on Men’ and Hunter, The Sexually Abused Male.
47. Goyer and Eddleman, ‘Same-sex Rape of Non-incarcerated Men’.
48. Nwolise, ‘Is Physical Security alone Enough for the Survival, Progress and Happiness of Man?’.
49. Chiazor et al., ‘Taming the Rape Scourge in Nigeria’.
50. Cohen and Felson, ‘Social Change and Crime Rate Trends’; Felson and Cohen, ‘Human Ecology and
Crime’; Pratt, Travis, and Turanovic, ‘Lifestyle and Routine Activity Theories Revisited’ and Miro,
‘Routine Activity Theory’.
 AFRICAN SECURITY REVIEW 15

51. Respondent 24, Police Officer, Key Informant Interview, Jimeta, November 2020.
52. Respondent 17, Female Parent, Key Informant Interview, Jimeta, October 2020.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Funding
This work was supported by Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND) Institutional-Based Research, 2021.

Notes on contributors
Saheed Babajide Owonikoko holds a Bachelors of Arts degree in Philosophy/Political Science and
Master’s and Ph.D degrees in Peace and Conflict Studies from University of Ibadan. He is currently a lec-
turer and researcher at the Centre for Peace and Security Studies, Modibbo Adama University, Yola,
Adamawa State. He is also Postgraduate Programmes Coordinator of the Centre. He has published
widely in local and international journal outlets including Small Wars and Insurgency, Journal of Peace
Education, African Security, Soccer and Society, Journal of Contemporary African Studies and so on. His
areas of research interest are Violent Non-State Armed Groups (VNSAGs), violent extremism, gender
and violence, terrorism and counterterrorism as well as peace-building intervention programme design-
ing. He is also a security consultant.
Jude A. Momodu is a Professor of Peace and Security at the Centre for Peace and Security Studies,
Modibbo Adama University, Yola. He is also currently director of the Centre. He holds a doctorate
degree in Peace and Conflict Studies from University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. He is a seasoned aca-
demic scholar and has many publications in both local and international journals. His research interests
span areas such as peace and security studies, terrorism and counterterrorism and governance issues.
Jamila Bisi Aduke Suleiman is a trained lawyer. She worked briefly as a lawyer before taking up a career
in scholarship. She currently lectures at the Centre for Peace and Security Studies, Modibbo Adama Uni-
versity, Yola. She is also a doctoral candidate in the Centre where she is researching women access to
justice in the context of Boko Haram insurgency in the North East. Her areas of research interest are
gender and violence, transitional justice and reconciliation.

ORCID
Saheed Babajide Owonikoko http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6771-0811

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