Air Contaminants,

Ventilation, and
Industrial Hygiene
Economics
The Practitioner's Toolbox and Desktop Handbook

ROGER LEE WABEKE

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
 Air Contaminants,
Ventilation, and
Industrial Hygiene
Economics
The Practitioner's Toolbox and Desktop Handbook

librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
 Air Contaminants,
Ventilation, and
Industrial Hygiene
Economics
The Practitioner's Toolbox and Desktop Handbook

ROGER LEE WABEKE

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

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CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20130227

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 I dedicate this book to:
Mary, my best friend, wife, and life companion; our wonderful
children: Lisa, Lori, and Michael and their spouses, Richard,
John, and Andrea, respectively; and our beautiful grandchildren:
Abigail, Charlotte, Grace, Kettler, and Veronica;
present and former colleagues and my students who, through
support and guidance, offered constructive criticism, shared
their many solved problems, and gave insights without which
this book would not have sufficient richness and value;
my manuscript reviewers: Drs. Patricia A. Brogan, MSc, PhD, CIH,
ROH, and Ernest P. Chiodo, MD, JD, MPH, MSc, MBA, CIH,
all who strived, currently endeavor, as well as future
practitioners who work to improve our environmental air quality
applying fundamental industrial hygiene practices, and
my publisher, Taylor & Francis/CRC Press, who with their
endorsement and oversight, nudged me to embark on this project.

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Contents
Disclaimer .................................................................................................................ix
Author .......................................................................................................................xi
Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii
How to Use This Book ............................................................................................. xv
Introduction .............................................................................................................xix

Chapter 1 725 Problems with Solutions (Industrial Hygiene, Ventilation,

Toxicology, Chemical Risk Management, Control Methods) ..............1

Index ...................................................................................................................... 397

vii
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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Disclaimer
Conscientious effort was made to ensure the contents of this book and every prob-
lem, in particular, are technically accurate, complete, and useful in the day-to-day
practice of contemporary industrial hygiene and air pollution control engineering.
All calculations and problems were critically peer reviewed. However, when thou-
sands of informational items are entered into a published work, a few typographical
errors may result even with the best efforts of everyone involved in the process. To
ensure completeness and accuracy of these calculations, users are encouraged to
send any corrections, additions, and comments that enhance usefulness of this hand-
book to the author or to the publisher.

Roger Lee Wabeke

Detroit, Michigan

Man is here for the sake of other men—and for all unknown souls with whose fate
we are connected by a bond of sympathy.

Albert Einstein

ix
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Author
The author spent 47 years in full-time professional
practice as a chemical safety engineer, industrial
hygienist, and occupational toxicologist. Throughout
a richly diverse practice, he encountered many chal-
lenging situations that he wished to share with those
who follow. This is the overarching purpose of this
book.
Air Contaminants and Industrial Hygiene
Ventilation, published in 1998 by Lewis
Publishers/Taylor & Francis/CRC Press, was his
first book. Included here are 450 solved problems
with comments from the book. Added were 275
problems, and the original 450 were expanded and
modified to reflect current ventilation engineering and industrial hygiene practices
plus advances in knowledge of atmospheric toxicants and control by elimination,
substitution, process changes, ventilation, personal protective equipment, warnings,
wet methods, and other time-tested interventional and prevention strategies.
Someone once jokingly said that every equation in a book cuts potential sales by
one half. If so, this book, replete with numerous, but simple, equations, will never
be a best seller. Regardless, the publisher and author disagree and expect ample
acceptance.

xi
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Preface
A few problems and calculations in this book were initially developed to assist indus-
trial hygienists preparing for their board-certification examinations. After the author
passed (albeit probably marginally) two-day board-certification examinations in
1973 in Boston, he and a few other certified industrial hygienists from the Detroit
area organized a one-day—admittedly brief, review course for others preparing
for their examinations. Now, almost four decades later, that process is the primary
launch point for this book.
The course was offered semi-annually, on Saturdays, at Wayne State University
School of Medicine in the Department of Occupational and Environmental Health.
The Michigan Industrial Hygiene Society provided ample refreshments. The regis-
trants and instructors brought “brown bag” lunches. There were no fees; instruc-
tors provided pro bono lectures. Nine discussion rubrics covered air sampling and
analysis, ventilation, toxicology, calculations, radiation, respiratory protection,
industrial hygiene chemistry, noise, and heat stress and strain. With 50 minutes
for each subject, only the industrial hygiene “pearls” could be presented. After the
didactic lectures, many met afterwards for pizza, libations, and to discuss ques-
tions. Today, of course, there are several high-quality one-week review courses
offered around the country for a reasonable fee. The depth and scope of these
courses are far more encompassing and preparative than our early initiative one-
day course.
This is the author’s second book addressing air quality, ventilation, toxicology,
and other industrial hygiene issues. The first book, Air Contaminants and Industrial
Hygiene Ventilation (1998), was widely received throughout the world. Several persons
encouraged the author to write a second book expanding upon the first publication.
Over recent years, he developed more lectures to assist his students in professional
development, provided case studies that incorporate the business model and enterprise
economics, and tips to prepare for the Certified Industrial Hygienist board examina-
tions. In some aspects, this book could partly be considered the second edition of
the first book because every problem in that book is included here, but expanded.
Additional text was added to further clarify initial existing problems, and 275 new
problems were added. In part, over a long career with many potholes, the author
hopes that this book removes some bumps and rough spots for those who follow. The
author, now late in his career and at the 47th year of full-time professional practice in
18 countries and in every state except Hawaii and Idaho is still learning and desires to
share these quantitative and practical experiences and tips from his journey.
Many problems in this book were acquired during the author’s career of resolv-
ing industrial hygiene exposures of workers and others in different environments.
These included evaluations of numerous workplace poisonings, fatalities, chemical
spills, and catastrophic air emissions. A few were provided over the years by present
and former colleagues, mentors, and graduate students far too numerous to mention.

xiii
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xiv Preface

Some were air modeling calculations. Still others served as the foundation for home-
work assignments and examination questions for graduate students in classes the
author presented at Wayne State University Schools of Medicine and Pharmacy and
Health Sciences, the University of Michigan School of Public Health, and under-
graduate students at Henry Ford Community College.

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How to Use This Book
This handbook is intended primarily for use by

• Industrial and occupational hygienists

• Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system engineers
• Air pollution control engineers
• Chemical safety engineers
• Hazardous material managers
• Inhalation and application toxicologists
• Air contaminant emergency responders
• Health care and public health professionals concerned with air quality
• Environmental evaluation and control engineers
• Atmospheric scientists and meteorologists
• Professors and teachers of these subjects
• Graduate and undergraduate students of these subjects
• Risk managers

Several typical plus some uncommon industrial hygiene problems that require
mathematical solutions are covered. Tips are given to help one prepare for and take
the board-certification examinations. Common formulae, equations, conversions, and
other information worthy of committing to memory and practice are also included.
This book was prepared to be browsed. To simply read this book offers little.
The problems must be studied. Once the ramifications of a problem are explored,
the underlying concepts must be encoded to help ensure future relevance to
practitioners.
Those preparing for board-certification examinations should master introductory
sections and, at a minimum, the following 14 problems: 140, 304–306, 308–314, 271,
276, and 277. Once these are successfully handled, problems 1–7, 10–14, 16–20, 27,
29, 30, 32, 70, 79, 88, 93, 101, 102, 108, 297, 316, 321, and 406 should be understood.
Those in the best position to achieve a high score on these aspects in the certification
examinations will begin preparing at least one year in advance. If only six problems
are mastered daily for four months during the examination preparatory year, every
problem and exercise in this book will be covered.
The teacher of these subjects can extract selected, relevant course problems for
student assignments and homework. With only slight modifications, each problem
can be custom “tailored” to make it unique with pedagogic relevance to the course
materials and content. Many problems can serve as a launch point to discuss indus-
trial hygiene control methods and consequences to workers’ health if preventive
steps are not taken. The author has assigned several problems to be solved by his
students with supporting industrial hygiene and environmental control methods.
Students defend their selections of control methods incorporating cost savings and
technical solutions when feasible.

xv
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xvi How to Use This Book

The seasoned and experienced professional is encouraged to browse this book as

well. Colleagues have suggested that solving these problems might be used to help
maintain board-certification maintenance points. This concept could be raised with
the American Board of Industrial Hygiene. Moreover, the Board could select some
key problems from this casebook to be included in the revolving examinations.
The problems in this workbook are not grouped into categories. Few problems
in industrial hygiene fall neatly into a specified “type.” Rather, problems faced by
today’s industrial hygienists embrace several diverse topics. For example, a complex
chemical spill issue could entail compound calculation sets of evaporation rates,
air contaminant concentrations, worker’s dose determinations, additive mixtures,
community evacuation parameters, dilution ventilation requirements, and chemical
contaminant half-lives and environmental fate. Several problems encompass such a
broad scope and are of this nature (e.g., see Problem 316, referred to by a colleague
as the “mother of all industrial hygiene problems”). While daunting, Problem 316
is not as challenging as a few others. Some problems, understandably, are far more
rigorous and robust than others. Certain key types of problems are presented in vari-
ous ways.
Since the problems in this handbook cannot be easily sorted into groups, it is the
author’s hope that industrial hygienists, chemical safety engineers, students and their
teachers, atmospheric toxicant scientists, ventilation engineers, and all others will
frequently peruse the problems. Only in this way will users begin to develop calcula-
tion methods and their “mental index” of the broad scope and diversity of a plethora
of problems and their own systematic schema to easily define and solve them.
Another purpose of this handbook is to provide an assortment, a repository, and
a reference set of calculations to assist industrial hygienists throughout their careers.
Calculations to arrive at solutions for many of these types of problems are performed
frequently by industrial hygiene practitioners. Others are done less often, some
rarely, but the examples are included to assist resolution of uncommon problems.
The author hopes that students of these problems will not only be challenged, but
will also see the diversity of issues industrial hygienists and chemical safety engi-
neers encounter, and that they will be stirred to regularly return to this handbook and
engage themselves by these problems. In so doing, those responsible for conserving
health and providing for the comfort of workers and the public’s health and safety
might see solutions applicable to situations they regularly, or perhaps even rarely,
encounter during their professional practice.
Many problems can be solved by a variety of methods. The calculations are not
always necessarily the “best” or the quickest way; however, the author was comfort-
able with the approach that was taken and fully recognized that stated solution steps
might not be the most expedient method to arrive at the answers. Most problems,
hopefully, balance theory and practical applications. A tad of levity is injected into
some problems to help break the tedium and chore of some of the more daunting,
lengthy calculations.
These problems do not require mathematical skills beyond college algebra and
elementary statistics. Most calculations are simple arithmetic, but all require humil-
ity and critical, logical thinking based on sound understanding of basic industrial
hygiene principles relating to evaluation of exposures to air contaminants. Since the

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How to Use This Book xvii

science aspects of industrial hygiene (as contrasted with intuitive “art” parts) are
quantitative in nature, those who are adept at number “crunching” and mathemati-
cal logic should have no difficulty solving these problems. Once the principles of
a problem are understood, then it becomes, as the engineers say, simply a matter
to methodically “plug and chug” the often ponderous numerical arithmetic parts.
Several problems in this workbook are variations on a common theme. The author
believes that, to fully understand some of the key concepts, one must be able to
see a multifaceted problem from all aspects and be able to solve for the different
variables.
Finally, these problems are a work practice module. For those preparing for the
board-certification examinations, little will be gained by sitting down and simply
reading these problems and skipping the exercises. One will reap only nominal ben-
efit from the problems unless they are systematically analyzed, comprehended, and
completed.
Remember that the certification examination questions are highly quantitative
in nature. Over half of the core aspects examination questions may involve ques-
tions that require calculations, whereas the comprehensive practice portion may be
20% or more questions requiring calculations in air pollution, noise, radiation, heat
strain, chemistry, ventilation, statistics, toxicology, safety engineering, ergonomics,
and other rubrics.
Note: Throughout the book, unless otherwise stated, the concentrations of vapors
and gases are expressed as parts per million by volume (ppm = ppmv), not parts per
million by mass or weight (ppmm). Likewise, listed concentrations of air contami-
nants in high concentrations may be expressed as percent by volume (%v), or just %.
Assume NTP (25°C, 760 mm Hg, dry air) unless otherwise stated. With knowledge
of geography, we assume that port and sea level cities have a barometric pressure
of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Although the author is knowledgeable in
significant numbers, you will encounter calculations where this principle was not
applied because application will not offer more insight.

CONTENTS
1. 725 practical (and some unusual, but helpful), solved problems with rel-
evant, timely comments and helpful application tips covering:
• Air contaminants, toxicants, and toxins released from our mobile and
stationary sources that can adversely affect the health and comfort of
people at worksites and those in residential, public, and ambient atmo-
spheric environments with a major emphasis on industrial hygiene
practice
• Industrial ventilation system design engineering, testing, and intervention.
• Inhaled, dermally absorbed, and ingested doses of toxicants and
toxins
• Air-sampling statistics and probability
2. 154 win–win business economic case studies demonstrating how to preserve
your clients’ financial resources, promote industrial hygiene, foster worksite
safety, learn the financial ropes of business economics, and help control your

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xviii How to Use This Book

clients’ potential adverse environmental impact and, in so doing, greatly

enhancing career progress
3. Tips on preparing for, and passing, Certified Industrial Hygienist board
examinations
4. Keys to professional development and future success for every industrial
hygiene student, early-career professionals, and those launching careers as
consultants in workplace safety, health, risk management, and environmen-
tal engineering

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Introduction
TIPS FOR THE AMERICAN BOARD OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
CERTIFICATION EXAMINATIONS
1. Bring a scientific calculator with fresh batteries. Be able to apply all major
functions. The calculator should have scientific notation, log10 and natural
logarithms, common conversions (e.g., gallons to liters, lb to kg, °F to °C,
and so on), exponential notation, and basic statistical functions.
2. Bring sharp pencils and new ball point pens to the exams. You might consider
hard candy, mints, and gum (nonbubble type). How about a canteen of cold
juice? Or a Thermos® of coffee? Cans of caffeinated soda (Mountain Dew®,
Coke®, Pepsi®)? An eye moisturizer (e.g., Visine®) might provide ocular relief
as needed.
3. Do not “cram” on the nights before the examinations. Kick back. Consider
going to a light air pollution opera or to a nice movie—preferably a good
industrial hygiene comedy or a documentary on the correct application of
Pitot tubes and velometers.
4. Get a good night’s sleep. Arrive refreshed and confident and fearlessly,
boldly stroll into the examination room. Intimidate those about you in these
competitive tests by sneering and insinuating that these examinations are
just a “walk in the park.” The examination is difficult. Some have sat for
the examination as many as four times before passing. Having interviewed
several who sat at least twice, I quickly learned they initially failed to take
the time and apply hard work to prepare.
5. Wear comfortable clothes, for example, big, soft, over-sized shoes are nice
at examinations. Sit in the center of the examination room to avoid any cold
drafty walls and windows, solar heat, and excessive glare and contrasty shad-
ows. Select a comfortable chair seat. Consider bringing a chair seat pan cushion.
6. Eat a light, well-balanced, nourishing breakfast and a similar lunch. Avoid
heavy pancakes, fatty food, highly fibrous food, greasy donut “sinkers,” and so
on. Sugars from fresh fruits and a couple of proteins might not be a bad idea.
Active brains need amino acids. Bring chunks of cheese to the examinations.
Studies show we reason better when well hydrated. Taking a laxative the night
before is not prudent. Be mindful that the residence time of food in the gastro-
intestinal tract can be 24 or more hours. Third helpings of stewed prunes after
a beans, cabbage, and turnips dinner the day before examination are foolish
menu choices. Pray that those seated around you did not eat such a meal.
7. Your first examination calculation must be:

examination duration (in minutes) average number of minutes allocated

=
total number of questions question

xix
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xx Introduction

Be mindful of this average, and do not spend too much time on a single
question. Try to pace yourself. Questions and problems involving calcula-
tions will normally require more time than others and might be weighted
more heavily. Wear a wrist watch to keep track of the time and your mental
pacing schedule.
8. Answer every question. There are no penalties for guessing. A chimpanzee
will get about 20% correct answers if there are five choices and the mul-
tiple answers and his or her guesses are truly randomized. But, knowing
absolutely nothing, you must do at least three to four times better than the
chimp to be considered for a passing grade. Yet, three times nothing is still
zero.
9. There is an ancient bromide: If you must guess at the answer, stick with
your first hunch. If you erase it and replace it with a second guess, odds are
you will be farther from the scientific truth. And the Board is searching for
the scientific truth.
Having stated that, while scientific principles are critical in the practice
of industrial hygiene, professional judgment is as well. We often encounter
exposure scenes where controls are obviously indicated, but a standard or
guideline has not been exceeded. This must never deter us from intervening
on behalf of workers at the risk of the six Ds: Discomfort, health Disorders,
reversible Diseases, irreversible Diseases, Deaths, and significant property
Damages.
10. Disregard previous answers; that is, if you guessed (or correctly answered)
choice “C” on the previous five questions, do not think “C” for the next
answer is incorrect if you must guess. There is a 20% chance it is correct.
11. Always ask yourself once you have selected an answer: “Does my answer
make sense?” I have seen some absurd answers from students who, when
rushed, did not take time to ask this simple question, yet they could other-
wise correctly solve the problem. Wild answers included 154.7 × 106 ppmv,
a TWAE of 879 gram of dust/m3, and a 30-minute exposure of a worker
to 2300 ppmv HCN, followed by a 7- 12 hour exposure to the same gas at
0.01 ppm! But then she/he will no longer be working after an inhalation or
two. Where is it written that one cannot evaluate the exposure of a corpse?
12. Memorize equations, constants, formulae, atomic weights, conversions, and
so on given on the following introductory pages. Equations and constants in
boxes are especially important and are “must knows.”
13. Watch decimal points and orders of magnitude! Watch units! Ensure that
they are consistent—10 thimbles do not a gallon make. Five cm ≠ 11'. Be
able to perform dimensional analysis to convert to other units, for example:
from 100 fpm to mph, from 173 mg/sec to tons/day, and 2.3 mg/m3 to lb/ft3:

100 feet 60 minutes mile 1.14 miles

× × = , barely a light breeze
minute hour 5280 feet hour

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Introduction xxi

173mg 60 sec 60 min 24 hr g

× × × ×
sec min hr day 1000 mg
lb ton 0.0165 ton
× × =
453.59 g 2000 lb day

2.3mg m3 g 0.00220 lb 1.43 × 10 −7 lb

× × × =
m3 35.315ft 3 1000 mg g ft 3

Note how fractions are arranged so identical units cancel each other. Two
final practices: convert 1.8 mcg/m3/second into lb/ft3/year (= 0.00354 lb/
ft3/year), and if men’s facial hair growth rate is an average of 0.5 cm/day,
calculate a beard-second (a standard unit for “slow,” a counterpart to light-
year) (5.79 × 10−9 cm/sec). The speed of light is 29,979,245,800 cm/sec.
So, the ratio of beard-second to the speed of light is (5.79 × 10−9 cm/sec)/
2.9979 × 1010 cm/sec = 1.93 × 10−19—of highly redeeming social and scien-
tific value. OK, let us try the inverse of a beard-second to the speed of light
to arrive at values closer to which we can understand: (1/5.79 × 10−9 cm/sec)/
2.9979 × 1010 cm/s = 0.00576. Now, most can deal easily with that number.
The inverse of beard-second is an in-grown whisker which divided by speed
of light is 0.00576 centimeter/second.
An excellent Website for conversions is www.onlineconversion.com
where you can convert almost any metric to virtually any reasonable
other—some amusingly silly.
14. Finally, PREPARE, DON’T PRAY! If you want to successfully solve the
problems, PRACTICE, PRACTICE, and PRACTICE some more! If you
work with other industrial hygienists, ask to solve their problems! Ask them
to share examples of problems they might have in their notes and profes-
sional repertoire.

Dr. Steven Levine (professor emeritus, University of Michigan’s School of Public

Health) offered a few of the following examination tips. Heed Dr. Levine’s sage
advice. He is certified in both the Comprehensive Practice and Chemical Aspects of
Industrial Hygiene. The author added to and augmented Dr. Levine’s tips.

AT LEAST SIX MONTHS BEFORE THE EXAMINATION

1. Take a comprehensive review course. Refrain from sight-seeing and going
“out on the town” while attending this course; instead, study every night.
Review the notes for the next day’s lectures. Prepare questions for instruc-
tors in areas where your concepts and skills are fuzzy.
2. Outline the notes in the book from the comprehensive review course.
3. Condense the outline on 3" × 5" flip cards. The outlining and condensing
“process” will be a valuable learning tool.

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xxii Introduction

4. Buy and use a computerized study and simulated examination program.

These programs give practice in answering multiple choice questions.
5. Practice every type of calculation you can find. Ten of the most important
types of calculations in the area of air contaminants, risk assessment, and
ventilation are
• “Dr. Clum Z. Chemist” who spilled a bottle of a volatile solvent with
known vapor pressure in a room of a given volume with described ven-
tilation parameters
• Exponential relationships (e.g., radioactive decay, half-value thickness
shielding, dilution ventilation, and half-life concentrations)
• Inverse square law
• Converting air contaminant concentrations (e.g., converting mg/m3 into
ppmv)
• Vapor pressure calculations; saturation concentrations in confined,
unventilated spaces; gas and vapor migration
• Ventilation air volume and hood capture velocity and duct velocity
calculations
• Additive mixture rule for multiple airborne toxicants
• Time-weighted average dose calculations including consideration for
overtime
• TLV®s and OSHA PELs for air contaminant mixtures
• The three fan laws; ventilation hoods ventilation capture velocities,
characteristics of mechanical local exhaust hoods and systems, and
dilution ventilation

If you understand these basic types of problems, you will be able to do a sig-
nificant number, perhaps all, air sampling and ventilation types of examination
calculations.

6. Exercise during your study breaks. Being physically fit will help you men-
tally and emotionally and gives you the stamina needed for this rigorous
examination.
7. Do not reward yourself for wasting study time. For example, if you have a
full day to study, and find yourself unable to focus, do “nothing” until you
can. If, instead, you do other productive work, you will feel good about your
alternative productivity, but you will not have accomplished any studying.
Every now and then, that is OK.
8. Keep an honest record of concepts you do, and do not, know. Never hesitate
to ask for help—an earmark of professionals who know their limitations,
weaknesses.
9. Know how to operate your calculators quickly and accurately.
10. Bring an extra calculator—same type (and extra batteries).
11. Study diligently daily. For example, if only six problems are studied from
this book every day, 120 days (≅ 4 months) are needed to study all but three
of them. If handled this way, these study tasks are not so daunting.

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Introduction xxiii

IMMEDIATELY BEFORE AND DURING THE EXAMINATION

1. Stay in a comfortable, nearby quiet hotel. Indulge yourself. Consider order-
ing only high-quality, nutritionally balanced room service meals. Tip gen-
erously. But do not “hole up” in your room. Get outside once in a while.
Take a brisk walk once or twice a day while making your final preparations.
2. Do not stay with relatives.
3. Do not bring your family, especially any young, whining children. Substitute
with their charming pictures.
4. Arrive at the examination location at least one full day early.
5. Eat safe food before the examinations. Ask yourself if that taco or cheese-
cake that you want to eat the night before will cost you a few percentage
points on the tests. Consuming alcoholic beverages the night before the
examinations would be foolish; all of your central nervous system neurons
must function at warp speed.
6. Wear comfortably soft, clean, loose-fitting clothing to the examinations.
Bring a light sweater in the event the examination room becomes chilly.
The author wore a baseball cap when he sat for the examinations. Not only
did this help to keep his brain warm, but glare was reduced, and he was able
to focus more clearly on the question. Whatever works.
7. Arrive before registration starts, get a good seat, relax, take care of last
minute personal needs, and then go back outside of the room to register.
Boldly stroll into the examination room exuding extreme confidence to
intimidate all those around you.
8. Bring Zip-Loc® bags of candy or other snacks to the examinations so that you
can keep your blood sugar and energy reasonably constant throughout the day.
9. Bring aspirin, Tylenol®, Motrin®, Excedrin® (with caffeine), Digel®, and
Pepto-Bismol® in a small container to the examinations. While not meant
to endorse these products, this list covers a full range of over-the-counter
drugs to control common, simple problems that might reduce your abilities
to perform in an optimal fashion.
10. When you get to the examination room, fill out all required forms, and then
await the start of the examinations.
11. Spend the next few minutes practicing “positive visualization” where you
can see yourself answering the questions accurately, finishing the exami-
nations on time, and then receiving your CIH, handsomely framing your
certificate, and proudly boasting to all within the sound of your voice.
12. Do not waste time pondering a single question, thus leaving insufficient
time to complete the examinations. Be mindful of your calculated average
time allotted for each question.
13. If you finish the examinations early, carefully check every answer (especially
your calculations for decimal points, units, reasonableness of answers, etc.).
14. Pack an umbrella and/or a raincoat. Sitting for examinations in soggy cloth-
ing and with cold, wet hair and shoes might cost a few percentage points off
the final score.

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xxiv Introduction

15. Clean your glasses. Consider wearing comfortable ear plugs to reduce any
noisy distractions. Pack a handkerchief or Kleenex® to handle any sneez-
ing or crying. Eye drops aid weary eyes. To not distract others around you,
refrain from sobbing loudly over problems you cannot answer. On the other
hand, your wailing might reduce their vigilance.

EQUATIONS, CONSTANTS, CONVERSIONS, FORMULAE

TO MEMORIZE
Know the empirical formulae of the common alcohols, aromatic hydrocarbons,
alkanes, alkenes, ketones, phenols, ethers, and so on and their substituted products
(e.g., trichloroethylene, 2-nitropropane, pentachlorophenol, bromobenzene, etc.).
Know the generic, alternative, and trivial names for the common solvents (e.g.,
methyl chloroform = 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 2-ethoxyethanol = ethylene glycol mono-
ethyl ether, carbon “tet” = carbon tetrachloride, “tri” = trichloroethylene, “perc” = ?,
MIBK = ?).

ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF MAJOR ELEMENTS

(rounded to the nearest whole number)

Na = 23 Cr = 52 Zn = 65 As = 75
Si = 32 Fe = 56 As = 75 Hg = 201a
Ca = 40 Cu = 64 Cd = 112 Pb = 207a
Cr = 52 Fe = 55 P = 31 Mn = 55a
a The intelectual robbers.

Memorize H=1 C = 12
N = 14 O = 16
S = 32 Cl = 35.5

From the above list of approximate atomic weights, know how to calculate
molecular weights of common gases, metallic salts, oxides, solvents, and so on.
For example, without consulting chemistry textbooks and references, calculate the
molecular weights of sulfur dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, nitrogen dioxide, acetone,
lead carbonate, toluene, carbon monoxide, chlorine, sulfuric acid, ozone, MEK,
zinc oxide, limestone, benzene, caustic soda, arsenic trioxide, potash, rouge, and
trichlorophenol.
This implies you have familiarity with chemical nomenclature including com-
mon and trivial names—important to the industrial hygienist because, for example,
a worker might say that he’s shoveling ash. You ask, “What kind of ash?” knowing
there is coal-fired boiler bottom ash, air pollution control device fly ash, wood and

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Introduction xxv

oil ash, soda ash (Na2CO3), potash (K 2CO3), and bicarb ash (NaHCO3). He “knows”
ash, but you must be certain. For example, if this is soda ash, you collect breath-
ing zone air samples for total airborne particulates, perhaps respirable airborne
particulates, and analyze your samples for total sodium. Then, divide the molecular
weight of two sodiums into the molecular weight of soda ash (sodium carbonate) to
get the correction factor for percent sodium that you then use to convert sodium to
sodium carbonate.
Finally, to complete exposure assessment, carefully compare your results to the
exposure standards and guidelines: total dust, respirable dust, total sodium carbon-
ate, and respirable sodium carbonate. Moreover, since much soda ash is mined, and
not synthesized today, it is prudent to analyze minerals for respirable quartz as well.
Your work is cut out for you and your industrial hygiene analytical chemist particu-
larly if the worker shoveled a mixture of soda ash and potash.

Molecular Weights of Common Gas and Vapor Air Contaminants

Acetic acid 60.05 Isoamyl acetate 130.18
Acetone 58.08 Isoamyl alcohol (n, s) 88.15
Ammonia 17.03 Isobutyl acetate 116.16
Benzene 78.11 Isobutyl alcohol 74.12
2-Butoxyethanol 118.17 Isopropyl alcohol 60.09
Butyl acetate (n, s) 116.16 MDI 250.25
Butyl alcohol (n, s, t) 74.12 Methanol 32.04
Chlorine 70.91 2-Methoxyethanol 76.09
Cyclohexane 84.16 2-Methoxyethanol acetate 118.13
Cyclohexanol 100.16 Methyl chloroform 133.42
Cyclohexanone 98.14 Methylene chloride 84.94
Diacetone alcohol 116.16 Methyl ethyl ketone 72.10
Diisobutyl ketone 142.24 Methyl isobutyl ketone 100.16
Dimethylformamide 73.09 Mineral spirits ≅ 136
Dioxane 88.10 Naphtha (VM & P) ≅ 112
2-Ethoxyethanol 90.12 Nitric oxide 30.01
2-Ethoxyethyl acetate 132.16 Nitrogen dioxide 46.01
Ethyl acetate 88.10 Ozone 48.00
Ethyl alcohol 46.07 Propyl acetate (n) 102.13
Ethyl benzene 106.16 Propyl alcohol (n) 60.09
Formaldehyde 30.03 Styrene 104.14
Gasoline (≅ <1–3% benzene) ≅ 78–108 Sulfur dioxide 64.07
Hexane (n) 86.17 TDI (What’s this?) 174.16
2-Hexanone (MnBK) 100.16 Toluene 92.13
Hydrogen bromide 80.92 Trichloroethylene 131.40
Hydrogen chloride 36.46 Triethylamine 101.19
Hydrogen cyanide 27.03 Vinyl acetate 86.09
Hydrogen fluoride 20.01 Vinyl chloride 62.50
Hydrogen sulfide 34.08 Vinyl toluene 118.18
Indene 116.15 Xylene (o, m, p) 106.16

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xxvi Introduction

Molecular weights above are, for example, grams/gram-mole or pounds/pound-

mole. Water, for example, has a molecular weight of 18. That is, 18 g (or 18 mL) of
water is 1 mole of water. Each mole of any substance contains 6.022045 × 1023 mol-
ecules or atoms. This huge number is Avogadro’s.

Pandammonium trichloride = ?
2,5-Dimethyl chickenwire = ?
4,6′, 7-β-Triphenylawfulstuff = ?
Methyl ethyl death = ?

THE NOT-SO MYSTERIOUS MOLE

Moles (the chemical, not the underground kind; nor an FBI or Central Intelligence
Agency counterspy; nor malignant skin blemish) confuse some people. Consider
three balloons each containing 1 mol of a different gas and all at the same tem-
peratures and pressures. How can they be so equivalent in most ways, but yet so
different? As we see in the tables below, other than their molecular chemical proper-
ties and mass, each mole is the same as the others. If you know 1 mole, in a physi-
cochemical sense, you know them all. A mole of anything has exactly Avogadro’s
number of molecules, and, arguably, one can have a mole each of acorns, chocolate

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Introduction xxvii

bits, and rice—different in kind, but equal in numbers. Moles are not evil burrowing
animals, but if we “Know thy Beast!” we will be better prepared to deal with these
chemically helpful critters.

H2S CI2 NH3

Hydrogen sulfide ≠ chlorine ≠ ammonia

34.1 grams ≠ 70.9 grams ≠ 17 grams
1 mole = 1 mole = 1 mole
24.45 liters = 24.45 liters = 24.45 liters
6 × 1023 moleculesa = 6 × 1023 moleculesa = 6 × 1023 moleculesa
25°C (298 K) = 25°C (298 K) = 25°C (298 K)
760 mm Hg = 760 mm Hg = 760 mm Hg
106 ppmv (100%) = 106 ppmv (100%) = 106 ppmv (100%)

a Precisely, 1 mole is 6.022045 × 1023 molecules and is Avogadro’s number—not his telephone number,
which, if it were, and you dialed 100 numbers every second around the clock, it would take only
190,827,090,000,000 years to make the call. He probably would not be home, or his line is busy. Now,
if he only had “Call Waiting!” After 3 billion years, only 0.0016% of numbers were dialed, the sun has
become a “red giant,” your telephone melts as the Earth burns to a charred cinder, and your line was
disconnected because you did not pay your bill before you became burnt toast. Molecules, indeed, are
incredibly tiny.

Indeed, 6.022045 × 1023 of anything is 1 mole of that thing. Imagine 1 mole of

adult elephants!
Using 24.45 L of H2S at 760 mm Hg and 25°C, as an example, if
34.1 grams = 106 ppmv (100%), then 34.1 micrograms = 1 ppmv. Or, we could say:

34.1mcg 1.39 mcg H 2 S

1ppm v H 2 S = =
24.45 L liter

Expressed another way: 1 μL of H2S gas diluted to 1 L with pure air at

STP = 1 ppmv (1 part H2S gas mixed with 999,999 parts air, both by volume).
Back to the balloons: if the temperature and/or the pressure are changed inside
and/or outside the balloon, the volume of the balloon changes, but the mass of each
gas inside remains the same—precisely 1 mole of each. However, the molecules
may be closer together (less energy) or farther apart (more repelling, bouncing
energy).

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xxviii Introduction

A gram–molecular volume of any gas or vapor occupies 22.4 liters at standard

conditions of 0°C and 760 mm Hg pressure. This is the mass of 6.022045 × 1023 mol-
ecules of that gas or vapor. This assumes all gases and vapors behave as if they are
“ideal”; for practical purposes at not too deviant temperature and gas pressure, this
is the case. Note that the gram-molecular volume becomes 24.45 liters at 25°C and
760 mm Hg; that is, heat expands gas volume at constant pressure and constant mass.
See Problem 495.

mg 22.4 absolute temperature 760 mm Hg

ppm v = × × ×
m 3 mol. wt. 273.16 K pressure,mm Hg

at 25°C and 760 mm Hg (1 gram-mole of a gas or vapor occupies 24.45 L at NTP):

(mcg/L) × 24.45
ppm =
v molecular weight

ppm v × molecular weight

mg/M3 =
24.45

CONVERSION FACTORS AND CONSTANTS

There are several freeware programs on the Internet for conversions. The author finds
www.onlineconversions.com very helpful, comprehensive, and robustly accurate.

R = 0.0821 L-atm/K-mole ppm (volume/volume) = x /10 6 1% = 10,000 ppm

mcg = μg = microgram 1 ft ≅ 28.317 L
3 μL/L = ppmv
ppmv = micromoles of gas or vapor/mole of gas or vapor 1 mL = 0.001 L
K = °C + 273.16 K °C = 5/9(°F – 32) °F = (1.8 × °C) + 32
1 kg = 2.2 lb 1 lb = 454 g 1" = 2.54 cm 1 m3 ≅ 35.3 ft3
1 L ≅ 0.0353 ft 3 1" = 25,400 microns micron = 1 μm = 10−6 m
1 gallon = 3.785 L 1 fluid ounce ≅ 29.6 mL 1 oz = 28.35 g
1 gallon H2O = 8.345 lb (at 20°C) 1 gal/min = 0.134 ft3/min 1 lb/hr = 10.9 kg/day
mg/L (liquids) = ppm 1 lb/day = 315 mg/min 1 m3 = 106 cm3 = 106 mL
volume of liquid × density (specific gravity) = mass of liquid μ = micro-(1/106)
Area of circle = πr 2 volume of cylinder = πr h 2 1 ton (2000 lb) = 907.185 kg
1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg = 29.9” Hg = 14.7 lb/in2 1 ton H2O = 1.0183 m3
Volume of sphere = 1.333 πr3 1 m3 = 1000 L 20 “drops” ≅ 1 mL

Some might find the following standard metric descriptors helpful:

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Introduction xxix

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI)

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere a
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd

Questions also arise, now and then, about numerical prefixes. The following table
puts these queries to rest:

Symbol Prefix Ratio Symbol Prefix Ratio

T Tetra- 1012 c Centi- 10−2
G Giga- 109 m Milli- 10−3
M Mega- 106 μ Micro- 10−6
k Kilo- 103 n Nano- 10−9
h Hecto- 102 p Pico- 10−12
daa Deca- 10 f Femto- 10−15
da Deci- 10−1 a Atto- 10−18

a Avoid using these to prevent confusion. For example, 1 dL = 100 mL, but one decali-
ter = 10,000 mL—a 100-fold difference. I like milliliters. For reasons not clear to me, blood
lead test results are traditionally reported as, for example, 9 micrograms/deciliter = 9 μg/dL.

IDEAL GAS (AND VAPOR) LAWS

Equations in boxes are worthy of committing to memory by those who practice
industrial hygiene regularly.

General gas law: PV = nRT

n = number of moles R = universal gas constant = 0.0821 L-atm/mole-K

i = initial gas condition f = final gas condition
P = gas pressure (atm) V = gas volume (L)

T = absolute temperature (in kelvin, K). Read: ABSOLUTE temperature! It is a

common mistake to forget conversion of temperatures to their absolute, basal value—
a state of zero energy.
Pi Vi P V
= f f
Ti Tf

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xxx Introduction

or, rearranging

Vi Tf Pi
Vf =
Ti Pf

Charles’ law: The volume of a mass of gas is directly proportional to its

temperature on the Kelvin scale when the pressure is held constant, or Vi /
Ti = Vf /Tf.
Boyle’s law: The volume of a mass of gas held at constant temperature is
inversely proportional to the pressure under it is measured, or Pi /Vi = Pf /Vf.
Dalton’s law of partial pressures: The total pressure of a mixture of gases is
equal to the sum of partial pressures of the component gases and vapors.
Gay−Lussac’s Law: At constant volume, the pressure of a mass of gas varies
directly with the absolute temperature, or Pi /Ti = Pf /Tf.
Raoult’s law: The partial vapor pressure of each component of a liquid solvent
mixture equals its vapor pressure multiplied by its mole fraction in the mix-
ture; that is, a solution’s vapor pressure is proportional to the mole fraction
of its component solvents.

298 × V × P
Vo = ,
760 × T

where Vo = standard air volume in liters, V = the indigenous volume of

sampled air in liters, P = ambient pressure in mm of Hg. (Note: pressure is
the actual barometric pressure adjusted to sea level), and T = the ambient
temperature in kelvin, K = 273 K + ambient temperature, °C.)

To compare data on gases and vapors for direct-reading instruments with air qual-
ity standards, the meter reading in ppm must be converted into ppm at a normal
temperature and pressure (NTP = 25°C and 760 mm Hg) by using the formula:

P 298 K
ppm v (at NTP) = ppm meter × ×
760 mm Hg T

where
ppmmeter = meter reading in ppmv
P = sampling site barometric pressure (in mm Hg)
T = sampling site air temperature (in kelvin, K)
Barometric pressure is obtained by checking a calibrated barometer or calling the
local weather station, the airport, or the local National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration office. Ask for the unadjusted barometric pressure. If these sources
are unavailable, a good “rule-of-thumb” is for every 1000 feet of elevation, the baro-
metric pressure decreases by approximately 1 inch of mercury (Hg).

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Introduction xxxi

DILUTION VENTILATION TO PURGE CONFINED SPACES

AND ROOMS
Industrial hygienists are called on to predict concentration of an air contaminant
remaining in a room, space, bin, or tank after the operation of an exhaust or air sup-
ply ventilation system. Dilution of air contaminants will follow first-order exponen-
tial decay kinetics with excellent mixing of dilution air with contaminated air. The
key equation for these calculations is

C = kCo e −[Q / V ]t ,

where
C = concentration of contaminant remaining after operating the ventilation
system for a specified time period, t, usually in minutes
Co = the original air contaminant concentration, usually in ppmv or mg/m3
Q = ventilation rate [supply or exhaust, but not both (take larger of the two)–
usually in cubic feet of air per minute, cfm]
V = volume of the room or space, usually in cubic feet. If the room or confined
space has contents, subtract their estimated volume from the space vol-
ume. If unknown, one may use 15% contents for average volume of rooms
intended for normal occupancy. Storage bins, silos, tanks, and so forth usu-
ally have content volume level gauges.
k, a ventilation mixing factor (with 1 = perfect, and 10 = extremely poor), is
a subjective rating based on experience and judgment and/or applied as a
safety factor.

VENTILATION PURGING TIME

This equation is used to calculate the time required to reduce concentration of an air
contaminant with ventilation in a space of known volume. Depending on air mix-
ing characteristics, application of safety factors requiring professional judgment is
required.

−ln [C /Co ]
t = ,
Q /V

where
C = concentration after time t (min),
Co = original concentration,
Q = cfm, and
V = volume (ft3) of the space (room, tank, railroad boxcar, sealed silo, industrial
plant, etc.).

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xxxii Introduction

This equation assumes perfect mixing of the dilution air with the contaminated
air (k = 1.0). Otherwise, k = >1 to 10. In other words, if mixing is less than perfect (k,
say, = 5), and 30 minutes are required for dilution if mixing is perfect, 150 minutes
are required in this example.
Know the 10% rule and the 50% dilution ventilation rules:

2.3, 4.6, and 6.9 chamber, room, or tank volumes of clean air are needed, respec-
tively, to dilute an air contaminant to 10%, 1%, and 0.1% of its initial concen-
tration. This assumes perfect mixing of clean air with contaminated air and no
further generation of air contaminant as the ventilation proceeds.

Under the same conditions, after a volume of air equal to 50% of room or a
chamber volume has mixed with contaminated air, original concentration is
reduced by nearly 40% (to 60.7% of the original concentration).

EXAMPLE
If Co = 1000 ppm, Q = 230 cfm, and V = 1000 ft3, how long will it take to dilute
vapor or gas concentration to 100 ppmv? Assume perfect mixing of contaminated
air in dilution air.

− ln [100 ppm v /1000 ppm v ] − ln 0.1 −(−2.3)

t = = = = 10 minutes
3
230 ft /minutes/1000 ft 3 0.23 0.23

− ln [1 ppm v /1000 ppm v ] −((−6.9)

Time to dilute to1ppm v = t = = = 30 minutes
230 cfm/1000 ft 3 0.23

EXAMPLE
Co = 1000 ppmv
V = 1000 ft3 (e.g., 10' × 10' × 10')
Q = 230 cfm
t = 10, 20, 30, and 40 minutes (or 2.3, 4.6, 6.9, 9.2 room volumes of clean dilution air)
After 10 minutes:
− 230 cfm/1000 ft 3 10 minutes
C = Co e −[Q / V ]t = (1000 ppm v ) e
= (1000 ppm v ) e −2.3 = 100 ppm v

After 20 minutes:
− 230 cfm/1000 ft 3  20 minutes
C = (1000 ppm v ) e = (1000 ppm v ) e −4.6 = 10 ppm v

After 30 minutes: C = 1 ppmv

After 40 minutes: C = 0.1 ppmv

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Introduction xxxiii

Note the concentrations are reduced to 10% of the original concentrations for
every 2.3 chamber dilution volume.

C = Co e − q / V ,

where
C = resultant concentration, Co = original concentration, q = withdrawn sam-
ple volume, and V = chamber or room volume.

EXAMPLE
Using 50% ventilation volume
Co = 1000 ppmv
V = 1000 ft3
q = 500 ft3
3 /1000 ft 3
C = (1000 ppm v ) e −500 ft = (1000 ppm v )
e −0.5
= (1000 ppm v ) (0.6065) = 607 ppm v

Using log10:
= 2.3 × log  o 
q C
V C 
Use
C
= e −[Q /V ]t
Co

to determine fraction remaining after operating the ventilation system for a specified
time.

AIR CONTAMINANT HALF-LIFE

An air contaminant half-life, C1/2 (the time required to dilute an air contaminant to
50% of its original concentration), is calculated by

V 
C1/2 = 0.693   ,
Q 

where
V = volume of room, space, or container and
Q = the uniform dilution ventilation rate.

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xxxiv Introduction

For example, a 1000 ppmv gas or vapor concentration is reduced to 500 ppmv after
about 14 minutes by 200 cfm in a room 20' × 20' × 10' (4000 ft3), to 250 ppmv after 28
minutes, and to 125 ppmv after 0.693 × (4000 ft 3 /200 ft 3 /minutes) = 13.86 minutes.
This applies only when there is no further generation of contaminant, air contam-
inant does not chemically decay, and there is excellent mixing of uncontaminated air
with the polluted air.

DENSITY (SPECIFIC GRAVITY) CALCULATIONS

The term density denotes the ratio of a mass of a substance to that of an equal volume
of a reference substance (usually water at a given temperature). Density is essentially
identical to specific gravity of a substance, the terms being normally interchange-
able. For gases and vapors, air is often used as the reference.
Water at 4°C is at its maximum density = 1.000 g/cm3 = 1.000 g/mL = 62.4 lb/
ft = 1 kg/L (=0.997 g/cm3 at 25°C). Water is highly anomalous among liquids
3

because it is denser at 4°C than at its freezing point of 0°C. Otherwise, ice sinks to
the bottom of the lake! And life on Earth would be radically different than we know.
Ice does not float because of entrained air bubbles—a common myth.
Density calculations are used to determine the mass of a volume of liquid. For
example, the industrial hygienist might need to calculate the mass of a contaminant
that evaporates from the spill of a specified volume of volatile liquid. To do this:

liquid volume × liquid’s density = mass of liquid

For example, 50 milliliters of toluene totally evaporated after being spilled on

the floor:

0.87 g
50 mL of liquid phase toluene × = 43.5grams of vapor phase toluene
mL

Hydrocarbons that are not substituted with halogens (e.g., chlorine, bromine, fluo-
rine) generally have densities less than water (i.e., <1 g/mL). That is, they float on
water (e.g., oil, organic paint thinner, gasoline) if they do not appreciably mix or
dissolve in the water. Example densities (in g/mL, at normal room temperature) are

Kerosene 0.82 Benzene 0.88 Ethanol 0.79

Acetone 0.79 Methanol 0.79 Toluene 0.87
n-Butanol 0.81 CH2Cl2 1.34 CCl4 1.59

Acetone, methanol, ethanol, and butanol mix with water. Kerosene, toluene, and
benzene do not and, because their densities are less than water, they float on water.
Carbon tetrachloride and methylene chloride, with densities greater than water, sink
below water because they do not appreciably dissolve in water. Adding halogen
atoms to organic carbon molecules increases their mass and density.

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Introduction xxxv

VAPOR PRESSURE CALCULATIONS AND PROBLEMS

When the vapor pressure of a liquid or volatile solid is known, one can calculate the
maximum, or saturation, vapor concentration that can exist in an enclosed space.
Such calculations are very helpful when the industrial hygienist wishes to deter-
mine worst possible scenarios, and air-sampling instruments are not readily avail-
able. In the case of a closed vessel containing a volatile material, such as a chemical
storage tank, the molecules will escape (i.e., evaporate, volatilize) into air or gas
space above the liquid until eventually the enclosed atmosphere above the liquid can
no longer hold any more vapor molecules at that pressure and temperature. The air
(or other gas) is saturated at this point with molecules of the evaporating liquid (or
certain solids sublime).
Be mindful that many solids have vapor pressures. Iodine crystals, naphthalene
flakes, p-dichlorobenzene, organophosphate pesticides, DDT, and phthalates are
some examples of solids that, sooner or later, evaporate. It should be obvious that liq-
uids, in general, have higher vapor pressures than solids and that there is a tremendous
range of vapor pressures between different chemicals. Again, many solids exhibit
substantial vapor pressures at room temperature increasing, of course, if the tempera-
ture of the solid increases. Most do not regard motor oil as volatile. Spill a few drops
on warm summer driveway and you will find none visible after a few days or less.
One should not be misled that a chemical with a lower vapor pressure, all other
parameters being equal, is not necessarily less hazardous than another with a higher
vapor pressure. A chemical with a low vapor pressure, when spread over a large area,
can present a greater inhalation exposure hazard than a highly volatile material with
a small surface area (see Problem 375).
To calculate maximum vapor concentration of a volatile material (at usually an
assumed temperature of 25°C and 760 mm Hg) in an enclosed, unventilated space:

vapor pressure at a temperature

× 106 = ppm v of vapor
barometric pressure

Important: See Problem 677 for proper calculation of saturation concentrations

of highly volatile chemicals or, in general, for those with vapor pressures exceeding
20 mm Hg at 20°C.
For example, the vapor pressure of 2-nitropropane is 13 mm Hg at 20°C. What
is the saturation concentration of vapor at this temperature in a tank containing liq-
uid 2-NP where the barometric pressure is 710 mm Hg? Assume sufficient liquid
2-nitropropane is in the tank to achieve saturation.

13 mm Hg
× 106 = 18,310 ppm v 2 − NP
710 mm Hg

Correct value = 17,981 ppmv per Problem 677.

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xxxvi Introduction

This concentration of 2-nitropropane vapor (1.8%) is considerably greater

than the ACGIH TLV® ceiling concentration of 10 ppmv (A3 carcinogen), but is
slightly below LEL of 2.6%. Inhalation of this vapor concentration is a significant
health hazard, and, since concentration is greater than 10–20% of the LEL, this
also presents a potential fire and explosion hazard. The NIOSH IDLH for 2-NP
is 100 ppmv.
Some trivia:

1 ppm = 1 inch in 16 miles

1 ppb = 1 inch in 16,000 miles These help to explain
1 ppb = 4 in in a square mile
2 units to lay people.

1 ppt = 1 second in 31,688 years

Dry air in a standard sewing thimble at sea level weighs about 3600 micrograms.
A standard office staple 35,000 micrograms. Contrast this with the OSHA PEL of
50 mcg/m3 for lead dust, fume, and mist aerosols (see Problem 245).

STANDARD REFERENCE MAN

Calculations in industrial hygiene and toxicology involve parameters of a “stan-
dard” or a reference man. Such an individual unlikely exists, but comparison to the
standard reference can be helpful. For example, how many cubic meters of air are
inhaled by a worker during an 8-hour workday? Obviously, to answer we must know
a person’s body mass, metabolic rate and time-weighted work effort, respiration rate,
and so on. Knowing mg/m3 or ppmv in breathing zone air, how many milligrams of
the toxicant are inhaled during the air-sampling period can be calculated. The fol-
lowing parameters are helpful*:

Weight 70 kg
Height 175 cm
Lung weight 1000 g (900 g are blood and air)
Total lung capacity 5.6 L
Vital capacity 4.3 L
Functional residual capacity 2.2 L
Breathing rate 15/minutes
Tidal volume 1.45 L
Respiratory flow rate 43.5 L/minutes
Inspiratory period 2 seconds
Expiratory period 2 seconds

* Reference Man, International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 23, Pergamon
Press, 1975.

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Introduction xxxvii

ABIH CERTIFICATION EXAMINATION HOMEWORK

AIR CALCULATIONS AND VENTILATION
The following 14 problems are the most basic and fundamental to an understanding
and comprehension of principles of industrial hygiene air sampling and ventilation.
To help prepare for the American Board of Industrial Hygiene certification examina-
tions in the comprehensive practice of industrial hygiene, solve the following prob-
lems. If one can understand and can solve these problems, he or she is in an excellent
position to handle many related problems presented in the ABIH examinations.
The rules are

1. Do not look at the following problems until you are ready to solve them.
Work alone. Do not solicit help.
2. Do not use books, notes, or other reference sources.
3. Use only pencils, a nonprogrammable calculator, a wrist watch, and note
pad.
4. Solve as many problems as you can in one hour. (This is an average of
4.3 minutes per problem.)
5. Compare answers to correct answers in this book as given by the problem
numbers in parentheses.

Note the many abbreviations given in the problems. The examiners assume one
who is experienced in the professional practice of industrial hygiene knows and is
familiar with these. Solutions to these are given in the parenthetical problem.

Good Luck!

1. BZ air was sampled for total barley dust at 1.8 L/m for 5 hours, 40 minutes
with a 37 mm MCE MF with respective pre-sampling and post-sampling
weights of 33.19 and 38.94 mg. What was grain silo filler’s 8-hour TWAE
exposure to respirable dust if 85 mass-percent was nonrespirable? (304)
2. Air was sampled for HCl gas (mw = 36.45) in 15 mL of impinger solution
at 0.84 L/m for 17 minutes, 20 seconds. HCl collection efficiency was
80%. A chemist analyzed 4.7 mcg Cl/mL in the sample and 0.3 mcg/
mL in control blank impinger. What was the steel pickler’s exposure in
ppmv? (305)
3. Determine an 8-hour TWAE of a scrap metal processor to Pb dust and fume
with exposures of 3 hours, 15 minutes to 17 mcg Pb/m3; 97 min to 565 mcg Pb/
m3; and 2 hours, 10 minutes to 46 mcg Pb/m3. The worker wore an approved
HEPA dust/fume/mist filter cartridge respirator for 5-½ hours. (306)
4. 172 grams of liquid phosgene splash onto a floor. What gas volume quickly
results after evaporation at an air temperature of 23°C and an atmospheric
pressure of 742 mm Hg? COCl2 molecular weight = 99. Boiling point of
phosgene = 47°F. (140)

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xxxviii Introduction

5. A chemical plant operator had the following 8-hour TWAEs on Monday:

32 ppmv toluene, 19 ppmv xylene, and 148 ppmv MEK. Their respective
TLVs are 50, 100, and 200 ppmv. By what percent is the additive exposure
limit exceeded? (308)
6. Air in an empty room (20' × 38' × 12') contains 600 ppmv cyclohexene
vapor. How long will it take to dilute this to 6 ppmv with a 1550 cfm vane-
axial exhaust fan? K factor = 3. (309)
7. 7.3μ L liquid styrene (MW = 104.2, density = 0.91 g/mL) are evaporated in
a 21.6 L glass calibration bottle. What is the styrene vapor concentration in
ppmv? (310)
8. A rotameter was calibrated at 25°C and 760 mm Hg. What is the corrected
air flow rate when rotameter indicates 2.0 L/m at 630 mm Hg and 33°C?
(311)
9. What is the effective specific gravity of 13,000 ppmv of a gas in air when
the gas has a specific gravity of 4.6? Will the mixture stratify with the
denser gas at floor level? (312)
10. Analysis of an 866 L MF air sample detected 2667 mcg Zn. How much zinc
oxide (ZnO) fume does this represent in the welder’s breathing zone? (MW
Zn and O = 65 and 16, respectively.) (313)
11. What is the air flow rate through an 8" diameter unflanged duct with a
transport velocity of 2900 fpm? What capture velocity is expected 8" in
front of the duct inlet? Without cross-drafts, what discharge velocity can be
expected 20 ft from the exhaust outlet? What if the exhaust duct inlet has a
wide flange? (314)
12. A 47' × 166' × 20' building is supplied with 7300 cfm. How many air
changes occur per hour? How many minutes are required per air change?
How many cubic feet are supplied per square foot of floor area (20' is the
height of the ceiling)? Forty-seven people work in this single-story build-
ing. What is the outdoor air ventilation rate per person if 90% of the air is
recirculated? (271)
13. An exhaust system operates at 19,400 cfm. A hood added to the system
requires total system capacity of 23,700 cfm. By how much should fan
speed be increased to handle the extra exhaust volume? (276)
14. In the preceding problem, what is the required increase in fan horsepower
to handle the increased air volume? (277)

The great tragedy of Science—the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact.

Thomas Huxley

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 725 Problems with
1 Solutions (Industrial
Hygiene, Ventilation,
Toxicology, Chemical
Risk Management,
Control Methods)

1. Air was sampled in a carpenter’s breathing zone with a 37 mm PVC (polyvinyl

chloride) membrane filter for 7 hours and 37 minutes. The initial air flow rate
was checked twice with a 1000 mL soap film calibrator at 49.7 and 50.1 sec-
onds per liter. The post-sampling conditions were 53.7 and 53.3 seconds per
liter. What volume of air was sampled in liters and cubic feet (at standard
conditions of 25°C and 760 mm Hg)? Disregard water vapor content in the air.

7 hours and 37 minutes = 420 minutes + 37 minutes = 457 minutes

(49.7 + 50.1 + 53.7 + 53.3)seconds

= 51.7seconds
4

60 seconds/liter
liters/minute = = 1.16 L/minute
51.7 seconds/liter

1.16 L/minute × 457 minutes = 530.12 liters

1 ft 3
530.12 L × = 18.72 ft 3
28.317 L

Answers: 530.12 L and 18.72 ft3.

The decrease in air flow rate over the air-sampling period was most likely
due to the accumulation of wood dust and other particles on the filter surface.
With many portable battery-powered air-sampling pumps, initial flow rate is
artificially high by as much as 5–7%. This is overcome by allowing pumps
to operate for at least 5 minutes before the initial and final calibrations.

1
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2 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

2. A solvent degreaser operator’s exposures to trichloroethylene (TCE) vapor

on one work day were 2- 14 hours at 57 ppm, 3- 12 hours at 12 ppm, 1- 34 hours at
126 ppm, and 30 minutes at 261 ppm. What was her TWAE (time-weighted
average exposure)? Did it exceed the Threshold Limit Value (TLV®)? The
action level?
Haber’s law is concentration (C) × time (T) = CT and determines dose
and effects.
8-hour TWAE worker dose calculation:

C T CT
57 ppm × 2.25 hours = 128 ppm-hours
12 ppm × 3.5 hours = 42 ppm-hours
126 ppm × 1.75 hours = 221 ppm-hours
261 ppm × 0.5 hour = 131 ppm-hours
8.0 hour = 522 ppm-hours

522 ppm − hours

= 65ppm TWAE to TCE vapor
8.0 hours

The TLV is 10 ppmv. TCE has a short-term exposure limit (STEL) of 25 ppmv.

Answers: TWAE is 65 ppmv. Yes, by 55 ppmv. Yes, 13 × the AL of 5 ppmv.

TCE is absorbed through healthy, intact skin and more so through breaches in
one’s skin. Careful attention to work practices is required to ensure that there
is no skin contact by wearing appropriate gloves, aprons, and other gear cou-
pled with prompt washing of skin and eyes when contact occurs, permits the
industrial hygienist to focus on designing—or improving—local exhaust ven-
tilation. Target organ adverse effects of TCE absorption are central nervous
system impairment, cognitive impairments, and renal toxicity. A reversible
cosmetic disorder known as “degreaser’s flush” has been reported in TCE-
exposed workers who concurrently or later consume ethyl alcohol. TCE is a
suspected A2 human carcinogen. Therefore, all reasonable efforts should be
taken to ensure that the worker’s exposure to TCE is kept as low as possible.

3. In the previous problem, assume that the worker wore an organic vapor car-
tridge respirator with an overall efficiency of 90% (filtration + face-to-mask
seal efficiency). What was the face piece penetration? What was the respira-
tor protection factor? What was her true TWAE assuming equal protection
at all vapor concentrations?

ambient concentration
respirator protection factor =
concentration inside facepiece

65 ppmv × 0.9 = 58.5 ppmv (i.e., 90% of 65 ppmv)

65 ppmv − 58.5 ppmv = 6.5 ppmv penetrated the respirator (10% penetration)

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725 Problems with Solutions 3

65 ppm v
= PF = 10
6.5 ppm v

Answers: 10%. Protection factor = 10. TWAE ≅ 7 ppmv.

4. What volume will 73 grams of dry ammonia gas occupy at 11°C and
720 mm Hg? How much air is needed to dilute the ammonia gas to 10 ppmv?

PV = nRT

n RT
V =
P

R = 0.0821 L-atm/mole-K

Molecular weight NH3 = 17 grams/gram-mole

73g
n= = 4.29 moles
17 g/mole

T = 273 K + 11°C = 284 K

P = 720 mm Hg/760 mm Hg = 0.947 atmosphere

(4.29moles NH3 )(0.0821)(284K)

V = = 105.5L
0.947atmosphere

10 1
10 ppm = = 5
106 10

Answers: 105.5 liters. 105.5 × 105 liters of air dilutes 100% to 0.001%.

5. What is the cumulative error of several measurements if the day of air sam-
pling was ±50% of the true daily exposure, analytical accuracy was ±10%
of the true value, air sample timing was ±1% of the true value, and the air
flow rate error was ±5% of the true value?

cumulative error, Ec = (E1 )2 + (E2 )2 + ⋯ (En )2

Ec = ± 502 + 102 + 12 + 52 = ± 2626 = ±51.2%

Answer: ±51.2% of the true value. This is referred to as the sampling analyti-
cal error (SAE) and is used to calculate the lower confidence limit (LCL) and
upper confidence limit (UCL) for the air-sample test results (see Problem 430).

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4 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

6. A paint sprayer had TWAEs to methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) of 68 ppmv,

toluene of 37 ppmv, n-butyl alcohol of six ppmv, and xylene of 23 ppmv, all
as vapor phase air contaminants and not as mist particles. Assume effects
are toxicologically additive and that he did not wear a respirator. What was
his equivalent exposure? American conference of governmental indus-
trial hygienists (ACGIH) TLVs® are 200 ppmv, 20 ppmv, 50 ppmv (C), and
100 ppmv, respectively.

exposure En
in ppm v : +⋯ , in TWAEs
respective PEL or TLV PEL n

68 37 6 23
+ + + = 2.54 (no units)
200 20 50 100

Answer: 254% above the TLV for the mixture and 2.1 times the action
level of 0.5 (unitless).

7. A polyurethane foam machine operator had TWAEs to vapors of toluene

diisocyanate (TDI) of 0.003 ppmv and CH2Cl2 of 36 ppmv. What was her
equivalent exposure to this air contaminant mixture?

Answer: Generally, the additive mixture rule would not apply. Although
both are irritants to respiratory tract and mucous membranes, TDI is a sen-
sitizer, and CH2Cl2 primarily affects the central nervous system (CNS) and
blood HgB (COHgb formation). CH2Cl2 is a potential liver and lung carcin-
ogen. TDI is a recognized carcinogen in laboratory animals. Given extreme
inhalation hazards both chemicals present, the author recommends controls
to as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA).

8. What is specific gravity of a mixture of 10,000 ppmv Cl2 gas in dry air? The
specific gravity of Cl2 gas is 2.5 (unitless, air = 1.000).

10, 000 ppm v (volume/volume) = 1%

for air: 0.99 × 1.0 = 0.990
for Cl 2 : 0.01 × 2.5 = 0.025
1.00 1.015

Answer: The specific gravity (or relative density) = 1.015, or only 1.5%
greater than air. In a practical sense with respect to designing work place
ventilation, there is no great difference between air and a very high concen-
tration of vapors or gases at, say, 1−5% in air (e.g., 2.5 times heavier than air).
An exception, for example, are the so-called “paint kitchens” where large vol-
umes of flammable and combustible organic solvents are processed. A spill
of a flammable solvent releases a cloud of vapors slowly at first before mix-
ing with air higher in the room. Supply and exhaust ventilation placed close
to the floor sweeps and captures vapors before they reach the lower explosive

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725 Problems with Solutions 5

of flammable level. Regular ventilation and mechanical local exhaust venti-

lation are also installed to protect workers in such environments.
9. An industrial hygiene chemist analyzed 0.256 mg Zn on an air filter used for
a 96 L air BZ sample. What was the welder’s exposure to zinc oxide fume
during the air-sampling period?
Molecular weights: Zn = 65, O = 16, ZnO = 81
65
× 100 = 80% Zn in ZnO
81

0.256 mg Zn
= 0.32 mg ZnO = 320 mcg ZnO fume
0.80
mcg mg
= 3
L m
320 mcg ZnO
= 3.3mg ZnO/m 3
96 L

10. A one quart bottle of n-butanol broke upon falling to the floor entirely
evaporating in a 10' × 40' × 80' room with 10% room contents. What aver-
age vapor concentration exists assuming there is no ventilation? n-butanol
density = 0.81 g/mL.

(10' × 40' × 80') − 10% = 32,000 ft3 − 3200 ft3 = 28,800 ft3

28,800 ft 3
= 816 m 3 = net volume of room
35.3ft 3 /m 3

one quart = 14 (3785 mL/gal) = 946 mL × 0.81 g/mL = 766 g of liquid

n-butanol eventually evaporates into and mixes throughout the room air.
Remember that molecules like to move around following the second law of
thermodynamics and entropic disorder.

CH3(CH2)2 CH2OH = C4H10O = (4 × 12) + (10 × 1) + 16 = molecular

weight = 74 grams/gram-mole

(766,000 mg/816 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = 310 ppm n−butanol vapor
74

“Phew, what a stench! Where’s my mask?”

11. What can we conclude from the previous problem?

a. Fire hazard, but no health hazard
b. Health hazard, but no fire hazard
c. Fire hazard and a health hazard

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6 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

d. No fire or health hazard

e. Combustion risk, but not a flammability hazard
f. None of the above

Answer: b. n-Butanol TLV and PEL (permissible exposure limit) = 50

ppmv (C) and skin notation. LEL—UEL = 1.4% to 11.2%. 310 ppmv = 0.031%.
Therefore, below the LEL but greater than the PEL. 620% of PEL and
2.2% of LEL.

12. Salt mine air was sampled through a PVC filter that initially weighed 73.67
and 88.43 mg after sampling. The initial air flow rate was 2.18 L/minute.
The final flow rate was 1.98 L/minute after 7 hours and 37 minutes. The
analyzed filter had 5.19 mg sodium after blank correction. What were con-
centrations of salt dust and total dust in the air sample?
7 hours and 37 minutes = 420 minutes + 37 minutes = 457 minutes

88.43 mg − 73.67 mg = 14.76 mg

(2.18 + 1.98) L/min

L/min = = 2.08 L/min average
2

457 minutes × 2.08 L/min = 951 liters of air sampled

14.76 mg 14.76 mg
= = 15.5mg total dust/m 3
951L 0.951m 3

Molecular weights: Na = 23; Cl = 35.5; NaCl = 58.5

58.5/23 = 2.54

5.19 mg Na × 2.54 = 13.2 mg NaCl

13.2 mg NaCl
= 13.9 mg NaCl/m 3
0.951 m 3

difference = 15.5 mg/m3 − 13.9 mg/m3 = 1.6 mg/m3. Could this be diesel
engine exhaust smoke from the underground mining equipment? Asbestos
fibers from brake shoes? Tobacco smoke? Explosion dust?
Answers: 13.9 mg NaCl/m3. 15.5 mg of total dust, smoke, and fume/m3.

13. A closed 100,000 gallon storage tank in Houston contains 10,000 gallons of
toluene. What is the equilibrium saturation vapor concentration in the tank
at 20°C? The vapor pressure of toluene at 20°C is 22 mm Hg.
Since Houston is close to sea level, assume the barometric pressure =
760 mm Hg.

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725 Problems with Solutions 7

22 mm Hg
× 106 = 28,947 ppm = 2.89%(volume/volume)
760 mm Hg

Answer: ≅ 29,000 ppmv (2.9%). Remember 1% = 10,000 ppmv. That is,

100% = one million parts per million. Saturation is ensured as long as liq-
uid (or volatile solids) remain in the tank. That is, if only a few milliliters of
toluene evaporated inside this tank, the saturation concentration will never
be achieved. Moreover, if the tank walls are cooler than the air−vapor mix-
ture, condensation will occur, and saturation might not occur because con-
densed toluene vapor drains back into its liquid phase.

14. In the preceding problem, is the tank atmosphere explosive? The LEL
(lower explosive level) and UEL (upper explosive level) for toluene = 1.2%
and 7.1%, respectively.

Answer: Yes! BEWARE! 2.9% exceeds LEL, but is less than UEL. This is
most hazardous because vapors are in the stoichiometric mid-range of explo-
sion. The tank “carries its own match.” Control all ignition sources. Consider
use of inert gases [nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, helium, (steam)] to reduce
O2 concentration (e.g., to <6% O2). Fully ventilate before entry, confined
space entry practices, train workers, air testing, post and label, and so on.

15. In Problem 13, how many pounds of toluene are in the vapor phase?

273 K + 20°C
22.4 L/gram-mole × = 24.04 L/gram-mole
273 K

Toluene = C7H8

(7 × 12) + (8 × 1) = molecular weight = 92 grams/gram-mole

ppm × mol. wt. 28,947 × 92

mg/m 3 = = = 110,779 mg/m 3 = 110.8 grams/m 3
24.04 24.04

100,000 gallon tank − 10,000 gallons liquid C7H8

= 90,000 gallons air-vapor space

90,000 gallons × 3.785 L/gallon = 340,650 L = 340.65 m3

340.65 m3 × 110.8 g/m3 = 37,744 grams of vapor phase toluene

37,744 grams
= 83.1 lb
454 grams/lb

Answer: There are 83.1 pounds of vapor phase toluene in this tank.

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8 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

16. In Problem 13, what is the toluene vapor concentration after 45 minutes
operation of a 2000 cfm dilution blower? Assume good mixing of fresh
dilution air or inert gas with the toluene-contaminated air, and there is neg-
ligible toluene evaporation as the dilution ventilation proceeds.

C = Co e − Q /V  t = resultant air contaminant concentration

90,000 gallons × 3.785 L/gal = 340,650 L = 12,037 ft3

3 ]× 45minutes
C = (28,947 ppm v ) × e −[ 2000 cfm /12,037 ft
= (28,947 ppm v ) e −7.48 = 28,947 ppm v × 0.00056 = 16.3ppm v

Answer: 16.3 ppmv toluene vapor assuming static conditions and the neg-
ligible evaporation of toluene during dilution ventilation. The liquid tolu-
ene present would evaporate as ventilation commenced. Special dilution
ventilation calculations can be used if the vaporization rate is known (see
ACGIH’s Industrial Ventilation). The use of air to initially ventilate could
be very hazardous, especially if there is a fan that generates spark or heat
of air friction. The better part of valor might be to reduce the oxygen con-
centration in the head space to less than 6% by volume with a nitrogen gas
purge and then fully ventilate with air to reduce toluene vapor concentra-
tion to <TLV/PEL action level. Recent rodent teratology evidence reveals
toluene is a reproductive health hazard. Accordingly, the TLV was reduced
from 50 to 20 ppmv.

17. Assume that the toluene solvent storage tank in Problem 13 is located in the
Rocky Mountains where barometric pressure is 640 mm Hg. What is the
saturation vapor concentration inside this tank assuming there is sufficient
liquid toluene to saturate tank air?

22 mm Hg
× 106 = 33,233ppm v = 3.32% (volume/volume)
640 mm Hg + 22 mm Hg

Answer: 3.32%v toluene vapor exceeds the LEL, but this is below the
UEL. However, the LEL−UEL limits will change with changes in the par-
tial pressure of O2, that is, altitude effects can alter the LEL−UEL range.
Changes in temperature also affect the LEL and UEL range. Increased tem-
perature and/or oxygen lower the LEL as well as increasing the UEL.

18. A solvent is 2% (v/v) benzene and 98% (v/v) toluene. What is the percent
vapor phase concentration for each component? The vapor pressures of
benzene and toluene are 75 and 22 mm Hg, respectively. The densities of
benzene and toluene are 0.88 and 0.867 g/mL, respectively.
Use 100 mL of solvent mixture as the volume basis for Raoult’s law
calculations:

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725 Problems with Solutions 9

2 mL × 0.88 g/mL = 1.76 g of benzene/100 mL

Molecular weight of benzene = 78.1

98 mL × 0.867 g/mL = 85 g of toluene/100 mL

Molecular weight toluene = 92.1

1.76 g/(78.1g/mole) × 75mm Hg

Partial vapor pressure from benzene =
1.76 g/(78.1g/mole) + 85g/(92.1g/mole)
= 1.79 mm Hg

85g/(92.1g/mole) × 22 mm Hg
Partial vapor pressure from toluene =
1.76 g/(78.1g/mole) + 85g/(92.1g/mole)
= 21.47 mm Hg

Total saturation vapor pressure = 1.79 mm Hg + 21.47 mm Hg = 23.26 mm Hg

1.79 mm Hg
× 100 = 7.7% benzene vapor
23.26 mm Hg

21.47 mm Hg
× 100 = 92.3% toluene vapor
23.26 mm Hg

Answers: Calculations made using Raoult’s law demonstrate enrichment

in the vapor phase by the more volatile component, that is, note how ben-
zene enriched from 2% in the liquid phase to 7.7% (3.9 times) in the vapor
phase. The following quotation from Harris and Arp (Patty’s Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology, third edition) is noteworthy:

Raoult’s law should be used with caution in estimating emissions from partial
evaporation of mixtures; not all mixtures behave as perfect solutions. Elkins,
Comproni, and Pagnotto measured benzene vapor yielded by partial evapora-
tion of mixtures of benzene with various aliphatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, and common esters, as well as partial evaporation of naphthas
containing benzene. Most measurements for all four types of mixtures showed
greater concentrations of benzene in air than were predicted by Raoult’s law. Of
five tests with naphtha-based rubber cements, one yielded measured values of
benzene concentration in air in agreement with calculated values, the other four
showed measured benzene concentrations in air to be 3–10 times greater than
those calculated using Raoult’s law.
Substantial deviation from Raoult’s law is not always the case, however, even
with benzene. Runion compared measured and calculated concentrations in air
of benzene in vapor mixtures yielded by evaporation from a number of motor
gasolines and found excellent agreement.

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10 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

19. A mine atmosphere averages 12 mg total dust/m3 of air. If this dust is 9% mass
respirable and has 8% crystalline quartz in this respirable fraction, how long
must one sample at 1.7 L/m if the analytical sensitivity is 50 mcg for α-quartz?

12 mg total dust/m3 = 12 mcg/L

(12 mcg/L) × 0.09 × 0.08 = 0.0864 mcg α-SiO2/L

50 mcg quartz
= 578 L
0.0864 mcg quartz/L

578 L
= 340 minutes
1.7 L/m

Answer: 340 minutes = 5 hours and 40 minutes. Collect a full shift per-
sonal breathing zone air sample to determine the worker’s 8-hour TWAE.

20. Two impingers are connected in series. Calculate collection efficiency of

the first impinger if it contains 78.9 mcg, and the second impinger contains
6.3 mcg of the same air contaminant.

 C   6.3mcg 
% efficiency = 100 1 − 2  = 100 1 − = 100 (1 − 0.08) = 92%
 C1   78.9 mcg 

Answer: 92% of the total air contaminant is in the first impinger assuming
both impingers collected 100%. A correction factor of 1.08 can be applied to
the concentration analyzed in the first impinger (i.e., 92/(78.9 + 6.3) = 1.08).
Of course, based on these data, a third (or more) impinger connected in series
should arguably have diminishing concentrations of the analyte in each.

21. 6.7 ft3 of air at 53°F and 14.7 lb/in2 are adiabatically compressed to 95 lb/in2. What
is the initial temperature of the air after compression? What is the final volume
of the compressed air? 1.4 = the specific heat (the ratio of heat capacity at con-
stant pressure to the heat capacity at constant volume, often expressed as k).

460 + 53°F = 513°R absolute temperature

(1.4 −1) /1.4

 95 
Temperature = 513°   = 875o R = 415o F
 14.7 

1/1.4
 14.7 
volume = 6.7 ft  3
 = 6.7 ft 3 (0.155)0.714 = 1.77 ft 3
 95 

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725 Problems with Solutions 11

Answer: 415°F and 1.77 ft3. The value of k is a function of temperature

and pressure. For air and several diatomic gases (e.g., N2, O2), k equals 1.4.
Several hydrocarbons have k values typically between 1.1 and 1.2.

22. How many kilograms of ammonia are in a 3000 ft3 tank when the gauge
pressure is 950 lb/in2, and the ammonia temperature is 31°C?
Atomic weights of nitrogen and hydrogen are 14 and one, respectively.

NH3 = 17 grams/gram-mole

28.32 L
3000 ft 3 × = 84,960 L
ft 3

950 lb/in 2 + 14.7 lb/in 2

Pabsolute = = 65.6 atmospheres
14.7 lb/in 2 /atmosphere

T = 31°C + 273 = 304 kelvin

PV 65.6 atm × 84,690 L

n= = = 223,579 gram
m-moles NH3
RT (0.0821 L-atm/mole-K) × 304 K

223,579 gram-moles × 17 grams/mole = 3,800,843 grams

= 3801 kg ammonia

23. What is the volume if the gas in Problem 22 expanded to atmospheric pres-
sure at a temperature of 20°C as might occur during a rapid tank rupture?
P, V, and T = pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of the gas,
respectively
i and f = initial and final conditions, respectively

PV PV
i i
= f f
Ti Tf

rearranging
PT
i f Vi 65.6 atm 293°K
Vf = = 3000 ft 3 × × = 189,679 ft 3
Pf Ti 1 atm 304°K

24. The dust concentration in a limestone mill is 41 mppcf. The density of CaCO3
is 2.71 g/cc. If the calcite particles are uniformly spherical with a diameter
of 1.42 microns, how much limestone dust is in the air of a 40,000 ft3 ball
mill plant? How much dust is in every liter of mill air inhaled by ball mill
operators?

∅ = 1.42 microns = 0.000142 cm

radius = 0.000071 cm

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12 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

4 3 4
Volume of sphere = π r = π (0.000071 cm )3
3 3
= 1.5 × 10 −12 cm 3 /dust particle

1.5 × 10 −12 cm 3 41 × 106 particles

40,000 ft 3 × × = 2.46 cm 3 × 2.71g/cm 3
particle ft 3
= 6.67 grams = 6670 mg

40,000 ft3 × 28.32 L/ft3 = 1,132,800 liters

6670 mg CaCO3/1,132,800 L = 0.00589 mg/L = 5.89 mcg/L

Answers: 6670 milligrams. 5.89 milligrams of CaCO3 dust/liter of air =

5.89 mg/m3

25. Air was sampled with a midget impinger for 1 hour and 17 minutes at an
average rate of 0.89 L/m. How much ozone gas was in the air if the chemist
detected 3.6 mcg O3 per mL, the impinger collection efficiency was 71%,
and there were 13.5 mL of potassium iodide ozone collection solution?

0.89 L/min × (60 + 17) minutes = 68.5 liters

Molecular weight O3 = 16 × 3 = 48

(100/71) = impinger inefficiency collection factor = 1.408

3.6 mcg/mL × 13.5 mL × 1.408 = 68.4 mcg O3

(mcg/L) × 24.45 (68.4 mcg/68.5 L) × 24.45

ppm = = = 0..51 ppm
molecularweight 48

Answer: 0.51 ppmv ozone gas

26. Convert 136 micrograms of ethyl alcohol vapor per liter into ppm (volume/
volume).

Molecular weight CH3CH2OH = 12 + 12 + 6 + 16 = 46

(136 mcg EtOH/L) × 24.45

ppm = = 72.3 ppm
46

Answer: 72.3 ppmv ethyl alcohol vapor.

27. An analyst counts 3.4 fibers/field on an aerosol filter. There are 27,900
fields/filter. What was the fiber concentration in f/cc3 if air sampling was
2 liters/minute for 89 minutes?

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725 Problems with Solutions 13

3.4 fibers/field × 27,900 fields = 94,860 fibers

2 Lpm × 89 minutes = 178 liters = 178,000 mL = 178,000 cc

(3.4 fibers/field × 27,900 fields)/178,000 = 0.53 fiber/cc of air

28. What is the concentration of nitrogen in dry air in ppmv?

Air: 78.09% N2 + 20.95% O2 + 0.93% argon

+ ≅ 0.035% CO2 + trace gases (≅ 79% “inerts” + ≅ 21% O2)

Answer: 780,900 ppmv N2 (i.e., 100% air = 106 ppmv).

29. The PEL for a metal is 0.2 mg/m3. A chemist can reliably detect 4 micrograms
with good accuracy and precision. At air-sampling rate of 1.1 L/m, how long
would an industrial hygienist have to sample air to detect 10% of the PEL?

PEL = 0.2 mg/m3 = 0.2 mcg/L

10% PEL = 0.02 mcg/L

4 mcg
= at least 200 liters of air must be sampled
0.02 mcg/L

200 L
= at least 182 minutes
1.1 L/min

Answer: >3 hours.

30. What gas concentration results when 5 mL of dry ammonia gas are injected
by a gas syringe into a 13-gallon glass calibration carboy of air?
Method 1:

106 × 5 mL
= 102 ppm v NH 3
13 gallons × (3785 mL/gallon)

Method 2:

17 grams NH3/24.45 L = 0.695 g/L = 0.695 mg/mL

0.695 mg/mL × 5 mL = 3.475 mg

13 gallons × 3.785 L/gallon = 49.205 L = 0.0492 m3

(3.475 mg/0.0492 m 3 ) × 24.45

= 102 ppm v NH 3
17

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14 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Method 3:
5 mL xppm v
=
49,205 mL 106 ppm v

x = 102 ppmv
Answer: The instrument calibration bottle contains 102 ppmv NH3 gas
verified three ways.

31. What is the gas concentration after 75 mL of pure CO gas mixes with air
containing 2 ppm CO in a 313 L instrument calibration tank? Assume neg-
ligible dilution loss as the CO gas is quickly injected into the tank.

106 × 0.075 L  75 mL 
= 240 ppm =   × 10
6
313 L + 0.075 L  313,000 mL 

(240 + 2) ppmv = 242 ppmv

32. A chemist dropped a chlorine bottle releasing 2 pounds of gas into a labora-
tory with no ventilation. He immediately left and returned wearing a self
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) by the time the gas had mixed uni-
formly throughout the laboratory. The laboratory is 14' × 20' × 40'. He turned
on the exhaust hood with a uniform face velocity of 170 feet per minute. The
hood face dimension is 40" × 66". How long before Cl2 gas concentration is
reduced to 0.2 ppmv (20% of 1 ppmv STEL)? Assume ideal ventilation mixing.

40" × 66"
= 18.33 ft 2 × 170 fpm = 3116 ft 3 /minute
144 in 2 /ft 2

Molecular weight Cl2 = 71 grams/gram-mole

14' × 20' × 40' = 11,200 ft3 = 317.3 m3

2 lb = 908 grams

908 g
= 2.86 g/m 3 = 2860 mg/m 3
317.3 m 3

(2860 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = 985 ppmCl 2
71

− ln [C /C0 ] − ln [ 0.2 ppm/985 ppm ] − ln 0.000203

t= = 3
=
Q /V 3116 cfm/11,200 ft 0.2782/minutes
−(−8.502)
= = 30.6 minutes
0.2782/minutes

Answer: At least 31 minutes.

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725 Problems with Solutions 15

33. A measure of 20 kilograms of methyl chloroform (molecular weight = 133.4)

evaporates into a 10' × 25' × 35' tank that has no ventilation. What is the
equilibrium concentration in ppmv? Is this a fire hazard? Could welding be
permitted when this vapor level is reduced by ventilation to 50 ppmv (1/7
of the TLV)? Could a worker enter wearing a half-mask twin charcoal car-
tridge respirator without special ventilation and taking other precautions?
20 kg = 2 × 107 mg
10' × 25' × 35' = 8750 ft3 = 247.8 m3

2 × 107 mg
= 80,710 mg/m 3
247.8 m 3

(80,710 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = 14,793 ppm = 1.48% (vol/vol)
133.4

Answers: 14,800 ppmv. No, under normal conditions, this would not be an
explosion hazard. However, at very high concentrations in air and, especially,
with high oxygen levels, an explosion could occur with high-temperature
ignition sources. COCl2, HCl, and dichloroacetylene, and so on could be
generated in the welding arc. No, this is the wrong respirator because the
maximum use conditions are 1000 ppmv organic vapors for charcoal filters
provided the concentration immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH)
is not less than 1000 ppmv. In other words, since the IDLH concentration for
methyl chloroform is 700 ppmv, this is the maximum concentration permitted
for use with organic vapor charcoal cartridge respirators, not 1000 ppmv. This
would be an acceptable respirator if the vapor levels did not exceed 700 ppmv.

34. A volume of 10 mL of dry ammonia gas is injected into a 152 L tank of pure
air. What is the NH3 gas concentration? Can most people detect this ammo-
nia gas concentration by smell or irritation?

Molecular weight NH3 = 17

Density at NTP = 17 g/24.45 L = 0.7 mg/mL

10 mL NH3 = 7 g of NH3

7g
= 0.046 mg/L = 46 mcg/L
152 L

(46 mcg/L) × 24.45

ppmNH 3 = = 66.2 ppmNH 3
17

Answers: Yes, everyone could be expected to respond to this gas concen-

tration. Those exposed would cough, have profound nasal and respiratory
irritation, teary eyes, and do whatever they could to escape the area.

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16 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

35. If the apparent volume of sampled air is 570 L at 645 mm Hg and 33°C,
what was the standard air volume that was sampled?

33°C + 273 = 306 kelvin

298 × V × P (298 K)(570 L)(645 mm Hg)

Liters = = = 471 L
760 × T (760 mm Hg)(306 K)

36. The LEL for a solvent vapor is 1.7%. What is the vapor concentration in
ppmv if a calibrated CGI (computer-generated image) indicates a reading of
64% of the LEL?

1.7% = 17,000 ppmv

0.64 LEL = 0.64 × 17,000 ppmv = 10,880 ppmv

37. An impinger contains 13.0 mL of a dilute alkali (e.g., 0.01 N NaOH). Each
milliliter can neutralize 0.012 mg of HCl gas. Air was sampled at 0.86 L/m
for 14.7 minutes when the alkali was neutralized as indicated by an abrupt
color change in the solution. What was the average concentration of acid gas
during the sampling period?

13 mL × 0.012 mg/mL = 0.156 mg HCl

Molecular weight HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5

0.86 L/m × 14.7 minutes = 12.64 liters

(156 mcg/12.64 L) × 24.45

ppm = = 8.27 ppm HCl gas
36.5

Answer: 8.3 ppmv HCl, assuming 100% collection efficiency by the impinger.

38. 0.1 mL of a solvent mixture is evaporated in a 313 L calibration tank. The

mixture is comprised (by volume) of 30% MEK, 30% toluene, and 40%
methylene chloride with respective densities of 0.805, 0.870, and 1.335 g/mL.
Calculate ppmv of each vapor and the apparent molecular weight of the
mixture. Molecular weights are 72, 92, and 85, respectively.

MEK 0.03 mL × 0.805 g/mL = 0.02415 g

toluene 0.03 mL × 0.870 g/mL = 0.0261 g

CH2Cl2 0.04 mL × 1.335 g/mL = 0.0534 g

0.10 mL 0.1037 g

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725 Problems with Solutions 17

(24,150 mcg/313 L) × 24.45

ppmMEK = = 26 ppm
72

(26,100 mcg / 313 L) × 24.45

ppmtoluene = = 22 ppm
92

(53, 400 mcg / 313 L) × 24.45

ppmCH 2 Cl 2 = = 49 ppm
85

26 ppmv + 22 ppmv + 49 ppmv = 97 ppmv total solvent vapors

0.1037 g/313 L = 331 mcg/L

(331 mcg /L) × 24.45
apparent molecular weight = = 83.4
97 ppm

Answers: 26 ppmv MEK, 22 ppmv toluene, and 49 ppmv CH2Cl2. The

apparent molecular weight is 83.4 grams gram-mole−1.

39. How many molecules of TDI are in every 2 liter inhalation if the air con-
tains 0.001 ppmv (one ppbv) TDI vapor?

6.023 × 1023 molecules TDI/gram-mole

= 106 ppm = 100%
24.45 L/gram-mole

10 −9 × 6.023 × 1023 molecules TDI 2.46 × 1013

1 ppb = = × 2 liters
24.45 L L
= 4.92 × 1013 molecules

Answer: ≅ 5 × 1013 molecules of TDI in every 2-liter inhalation.

40. A rotameter calibrated at 25°C and 760 mm Hg indicates a rate of 1.45 L/

min at 33°C and 690 mm Hg. What is the corrected standard air flow rate?

690 mm Hg 25o C + 273 K

L/min = 1.45 L/min × ×
760 mm Hg 33o C + 273 K
= 1.45 × 0.9528 × 0.9868 = 1.36 L/min

Answer: 1.36 liters air per minute (i.e., the slightly colder, denser air at
standard conditions has greater buoyancy for the rotameter float ball). The
square root function is used only for rotameters and critical orifice air flow
meters, but never for dry and wet gas meters. Refer to Problem 311.

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18 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

41. Give two basic industrial hygiene air sampling “rules of thumb.”
Answer:

analytical sensitivity (mg)

1. Minimum collection volume (in m 3 ) =
0.1 × TLV (inmg /m 3 )

2. Minimum sampling time (in hours)

analytical sensitivity (m
mg)
= .
(0.1 × TLV in mg/m 3 ) × (rate in m 3 /hour)

Generally, an integrated air sample should be taken to detect at least 10% of

its respective TLV, PEL, STEL, NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health)-recommended exposure limit (REL), workplace envi-
ronmental exposure limit, or ceiling limit. Sometimes, however, this is
impossible because a 15-minute air sample may not be sufficient to collect
enough air contaminant for analysis of a STEL concentration. For these,
consult with an industrial hygiene chemist. Also consider a direct-reading
instrument if such exists.

42. What is error of measurement if the true value was 13 ppmv, and the amount
found (the experimental value) was 16 ppmv?

EV − TV 16 ppm − 13 ppm
% error = × 100 = × 100 = 23%
TV 13 ppm

Answer: +23%.

43. A bottle containing 600 grams of titanium tetrachloride breaks in a ware-

house. The liquid quickly evaporates hydrolyzing in highly humid air
according to the reaction:

TiCl4 + 2H2O → TiO2 ↑ + 4 HCl ↑

The warehouse (20' × 60' × 185') is empty, unventilated, and unoccupied.

Is it safe to enter without wearing respiratory protection? What concen-
tration of HCl gas and TiO2 fume could be present? Molecular weight of
TiO2 = 47.09 grams/gram-mole. Assume sufficient water vapor as atmo-
spheric moisture to provide stoichiometric conversion.

20' × 60' × 185' = 222,000 ft3 = 6289 m3

600 g TiCl 4
= 3.16 moles TiCl 4
189.73 g/mole

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725 Problems with Solutions 19

Molecular weight

Therefore, 2 × 3.16 moles H2O required 18

1 × 3.16 moles TiO2 produced 79.9

4 × 3.16 moles HCl produced 36.5

1 × 3.16 moles TiO2 × 79.9 g/mole = 252,484 mg TiO2

4 × 3.16 moles HCl × 36.5 g/mole = 461,360 mg HCl

252, 484 mgTiO2

= 40.1 mg TiO2 fume/m 3
6289 m 3

(461,360 mgHCl / 6289 m 3 ) × 24.45

= 49.1 ppm HCl gas
36.5

Answer: 40 mg TiO2/m3. 49 ppmv HCl. OSHA’s (Occupational Safety &

Health Administration) PEL for HCl = 5 ppm ceiling. No, STAY OUT!
Ventilate. Otherwise, only enter with a SCBA or full-face acid gas cartridge
respirator with HEPA pre-filters. A SCBA is preferred since the IDLH for HCl
is 50 ppmv, barely above the average concentration of HCl gas in the room.

44. How much liquid toluene is needed to make 100 ppm of vapor in a
10' × 14' × 20' chamber when the atmospheric pressure is 640 mm Hg and
the air temperature is 21°C?

10' × 14' × 20' = 2800 ft3

mL
100 ppm × (92 g/g-mol) × (2800 ft 3 / 35.3 ft 3 /M3 ) × 273 K × 640 mm Hg
=
(0.867 g/mL) × (22.4 L/g-mol) × 294 K × 760 mm Hg × 103

Answer: 29.4 milliliters.

45. What concentration of solvent vapor remains in a 1000 gallon tank (contain-
ing no liquid solvent) after 500 gallons of air: vapor mixture was removed and
replaced with clean air? The initial solvent vapor concentration was 1000 ppmv.

500 gallons
(2.3 log 1000 ppm ) − (2.3 log y ppm ) =
1000 gallons

(2.3 × 3) − (2.3 log y ppm) = 0.5

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20 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

2.3 log y ppm = 6.4

6.4
log y ppm = = 2.783
2.3

y = 606 ppmv

46. Calculate the vapor volume of 1 gram of water when boiled at 730 mm Hg.

PV = nRT

n = 1 gram/18 grams/mole = 0.0556 mole

T = 100°C + 273 K = 373 kelvin

(0.0556 mole)(0.082)(373 K)
V = = 1.7705 L
730 mm Hg/760 mm Hg

Answer: A volume of 1771 milliliters of water vapor, that is, 1 mL of liquid

water produces 1.77 liters of steam under these conditions of temperature
and pressure.

47. A stack gas sample was collected using a dry gas meter calibrated at 32°F
and 760 mm Hg. The water vapor pressure at this temperature (absolute
humidity) is 0.08 lb/in2. The wet and dry bulb temperatures of the stack
gas were 96 and 111°F, respectively (58% relative humidity). Corresponding
water vapor pressure is 0.78 lb/in2. The indicated air volume was 930 ft3.
The barometric pressure at the time of sampling was 740 mm Hg. What is
the corrected dry gas volume?
Stack gas volumes are often calculated as if the gases are dry since the
variable water vapor, especially at high temperatures, can account for a
significant portion of the total gas volume. The variations due to pressure,
temperature, and water vapor content are calculated by

V2 ( P2 − W2 )(273 K + T1 )
V1 =
( P2 − W1 )(273 K + T2 )

where
V2 = apparent gas volume at T2 (°C)
V1 = calculated gas volume at T1 (°C)
W1 and W2 = mm H2O vapor pressure at calculated and observed condi-
tions, respectively
P1 and P2 = calculated and observed barometric pressures, respectively

(lb/in2) × 51.71 = mm Hg

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725 Problems with Solutions 21

0.02 lb/in2 = 1.03 mm Hg

32°F = 0°C

0.78 lb/in2 = 40.33 mm Hg

112°F = 44.4°C

(930 ft 3 )(740 mm Hg − 40.3 mm Hg)(273 K)

V1 = = 737.4 ft 3
(760 mm Hg − 1mm Hg)(273 K + 44.4 o C)

Answer: 737.4 cubic feet of dry gas versus 930 ft3 of wet gas.

48. A volume of 1000 L of dry nitrogen gas at 1 atm pressure and 20°C are
adiabatically compressed to 5% of the initial gas volume. What is the final
temperature and pressure? For N2 gas, α = 1.4 (the specific heat for this
diatomic gas. Refer to Problem 21).

P1 (V1)α = P1 (V2)α

(1 atmosphere) (V1)1.4 = P2 (V1/20)1.4

(1 atm)(V1 )1.4 (1 atm)(1000 L)1.4

P2 = 1.4
= = 66.3 atmospheres
(V1 /20) (50 L)1.4

T1 (V1 )α −1 = T2 (V2 )α −1 = (293 K)(1000 L)1.4 −1 = T2 (50 L)1.4 −1

293 K(1000 L)1.4 −1 293 K(1000 L)0.4

T2 = 1.4 −1
= = 970.95 K
(50 L) (50 L)0.4

Answers: 66.3 atmospheres and 971 kelvin.

49. An air sample filter contained 36 micrograms of chromium. If all chro-

mium was from a lead chromate paint spray aerosol (“school bus yellow”),
how much lead chromate was present?

PbCrO4 molecular weight = 207 + 52 + (4 × 16) = 323

323/52 = 6.21

36 mcg Cr × 6.21 = 224 mcg PbCrO4

Answer: 224 micrograms PbCrO4

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22 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

50. Assume that a worker on an average inhales 15 L/min and the inhaled air
contains 9 mcg cobalt/m3. If his absorption is 25%, how much cobalt would
this worker accumulate every 8-hour work shift? Disregard excretion dur-
ing the exposure period.

(9 mcg Co/m3) × 0.25 = 2.25 mcg Co/m3 = 0.00225 mcg/L

0.00225 mcg Co 15 L 60 minutes 8 hours

× × × = 16.2 mcg Co/shift
L minute hour shift

Answer: A measure of 16 micrograms of cobalt are absorbed by this

worker in an 8-hour work shift.

51. Air temperature is 42°C. Barometric pressure is 718 mm Hg. Air-sampling

rate is 2.31 L/m. Sampling time is 17.5 minutes. Assume that the air is satu-
rated with water vapor (61.5 mm Hg). What is the sampled volume of dry
air at 25°C and 760 mm Hg?

17.5 minutes × 2.31 L/m = 40.425 liters of wet air

718 mm Hg − 61.5 mm Hg 298 K

40.425 L × × = 33 L
760 mm Hg 273 K + 42o C

Answer: 33 liters of dry air.

52. What is the mercury vapor concentration in a dynamic vapor generation

system if 100 mL/minute saturated at 18.8 mcg Hg/L are diluted with
mercury-free air at 27 L/minute?

A × C concentration of contaminant in dynamic generation

Ct = =
A + B caliibration system

where
A = contaminant flow rate
B = clean air flow rate
C = concentration of contaminant in A

100 mL/min = 0.1 L/min

(0.1 L/min) × (18.8 mcg/L)

Ct = = 0.069 mcg/L
(27 L/min ) + (0.1 L/min)

Answer: 0.069 mg Hg vapor/m3.

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725 Problems with Solutions 23

53. How many particles result from crushing 1 cubic centimeter of quartz into
1 micron cubic particles?
1 cc = 1 cm3
1 meter = 106 microns
1 cm = 104 microns
(104 microns)3 = 1012 particles
Answer: 1012 particles of respirable dust, that is, 1,000,000,000,000 particles.

54. What is the saturation concentration (in mg/m3) of mercury vapor at 147°F?
Hg vapor pressure at this temperature is 0.0328 mm Hg. Assume that the air
temperature is also 147°F or greater. Molecular weight of Hg is 200.6 grams/
gram-mole.
0.0328 mm Hg
× 106 = 43.16 ppm
760 mm Hg

147°F = 63.89°C
273 K + 63.89 ο C
22.4 L × = 27.64 L
273 K

mg 43.16 ppm × 200.6 313 mg

= =
m3 27.64 L m3

Answer: 313 mg mercury/m3 (OSHA’s PEL = 0.05 mg/m3). The TLV for
elemental mercury (all forms) is 0.025 mg/m3 with the SKIN notation.

55. How much mercury would have to evaporate to yield a vapor concentration
of 0.1 mg/m3 in a chloralkali plant with a 2,250,000 ft3 interior volume? The
density of liquid mercury is 13.6 g/mL.

0.1 mg/m3 = 2.83 mcg Hg/ft3

2.83 mcg/ft3 × 2.25 × 106 ft3 = 6.37 × 106 mcg

6.37 g Hg
= 0.47 mL
13.6 g/mL

Answers: 6.4 gram, 0.47 milliliter.

56. If 1 cc of air has a mass of 1.2 mg at 25°C and 760 mm Hg, what is the den-
sity of mercury vapor? Molecular weight of Hg is 200.6 g/g-mol.

200.6 × mg/L
1ppm Hg vapor = = 0.0082 mg/L = 8.2 mcg/L
24,450 mL/g-mol
= 8.2 g/1000 cc = 0.0082 g/cc
= 8.2 mg/cc

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24 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

8.2 mg/m3 = 1 cc/m3

1 cc Hg vapor = 8.2 mg

1 cc air = 1.2 mg
8.2 mg Hg/cc
= 6.83
1.2 mg air /cc

Alternatively, one could use the ratio of their molecular weights, that
is, the “apparent” molecular weight of air = 28.94, or 200.6/28.94 = 6.93—
essentially identical to the above. See Problem 58.

Answer: 6.83 (air = 1.00, no units).

57. How many pounds of air are inhaled weekly by a person with a daily inha-
lation of 22.8 m3, the air inhalation volume of “standard man” (70 kg)?

22.8 m 3 7 days 35.3 ft 3 0.075 lb 423 lb

× × × =
day week m3 ft 3 week

Answer: About 400–450 pounds per week for a 154-pound man or woman
who has an average daily metabolic rate. The inhaled volume, of course,
increases as one’s metabolic activity increases and as the person’s body
mass increases.

58. Calculate dry air’s “apparent” molecular weight if the atomic weight of
argon is 39.9 grams/gram-mole.

% by volume Molecular Weight Proportion of Molecular Weight

O2 21.0 × 32 = 6.72
N2 78.1 × 28 = 21.866
Ar 0.9 × 39.9 = 0.355
100.0 28.941

Answer: The apparent molecular weight of dry air is 28.94.

59. Worker breathing zone TWAE air contains 30 mcg Pb/m3 (PEL = 50 mcg/
m3) and 0.8 mg H2SO4 mist/m3 (PEL = 1 mg/m3). Is the PEL for the mixture
exceeded?

30 mcg /m 3
= 0.6, or 60% of PEL
50 mcg /m 3

30 mcg/m3 is OSHA’s action level for Pb.

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725 Problems with Solutions 25

0.8 mg H 2 SO 4 /m 3
= 0.8, or 80% of PEL
1 mg H 2 SO 4 /m 3

Answer: No, toxic effects of these air contaminants are independent.

However, since both exceed respective action levels, an aggressive indus-
trial hygiene control program is needed.

60. By how much should workers’ exposure limits be reduced if they are
exposed for a 12-hour work shift?

8 24 − h
exposure reduction factor = ×
h 16

where
h = hours exposed per work day

8 24 − 12
× = 0.5
12 16

Answer: Reduce by at least 50%. This accounts, in part, for reduced

time available each day to detoxify and reverse the daily adverse effects.
This is the Brief and Scala model referenced in American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists book of threshold Limit Values®.

61. A liquid contains (by weight) 50% heptane (TLV = 400 ppmv = 1600 mg/
m3), 30% methyl chloroform (TLV = 350 ppmv = 1900 mg/m3), and 20%
perchloroethylene (TLV = 50 ppmv = 335 mg/m3). Assume complete evapo-
ration of each solvent in the mixture. What is the TLV for the vapor mixture?

n-heptane 1 mg/m3 ≅ 0.25 ppmv

CH3CCl3 1 mg/m3 ≅ 0.18 ppmv
“perc” 1 mg/m3 ≅ 0.15 ppmv

1
TLV of mixture = = 935 mg/M3
(0.5 /1600) + (0.3/1900) + (0.2/335)

Of this mixture,

468 mg
n-heptane 935 mg/m 3 (0.5) = × 0.25 = 117 ppm v
m3

281 mg
CH 3 CCl3 935 mg/m 3 (0.3) = × 0.18 = 51 ppm
m3

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26 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

187 mg
“perc” 935 mg/m 3 (0.2) = × 0.15 = 29 ppm v
m3

Answer: 117 ppmv + 51 ppmv + 29 ppmv = 197 ppmv = 935 mg/m3

62. A process evaporates 5.7 pounds of isopropyl alcohol of vapor per hour into
a work area that has a general ventilation rate of 4500 cfm. What is average
steady-state vapor concentration?

ER × 24.45 × 106
ppm = ,
Q × molecular × weight

where
ER = evaporation (generation) rate (in grams/minute) and
Q = ventilation rate (in liters/minute)

CH3CHOHCH3 molecular weight = C3H8O = 36 + 8 + 16 = 60

5.7 lb 454 g hour 43.13 grams

× × =
hour lb 60 minutes minute

4500 ft 3 28.3 L
Q= × = 127,350 L/m
minute ft 3

(43.13 grams/minute) × 24.45 × 106

ppm = = 138 ppm IPA
(127,350 L/minute) × 60

Answer: 138 ppmv isopropyl alcohol vapor at 43.13 grams per minute.

63. The dry bulb temperature in Miami Beach is 80°F at a barometric pres-
sure of 760 mm Hg with relative humidity of 40%. Water vapor pressure
at these conditions is 0.195 lb/in2. A hurricane is approaching! What is the
concentration of H2O vapor in the air as the barometer decreases from 760
to 680 mm Hg?

(lb/in2) × 51.71 = mm Hg

(0.195 lb/in2) × 51.71 = 10.08 mm Hg

10.08 mm Hg
× 106 = 14,824 ppm H 2 O vapor
680 mm Hg

mg 22,400 299.67 K 760 mm Hg

ppm = × × × ,
L 18 273 K 680 mm Hg

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725 Problems with Solutions 27

or

mg H 2 O 14,824 ppm
=
L (22,400/18) × (299.67 K/273 K) × (760 mm Hg/680 mm Hg)
9.708 mg
=
L

Answers: 14,824 ppmv (≅ 1.48%) ≅ 9700 mg H2O/m3. Formerly, before the

barometric pressure dropped, the water vapor concentration was

10.08 mg Hg
× 106 = 13,263 ppm H 2 O vapor
760 mg Hg

The increase in the water vapor concentration in the atmosphere as the

barometric pressure decreases explains, in part, why heavy rains accom-
pany hurricanes.

64. During an earthquake, two adjacent compressed gas lines in a 20' ×

125' × 300' unventilated, closed room in a chemical plant simultaneously
burst. One pipeline released 20 pounds of anhydrous ammonia, and the
other released 4 pounds of anhydrous hydrogen chloride. Dense white fume
and a pungent, highly irritating gas formed immediately. Assume complete
reaction of both gases. What was the white fume? What was the remaining
gas and its concentration? Should we boldly stroll into this room without
respiratory protection? If not, what type of respirator should we use?

HCl + NH3 → NH4Cl + heat

4 lb HCl + 20 lb NH3 → x lb NH4Cl = 1816 g HCl + 9080 g

NH3 → y grams NH4Cl

1816 g HCl
= 49.75moles HCl
36.5 g HCl/g-mole

9080 g NH 3
= 534.1 moles NH3
17 g NH 3 /g-mole

Therefore, from the above equation, stoichiometrically, only 49.75 moles

of NH4Cl can be formed (molecular weight NH4Cl = 53.5 g/g-mole):

53.5 grams
y grams NH 4 Cl = 49.75 moles ×
mole NH 4 Cl
= y = 2662 grams NH 4 Cl = 5.86 lb

20' × 125' × 300' = 750,000 ft3 = 21,247 m3

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28 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

2262 g 0.125 g 125 mg NH 4 Cl fume

= =
22,247 m 3 m3 m3

20 lb NH3 (an excess) + 4 lb HCl (totally reacts) → 5.86 lb NH4Cl fume

24 lb total reactants − 5.86 lb product = 18.14 lb NH3 gas remaining

= 8236 g NH3

(8,236,000 mg/21,247 m 3 ) × 24.45 L/gram-mole

ppm NH 3 =
17 grams NH 3 /gram-mole
= 557 ppm NH 3

Answer: NH4Cl. 2660 grams, or 125 mg/m3. 557 ppm NH3. No! SCBAs.
The IDLH for ammonia is 300 ppmv.

65. What is the 8-hour TWAE PEL for an insecticide mixture containing one
part by weight “Parathion” (PEL = 0.1 mg/m3) and two parts “EPN” by
weight (PEL = 0.5 mg/m3)?

C1 C2 C C
3
+ 3
= mixture = m
0.1 mg/m 0.5 mg/m Tmixture Tm

C2 = 2 C1

Cm = 3 C1

C1 2 C1 3 C1
+ =
0.1 mg/m 3 0.5 mg/m 3 Tm

7 C1 3 C1
=
0.5 mg/m 3 Tm

1.5
Tm = = 0.21 mg/m 3
7

Answer: The PEL for this insecticide mixture is 0.21 mg/m3.

66. Calculate the TLV for a mineral dust mixture of 40% X (TLV = 1 mg/m3)
and 60% Y (TLV = 0.3 mg/m3). The adverse effects on respiratory health
are assumed to be additive (pulmonary fibrosis).

C 0.4 0.6
= +
TLV 1 0.3

1
= 0.4 + 2.0 = 2.4
TLV

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725 Problems with Solutions 29

1 = 2.4 × the TLV

TLV = 1/2.4 = 0.42 mg/m3

Answer: TLVX and Y = 0.42 mg/m3.

67. Workplace air contains 234 ppmv acetone (TLV = 750 ppmv), 119 ppm
sec-butyl acetate (TLV = 200 ppmv), 113 ppm MEK (TLV = 200 ppmv), and
49 ppm methyl chloroform (TLV = 350 ppmv). What is the concentration of
the vapor mixture? Is the TLV exceeded if this was a breathing zone air
sample?

234 ppmv + 119 ppmv + 133 ppmv + 49 ppmv = 535 ppmv

234 ppm 119 ppm 133 ppm 49 ppm

+ + + = 1.71
750 ppm 200 ppm 200 ppm 350 ppm

Answers: 535 ppmv. Yes, by 71%.

68. What is the partial pressure of O2 in dry air at sea level?

Oxygen: 20.95 volume % in air

0.2095 × 760 mm Hg = 159.2 mm Hg

69. If, in Problem 68, the barometric pressure does not change, but the air is
humidified to 100% relative humidity at 25°C, how will the air composition
be altered? Water vapor pressure at 25°C is 23.8 mm Hg.

O2 20.95% (760 mm Hg − 23.8 mm Hg) = 154.23 mm Hg

N2, and others 79.05% (760 mm Hg − 23.8 mm Hg) = 581.97 mm Hg
H2O = 23.8 mm Hg
760 mm Hg

Answers: O2 = 154.23 mm Hg. N2 + argon + and other trace gases =

581.97 mm Hg.

70. What is the percent oxygen in air at 12,000 feet altitude?

Answer: Although partial pressure of O2 decreases with altitude, the per-

cent composition of air does not. The atmosphere remains ≅ 21% O2 at any
altitude. A common myth is that the percentage oxygen in the atmosphere
decreases with altitude.

71. If an air sample humidified to 50% at 25°C is taken from sea level to an alti-
tude with a barometric pressure of 600 mm Hg and the same temperature,
what will be the partial pressures of air gases and water vapor?

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30 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

If 100% relative humidity (partial pressure due to water vapor) at

25°C = 23.8 mm Hg, then 50% relative humidity at 25°C = 11.9 mm Hg.

600 mm Hg
H 2 O vapor = × 11.9 mm Hg = 9.39 mm Hg
760 mm Hg

O2 20.95% (600 mm Hg − 9.39 mm Hg) = 123.73 mm Hg

N2, and others 79.05% (600 mm Hg − 9.39 mm Hg) = 466.88 mm Hg
600.00 mm Hg
Answers: H2O = 9.4 mm Hg. O2 = 123.7 mm Hg. N2, and others = 466.9
mm Hg.

72. An air filter is used at 1.36 L/m for 26 minutes to collect a monodisperse
aerosol of uniformly spherical 1-micron particles with a density of 2.6. If
the concentration of particles is 7.8 mppcf, how many particles are collected
on the filter? How much mass is collected? What is the dust concentration
in mg/m3?

1.36 L
× 26 minutes = 35.36 L = 1.25 ft 3
minute

7.8 mppcf × 1.25 ft3 = 9.75 × 106 particles

d = 1.0 micron = 0.0001 cm

r = 0.00005 cm

4 4 5.236 × 10 −13 cm 3
V = p r3 = p (0.00005 cm)3 =
3 3 particle

5.236 × 10 −13 cm 3
× 9.75 × 106 particles = 5.11 × 10 −6 cm 3
particle

5.11 × 10 −6 cm 3 2600 mg
× = 0.0133 mg
total particles cm 3

13.3 mcg 0.376 mg

=
35.36 L M3

Answers: 9.8 × 106 particles, 0.376 mg/m3

73. Assuming a normal probability distribution of dust particles suspended

in air, what is the standard geometric deviation if the geometric mean is
1.25 microns, and the 84.13% size is 2 microns?

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725 Problems with Solutions 31

2.0 microns
= 1.6 GSD
1.25 microns

Answer: The geometric standard deviation is 1.6.

74. 1.3 mL of nitrogen dioxide gas/minute are diluted into an air stream of
5.7 ft3 per minute. What is the NO2 concentration in the mixed gas stream
leading to the direct-reading instrument is being calibrated?

volume of gas/minute
ppm = × 106
volume of air/minute
1.3 mL/minute
= × 106
(5.7 ft 3 /minute) × (28.3 L/ft 3 ) × (1000 mL/L)
= 8.06 ppm NO2

75. An industrial hygienist calibrates his stopwatch by telephoning the “Time

Lady.” He starts the watch when she says “At the tone, the time is 2:13 and
20 seconds.” He stops the watch after calling her again when she says “2:27
and 10 seconds.” The watch’s elapsed time is 13 minutes and 33 seconds.
What is the percent error of his watch?

2:27:10 = 2:26:70 2:26:70 − 2:13:20 = 0:13:50

experimental value − true value

% error = × 100
true value
813 seconds − 830 seconds
= × 100 = −2.05%
830 seconds

Answers: −2.05%. Watch correction factor = (830 seconds/813 seconds) =

1.021.

76. An aqueous solution of 250 ppm (w/v) lead nitrate is atomized into respira-
ble mist droplets producing a total mist concentration of 360 mg/m3 (includ-
ing water). What is the Pb concentration in air?
250 ppm w/v Pb(NO3)2 = 250 mg Pb(NO3)2/liter of solution

Molecular weight of Pb(NO3)2 = 207 + (2 × 14) + (6 × 16) = 331

207
× 100 = 62.5% Pb
331

250 mg Pb(NO3 )2 156 mg Pb

× 0.625 =
L liter

156 ppm = 1.56 × 10−4 = 0.000156

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32 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

360 mg 0.056 mg Pb
× 0.000156 =
m3 m3

77. Total airborne particulates are emitted from an industrial power plant stack
at a rate of 0.64 ton per day. What are milligram/minute and pound/minute
emission rates?

0.64 ton 2000 pounds 454 grams 581,120 grams

× × =
day ton pound day

581,120,000 mg hour 403,556 milligrams

× =
24 hours 60 minutes minute

Answer: 403,556 milligrams/minute = 0.89 pound/minute.

78. A gas mixture is 80% methane, 15% ethane, 4% propane, and 1% butane
(by volume). Their respective LELs and UELs are 5%, 3.1%, 2.1%, 1.86%,
and 15.0%, 12.45%, 9.5%, and 8.41%. What are the LEL and UEL (in air)
for the gas mixture?
Calculations require application of Le Chatelier’s law:

100
LEL = = 4.30%
(80/5) + (15/3.1) + (4/2.1) + (1/1.86)

100
UEL = = 14.13%
(80/15) + (15/12.5) + (4/9.5) + (1/8.41)

79. How much benzene must be evaporated inside a dry 20.3 L Pyrex® bottle to
obtain 50 ppmv of benzene vapor? The density of liquid benzene is 0.879 g/mL.

C6H6 molecular weight = (6 × 12) + 6 = 78

50 20.3L 78
× × = 0.00368mL
106 (24.45L/gram-mole) (0.879g/mL)

Answer: Inject 3.7 microliters of liquid analytical reagent grade benzene.

80. How much carbon monoxide gas must be added to a 29.8 L glass bottle to
obtain a 35 ppmv gas mixture? Assume that the air balance is CO-free by
passing ambient air containing 0.8 ppmv CO through a Hopcalite® filter.

CO molecular weight = 12 + 16 = 28

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725 Problems with Solutions 33

28 g/gram-mole 1.145g 0.001145g

Density of CO gas (at NTP ) = = =
24.45 L/gram-mole L mL

35 29.8 L 28
6
× × = 1.043mL CO
10 24.45 L/gram-mole 0.001145g/mL

x 35
Alternative calculation method: =
29,800 mL 106

x = 1.043 mL CO gas

Answer: 1.04 mL of 100% CO gas (or, e.g., 10.4 mL of 10% CO).

81. 680 tons of coal containing an average of 0.7 ppm mercury are burned daily
in an electricity-generating power plant. Assume that 98% of all mercury
compounds in the coal are released to the atmosphere. How much mercury
is released every hour?

680 tons 2000 lb 454 grams

× × = 6.17 × 108 grams of Hg /day
day ton pound

6.17 × 108 grams/day

= 2.57 × 107 grams/hour
24 hours/day

 2.57 × 107 grams 

 × 0.7 × 10 ppm Hg = 17.6 g Hg/hour
−6
0.98 
 hour 

Answer: A weight of 17.6 grams of mercury emitted per hour (presumably

as elemental Hgo vapor and mercury oxides, sulfides, and sulfates).

82. How many kilograms of sulfur dioxide gas (SO2) are produced when 6- 12 tons
of coal containing 3.4% sulfur are completely burned (stoichiometrically
oxidized)?

S + O2 → SO2 ↑ (2S + 3O2→ 2SO3↑)

6.5 tons × 0.034 = 0.221 ton sulfur = 200.5 kg sulfur

200.5 kg sulfur 1000 g
× = 6266 moles of sulfur
32 g sulfur/gram-mole kg

Therefore, 6266 moles of sulfur dioxide (SO2) are produced.

Molecular weight of SO2 = 32 + (16 × 2) = 64

(6266 moles SO2) (64 g SO2/mole) = 401,024 grams SO2 = 401 kg SO2
Answer: 401 kilograms SO2, for example, 1 ton of sulfur ⇒ 2 tons of SO2 gas

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34 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

83. The decay constant for a reactive gas in air is 4.9 × 10−2 molecular dissocia-
tions per minute. What is the half-life of this gas in seconds?

Nt = No e−kt

First-order exponential decay kinetics,

where
Nt = number of molecules remaining after time, t,
No = original number of molecules, and
k = the molecular dissociation constant.

substitute No/2 for Nt and T for t:

No
= N o e − kT
2

solve for T: 0.5 = e−kT

taking the natural logs on both sides: ln 0.5 = −kT
thus,

ln 0.5 ln 0.5
T = = = 14.15minutes
−k −(4.9 × 10 dissociations/minute)
−2

Answer: 14.15 minutes × 60 seconds/minute = 849 seconds, that is, 50%

decay every 849 seconds.

84. What fraction of the gas in Problem 83 remains after 1 hour?

Nt = No e−kt

dividing both sides by No:

Nt
= e − kt
No

Nt
= e − (0.049/minute)(60 minutes) = 5.286 × 10 −2 = 5.3%
No

Answer: 5.3% of the unstable gas remains in the air after 1 hour.

85. What are the mean and the standard deviations for the following analytical
results of the amounts of beryllium (in mcg) on 10 × 10 cm surface wipe
samples:

6.3, 9.7, 9.4, 12.1, 8.5, and 7.7?

Answers: Mean (average) = 9.0 mcg Be/100 cm2. Standard deviation = 1.8.

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725 Problems with Solutions 35

86. In question 85, what range most likely covers about 95% of the results?
1.8 × 2 = 3.6
9.0 − 3.6 = 5.4
9.0 + 3.6 = 12.6

Answer: 5.4−12.6 mcg Be/100 cm2

87. What is the statistical correlation between the following corresponding “x”
and “y” values: x = 5, 13, 8, 10, 15, 20, 4, 16, 18, and 6; y = 10, 30, 30, 40,
60, 50, 20, 60, 50, and 20?

Answer: r = 0.866

20
18
16
14
12
y 10
8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60
x

88. Workers inhale respirable dust that is 27% quartz and 11% cristobalite.
What is the PEL for this fibrogenic dust mixture?

10 mg/m 3 10 mg/m 3
PEL = = = 0.196 mg/m 3
2 + % quartz + 2 (% cristobalite) 2 + 27 + (2 × 11)

Answer: <0.2 mg/m3, assuming the balance of the inhaled dust mixture is
biologically inert.

89. A 2 mL CS2 extract of a small charcoal tube contained 3.7 mcg EO per mL.
Air was sampled at 93 mL/min for 97 minutes at 77oF. What was the ethyl-
ene oxide concentration in air assuming 79% analytical recovery? The air
sample was carried out in Boston.

EO = C2H4O

Molecular weight = 24 + 4 + 16 = 44 grams/gram-mole

(93 mL/minute) × 97 minutes = 9021 mL = 9.021 L

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36 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

2 mL × (3.7 mcg/mL) = 7.4 mcg EO

(7.4 mcg EO/9.021 L) × 24.45

= 0.45ppm
44

100
= 1.266
79

0.45 ppmv × 1.266 = 0.6 ppmv

90. Determine cubic feet of vapor produced from evaporation of 1 gallon of

methanol at 60°F in New Orleans. The density of methyl alcohol is 0.8 g/mL.
1 gallon = 3785 mL × 0.8 g/mL = 3028 grams = 6.67 pounds
CH3OH molecular weight = 12 + 16 + 4 = 32.
1 pound of CH3OH forms (359 ft3/32) vapor at 0°C = 11.2 ft3
At 60°F: °R = °F + 460 = 520°R
°R = 32°F + 460 = 492°R

ft 3 (520o R) (359ft 3 ) 379.4 11.86 ft 3

= = =
lb (492o R) (mol.wt.) 32 lb

11.86 ft 3
6.67 lb × = 79.1ft 3
lb

Answer: 79.1 ft3 of vapor are produced by evaporating 1 gallon of CH3OH

at 60°F at sea level.

91. A 4-inch diameter Petri dish had 0.6 colony-forming units/cm2 after the cul-
ture was incubated from a 27.4 ft3 air sample. How many viable organisms/
m3 does this represent?

27.4 ft3 × 28.3 L/ft3 = 775.4 L = 0.775 m3

4" diameter = 2" radius, r = 5.08 cm

A = πr 2 = π(5.08 cm)2 = 81.07 cm2

81.07 cm2 × 0.6 CFU/cm2 = 48.6 CFU/Petri dish

48.6 CFU 63 CFU

=
0.775 m 3 m3

Answer: 63 colony-forming units per cubic meter of air.

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725 Problems with Solutions 37

92. 0.062 mL of ethyl acetate is evaporated/min into a 34 liter/minute air stream.

What is the EA vapor concentration in ppm at 77°F and 760 mm Hg?
Molecular weight of EA = 88. Density of liquid EA = 0.9 g/mL.

0.062 mL × (0.9 g/mL) = 0.0558 gram

55.8 mg 1.64 mg 1640 mg

= =
34 L L m3

(1640 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm v = = 456 ppm v ethyl acetate vapor
88

93. A direct-reading instrument to measure CO gas in air is calibrated at sea

level and 25°C. What is the corrected reading for the instrument if it indi-
cates 47 ppmv CO at 7500 feet elevation and 29°C?
“Rule of thumb”: For every 1000 feet of elevation above sea level, the baro-
metric pressure decreases by about 1 inch of mercury. Therefore, for 7500
feet, the equivalent pressure = 7.5" Hg × (25.4 mm/inch) = 190.5 mm Hg.

760 mm Hg − 190.5 mm Hg = 569.5 mm Hg

P 298 K P 298 K
ppm at NTP = meter reading × × = 47 ppm × ×
760 T 760 T
569.5mm Hg 298 K
= 47 ppm × × = 34.8 ppm
760 mm Hg 302 K

34.8 ppm CO
Answer: Instrument correction factor = = 0.74.
47 ppm CO

94. The concentration of a ketone vapor in inhaled air is 48 ppmv. It is 19 ppmv

in the end-exhaled air of a worker. What is the average body retention of
this ketone?

C i − Ce 48 ppm − 19 ppm
% retention = × 100 = × 100 = 60%
Ci 48 ppm

Answer: “Retention” is a function of catabolism-excretion, detoxification,

and storage.

95. Two airborne dust samples obtained in a worker’s breathing zone had the fol-
lowing results for combined work place daily exposure to respirable silica:

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38 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Air Duration, Respirable

Sample Minutes Liters Weight, mg mg/m3 Silica
Morning 161 274 0.961 3.51 6.9% quartz
1.8% cristobalite
0.0% tridymite
Afternoon 247 420 0.530 1.26 7.3% quartz
1.9% cristobalite
0.0% tridymite
Total 408 694 1.491

Calculate the percent quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite in the respirable

particulate fractions. Calculate the PEL for the mixture and the employee’s
exposure. Adjust his exposure to an 8-hour time-weighted average. Assume
that the remainder of the worker’s exposure was in an area with no airborne
silica dust. Also assume that this clean-shaven worker used an organic
vapor cartridge respirator.

0.961 mg 0.530 mg
quartz: 6.9% × + 7.3% × = 7.0%
1.491 mg 1.491 mg

0.961 mg 0.961 mg
cristobalite: 1.8% × + 1.9% × = 2.4%
1.491 mg 1.491 mg

10 mg/m 3
PEL =
2 + % quartz + 2 (% cristobalite) + 2 (% tridymite)
10 mg/m 3 0.72 mg
= =
2 + 7 + 2 (2.4) + 2 (0) m3

(0.961 mg/m 3 ) + (0.530 mg/m 3 )

actual exposure = = 2.15 mg/m 3
0.694 m 3

2.15 mg 408 minutes

TWAE = × = 1.83 mg/m 3
m3 480 minutes

Answers: quartz = 7.0%; cristobalite = 2.4%. PEL = 0.72 mg/m3. Exposure

period = 2.15 mg/m3. Adjusted 8-hour TWAE = 1.83 mg/m3. Exposures are
calculated without regard to the use of a respirator. Besides, organic vapor
cartridges make this a totally unacceptable respirator for silica dust exposures.

96. A precision rotameter was calibrated at 1.7 L/m at sea level and 70°F. Air will
be sampled for respirable silica dust at 90°F and at a barometric pressure of
633 mm Hg with a cyclone dust sampler. What corrected rotameter reading
must be used with this cyclone? What is the rotameter correction factor, Cf?

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725 Problems with Solutions 39

90°F = 32.2°C

32.2°C + 273 K = 305.2 kelvin

1.7 L 633mm Hg 298K 1.38 L

× × =
min 760 mm Hg 305.2 K min

1.7 L/m
Cf = = 1.23
1.38 L/m

Answer: In other words, sample at 1.7 L/min × 1.23 = 2.09 L/min to obtain
the desired air-sampling rate of 1.7 L/min.

97. A clothing dry cleaning plant purchases two 55-gallon drums of perchloro-
ethylene every month. Losses to the environment are entirely due to evapo-
ration. If 75% of the total loss is through a vent exhausting 200 cfm, what is
average “perc” vapor concentration in the vent if the plant operates 6 days/
week and 9 hours daily. The density of liquid “perc” is 1.62 g/mL.
110 gallons/month × 3.785 L/gallon = 416.4 liters “perc” evaporated every
month.

6 days 9 hours 60 minutes 4.5 weeks 200 ft 3 2.916 × 106 ft 3

× × × × =
week day hour month minute month
416.4 L “perc” /month 416,400 mL “perc”
=
2,916,000 ft 3 /month 82,581,120 L of air and vapor
0.05 mL 5 mL
= =
L m3

5 mL × (1.62 g/mL) = 8.1 grams of “perc” 8.1 g/m3 = 8100 mg/m3

Molecular weight of “perc” = (4 × 35.5) + (2 × 12) = 166

(8100 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = 1193 ppm
166

1193 ppm “perc” × 0.75 = 895 ppm

Answer: ≅ 900 ppm “perc” vapor

98. How much water vapor is in every 1000 ft3 of building air if the relative
humidity is 50% at an air temperature of 80°F? The vapor pressure of
H2O at 80°F = 26.2 mm Hg. Assume this building is located in Norfolk,
Virginia.

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40 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

80°F = 26.67°C

26.67°C + 273 K = 299.76 K (Kelvin)

22.4 L 299.76 K 24.59 L

× =
gram-mole 273K gram-mole

26.2 mm Hg
ppm H 2 O vapor = 0.5 × × 106 = 17,237 ppm
760 mm Hg

mg ppm × mol. wt. 17,237 × 18

3
= = = 12,612 mg/m 3
m 24.59 L/gram-mol 24.59

12.61grams 0.357 gram

=
35.3ft 3 ft 3

357g 0.79 lb
= 3 3
103 ft 3 10 ft

Answer: 0.79 pound of water vapor per 1000 ft3 of air.

99. Determine the amount (in grams) of CO2 produced by completely burning
25 L of ethane in air at standard temperature and pressure according to the
stoichiometric combustion equation:

2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2↑ + 6H2O↑

C2H6 molecular weight = (2 × 12) + 6 = 30

30 grams/gram-mole

22.4 L = 30 g

25 L = x grams

22.4 L 30 grams 33.48 g

= = 1.116 moles of C2 H 6
25 L x grams 30 g/g-mole

2 1
=
7 3.5

1.116 moles × 2 = 2.232 moles of CO2 produced

2.232 moles of CO2 × (44 grams/gram-mole) = 98.2 grams

Answer: 98.2 grams of CO2 are produced.

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725 Problems with Solutions 41

100. If the concentration of a hydrocarbon vapor in inhaled air is 70 mg/m3,

exposure is 8 hours, respiratory ventilation rate is 1.2 m3/hour, and the aver-
age retention is 73%, what is the biologically absorbed dose?

C (mg/m3) × T (hour) × V (m3/hour) × R (%) = absorbed dose in milligrams

70 mg 1.2 m 3
= 3
× 8 hour × × 0.73 = 490 milligrams
m hour

101. Workers in chemical plants such as petroleum refineries often work in

6-week schedules of three 12-hour days for 3 weeks followed by four
12-hour work days for 3 weeks. What is the PEL and TLV reduction for
such workers?
Note that the weekly average exposures of 36 and 48 hours are slightly
different than a normal work week schedule of 40 hours (weekly average is
42 hours).

8 hours 24 hours − 12 hours

TLV reduction factor = × = 0.5
12 hours 16 hours

Answer: Note that the reduction factor of 0.5 applies to 12-hour work days
regardless if the exposures are 3, 4, or 5 or more days per week.

102. Hydrogen chloride has a TLV® (C) of 5 ppm. What is the modified TLV for
HCl gas for a work schedule of 12 hours per day for a 3-day work week?

Answer: Since the basis of the TLV is prevention of acute respiratory irri-
tation, lowering of the limit might not be justifiable. The concept of reduc-
ing 8-hour limits applies to systemically toxic agents and not usually to air
contaminants with acute effects and with C, or ceiling, limits.

103. Determine the mass of vapor expelled when 1000 gallons of benzene are
added to a 5000 gallon storage tank if the temperatures of the tank space
and benzene are 20°C. Assume the vessel wall is warmer than the liq-
uid benzene, the tank is in Baltimore, and the tank contained 2500 gal-
lons of benzene for the past 3 weeks. The vapor pressure of benzene at
20°C = 75 mm Hg.
The American Petroleum Institute provides a formula addressing the
release of solvent vapors from tanks during filling. This is used to estimate
vapor emissions into work room or ambient air by displacement of the satu-
rated vapors of volatile hydrocarbons.
The mass of vapor expelled by displacement when a volatile liquid is
transferred into a tank using the API formula is

MW 
M = 1.37 V S Pv  ,
 T 

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42 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

where
M = mass of vapor expelled, lb
V = volume of liquid transferred to tank, ft3
S = fraction of vapor saturation of expelled air
Pv = vapor pressure of liquid, atm
M W = molecular weight of solvent or hydrocarbon
T = temperature of tank vapor space, oR

For splash filling of a tank initially free of vapors, or for the refilling of tanks
from which the same liquid was just withdrawn, the value of S is normally 1.0.

V = 1000 gallons = 3785 liters = 133.7 ft3

Pv = 75 mm Hg

75 mm Hg/760 mm Hg = 0.09868 atmosphere

C6H6 = molecular weight = (6 × 12) + 6 = 78

20°C = 68°F

°R = °F + 459.69 = 68°F + 459.69 = 527.69°F

 78 
M = (1.37) (133.7ft 3 ) (1.0) (0.09868 atm)   = 2.67 lb
 527.69 

Alternate calculation method:

1000 gallons benzene vapor = 3785 liters of benzene vapor

75mm Hg
ppm = × 106 = 98,684 ppm
760 mm Hg

mg ppm × mol. wt. 98,684 ppm × 78 98,684 × 78

3
= = =
M 24.04 24.04 24.04
= 320,190 mg/m 3

(320.19 g/m3) × 3.785 m3 = 1211.9 g = 2.67 lb

Answer: 2.67 pounds of benzene vapor are expelled to the atmosphere.

104. Workers are exposed to systemically toxic air contaminants 12 hours/day

and 6 days/week. By how much should the exposure limits be reduced to

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725 Problems with Solutions 43

help protect their health? Apply Brief and Scala method for air toxicants
with chronic effects.

40 168 − h
× ,
h 128

where
h = hours worked/week
40 = hours in a normal work week
168 = total hours in a week
128 = hours available in a normal work week to detoxify, excrete toxi-
cants, and so on.

40 168 − 72
× = 0.42
72 128

Answer: Reduce their exposure limits (including action levels) by at least 42%.

105. Using the OSHA model, what is the equivalent PEL for cumulative air toxi-
cants such as lead and mercury (PELs = 0.05 mg/m3) if exposures are, for
example, 50 hours per week?

40 hours
equivalent PEL = = weekly adjustment
exposure hours/week

for example,

40 hours
× 0.05 mg/m 3 = 0.04 mg/m 3
50 hours

Answer: In other words, in this case, if the exposure week is increased

from the normal 40−50 hours (20%), reduce the exposure limit by 20%.

106. How many molecules of mercury vapor exist per cm3 in cold traps of mer-
cury diffusion pumps maintained at minus 120°C? The vapor pressure of
mercury at this temperature is 10−16 mm Hg.

moles of Hg PV 10 −16 atmosphere × 10 −3 L

= n = = = 1 × 10 −23 mole Hg
cm 3 RT 0.082 L − atm −1 mole −1 × 153o K

10−23 mole Hg × 6.023 × 1023 molecules/mole = 6 molecules of Hg/cm3.

Answer: Six mercury molecules per cubic centimeter. Contrast this to

1.5 × 1011 mercury molecules in each cm3 of air at the PEL of 50 mcg Hg/m3.

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44 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

107. Determine the weight of solvent vapor emitted per day from a paint baking
oven drying 40 gallons/day as a blend of four gallons of un-thinned enamel
to 1 gallon of thinner. The enamel weighs 9.2 lb/gallon of which 51% is
volatile. The thinner weighs 7 lb/gallon. Assume no particulates form and
all volatiles exist in the vapor phase.
This is a blend of 4 gallons un-thinned enamel plus 1 gallon of thinner. Thus,
(40/5) × 4 = 32 gallons of un-thinned enamel are used daily + (40/5) × 1 = 8
gallons of thinner are used daily.
Volatiles in the un-thinned enamel are

9.2 lb
32 gallons × × (1 − 0.49) = 150 lb
gallon

Volatiles in the thinner are: (8 gallons) (7 lb/gallon) = 56 lb

150 lb + 56 lb = 206 lb/day

Answer: 206 pounds of solvent vapor are emitted to an air pollution con-
trol device (or to the atmosphere) daily.

108. The average solvent vapor concentration in a plant is 130 ppmv and cannot
be further reduced by improved work practices. It is necessary to reduce
this to at least 15 ppmv to protect the health of the exposed workers. By how
much must the dilution air be increased?
If the solvent vapor contaminant is generated at a steady rate:

Q C
=
Qo Co

Co 15ppm v
=
C 130 ppm v

Therefore, Q/Qo = 8.7, that is,

The supplied air volume must be increased at least 8.7 times.

Answers: Supply at least 8.7 times more clean dilution air with excellent
air mixing. This is uneconomical in frigid climates. Carefully study each
source of vapor release to see if mechanical local exhaust ventilation can be
applied after a diligent search to control solvent vapor leaks.

109. A 100' × 50' × 12' workshop is provided with 2 cfm of outside air per ft2
of floor area. A gaseous contaminant is evolved in this shop at a rate of
6.6 cfm. An air sample taken when the exhaust fan is off reveals a concen-
tration of 580 ppmv. How long must this fan operate before the air concen-
tration reaches 100 ppmv? Assume excellent mixing of the dilution air with
the contaminated air.

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725 Problems with Solutions 45

100' × 50' × (2 cfm/ft2) = 10,000 cfm

2.303 × ft 3 G − (Q × Ca )
t , minutes = × log
Q G − (Q × Cb )

2.303 × 60,000 ft 3 6.6 cfm − (10,000 cfm × (100/106 ))

t = × log = 13.82
10,000 cfm 6.6 cfm − (10,000 cfm × (580/106 ))
 6.6 − 1 
× log   = 13.82 × log 7 = 13.82 × 0.845 = 11.7 minutes
 6.6 − 5.8 

Answer: At least 12 minutes if there is good mixing—longer if there is

poor mixing of fresh air with pockets of contaminated air.

110. Ambient air has been reported to contain from 0.01 to 0.02 microgram of
mercury per cubic meter. How many molecules of mercury are in each liter
of air inhaled at this concentration?

6.023 × 1023 molecules Hg/gram-mole 3 × 1021 molecules

=
200.59 g Hg/gram-mole gram
3 × 1015 molecules
=
microgram

0.01 mcg/m3 = 0.00001 mcg/L

10 −5 mcg 3 × 1015 molecules 3 × 1010 moleculesHg

× =
L mcg L

Answer: 3 × 1010 molecules of mercury per liter of air.

111. Seven mL of 100% CO gas was added by a gas syringe to a plastic bag into
which 127 liters of CO-free air had been metered. What is the resultant CO
gas concentration?
0.007 L
ppm CO = 106 × = 55.1 parts CO/106 parts of air
127 L + 0.007 L

7 mL x
Alternative calculation method : ×
127,007 mL 106

Answer: x = 55 ppmv CO

112. An incinerator produces 0.032 lb of phosgene gas per hour for every 100 lb
of pentachlorophenol processed per hour at extreme temperatures with
methane and excess air. If the total gas flow rate leaving the incinerator is

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46 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

4600 cfm at NTP, what is the average phosgene gas concentration in this
exhaust gas?

C6OHCl5 + CH4 + excess air (O2) → CO2, CO, Cl2, HCl, H2O, etc. + COCl2

4600 cfm = 276,000 ft3/hour = 7.81 × 106 L/hour

0.032 lb/hour 14.53 × 106 mcg

= = 1.86 mcg/L
276,000 cfh 7.81 × 106 L

Molecular weight COCl2 = 12 + 16 + 2 (31.5) = 99

(1.89mcg/L) × 24.45
ppm = = 0.46 ppm = 460 ppbv
99

Answer: 0.46 ppmv COCl2 gas. TLV is 0.1 ppmv to help prevent upper
respiratory tract irritation, pulmonary edema, and emphysema.

113. A worker was exposed to a 6 mg/m3 dust cloud of radioactive mercuric cya-
nide [Hg203(CN)2] for 30 minutes. Assuming no other exposures that day,
what were his TWAEs to mercury and cyanide? Hg203 is a β-emitter with
a T1/2 of 47 days. What are the three health hazards? What is the greatest
health hazard? What is the least acute? Assume that the dust is entirely
respirable with all particles less than 2 microns.

Molecular weight Hg(CN)2 = 203 + (12 × 2) + (14 × 2) = 255

(203/255) × 100 = 79.6% Hg

100% − 79.6% = 20.4% CN−

(6 mg/m3) × 0.796 = 4.78 mg Hg203/m3

(6 mg/m3) × 0.204 = 1.22 mg CN−/m3

(4.78 mg Hg/M3 ) × 0.5 hour + 0

= 0.30 mg Hg/m 3
8 hours

(TLV inorganic Hg = 0.05 mg Hg/m3)

(1.22 mg CN − /m 3 ) + 0
= 0.08 mg CN − /m 3
8 hours

TLV CN− = 5 mg/m3

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725 Problems with Solutions 47

Answer: 0.30 mg Hg/m3 and 0.08 mg CN−/m3. Acute inorganic mercury

and cyanide poisoning and internal ionizing radiation (pulmonary deposi-
tion and systemic absorption of an internal β-emitter). The ionizing radia-
tion hazard more than likely outweighs the mercury and cyanide hazards
because of delayed, chronic effects (cancer?). Although the mercury
exposure exceeded the TLV by 6 times, it was a single occurrence, and
the long term, chronic effects from this are probably negligible.

114. 13.7 liters of air at 19°C and 741 mm Hg were sampled with a midget
impinger containing 14.4 mL of collection solution with 100% absorption
efficiency for SO2. The SO2 concentration was analyzed at 11.6 micrograms/
mL. Calculate the ppmv of SO2 in this air sample.

Total SO2 sampled = (11.6 mcg/mL) × 14.4 mL = 167 mcg

The volume of 1 micromole SO2 gas at 19°C and 741 mm Hg =

224 microliters 760 mm 292 K

1.0 micromole SO2 = × ×
micromole 741mm 273 K
= 24.6 microlitersSO2

167 mcg SO2 micromole SO2

SO2 concentration in ppm = ×
13.7 L air 64 mcg SO2
24.57 microlitersSO2 4.68 microlitersSO2
× =
micromole SO2 liter of air

Answer: 4.7 ppmv SO2

115. One drop (0.05 mL) of TDI evaporated in an unventilated, closed telephone
booth (remember those?). What is the vapor concentration of TDI if inte-
rior volume of the booth is 1.5 m3? Is atmosphere hazardous to health? TDI
molecular weight is 174. Density of liquid TDI is 1.22 g/mL.

0.05 mL × 1.22 g/mL = 0.061 gram = 61 milligrams of TDI

(mg/M 3 ) × 24.45 (61mg/1.5 M3 ) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecular weight 174
= 5.7 ppm v = 5700 ppbv

(5700 ppbv/5 ppbv PEL) = 1140 times > PEL. LCLo = 500 ppbv

Answers: 5.7 ppm, or 1140 times the PEL and 11.5 times the LCLo. Clark
Kent (a.k.a. “Superman”) would not survive this exposure. TDI has two iso-
mers (2,4-TDI and 2,6-TDI). Both are equally toxic with respect to their ability
to sensitize the lungs.

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48 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

116. How long must one sample at 2 L/min with a 25 mm diameter cellulose ester
membrane filter to evaluate asbestos fibers at 0.04 fiber/cubic centimeter of air?
The filter area is 385 mm2. A minimum fiber count is taken as 100 per mm2.

385mm 2 × (100 fibers/mm 2 )

Sampling time (minutes) =
2.0 L/minute × 0.04 fiber/cc × 1000 cc/L
= 481.25minutes

Answer: 481 minutes (= 8 hours), that is, this is a full work shift breath-
ing zone air sample to determine asbestos exposure at 20% or greater of the
OSHA PEL (0.04 f/cc).

117. Air contaminants in a 50,000 gallon tank are 80 ppmv CO, 3 ppmv HCN,
and 8 ppmv H2S. Three pipe fitters have work to do in the tank. Would you:
a. Permit entry to not exceed 30 minutes every 8 h?
b. Permit entry to not exceed 60 minutes every 8 h?
c. Permit entry to not exceed more than 25% of the work shift?
d. Permit entry only if the pipe fitters are outside for 1 hour for every hour
that they are inside the tank?
e. Ventilate the tank with a 500 cfm blower for 20 minutes?
f. Permit entry only if the pipe fitters have escape masks?
g. Not permit entry?
h. Duck and cover?
i. Contact a board-certified industrial hygienist?
Answer: g. First, it would be highly unusual to have three chemical
asphyxiant gases exist in the same confined space. Second, since it is likely
that the pipe fitters could breach the integrity of the pipes and tanks con-
taining these gases, much higher gas concentrations might occur in their
work area. Because of this, entry must not be permitted until further evalu-
ation is done. All elements of a comprehensive confined space entry proce-
dure are required to protect the health and safety of these pipe fitters (refer
to OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1025).

118. Determine the volume and mass conversion of ozone gas at 25°C and
760 mm Hg (NTP).

Molecular weight of O3 = 3 × 16 = 48 g/g-mole

T = 273 K + 25°C = 298 K

R = 0.0821 L-atm/mole-K

W RT W (g) × 106 (mcg/g)

ppm = × × 106 =
V PM V (L) × 10 −3 m 3 /L

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725 Problems with Solutions 49

(0.0821L − atm/mole-K) × 298 K

= 0.00000051ppm v
1atmosphere × (48 g/mole) × 106

1 ppm = 1960 mcg/m3

1 mcg/m3 = 0.51 × 10−0.3 ppmv = 0.51 ppbv

Answer: 1 ppmv = 1960 mcg/m3. 1 mcg/m3 = 5.1 × 10−4 ppmv.

119. Calculate the dust emission from a lumber scrap incinerator stack with the
following stack sampling conditions:

Vm = volume of gas by meter = 105 ft3

Tm = temperature at meter = 83°F + 460 = 543°A

Pb = barometric pressure = 27.8" Hg

Pm = average suction at meter = 2.5" Hg

Vw = condensed water = 138 cc

Wt = filtered dust = 23 grams

Vo = Pitot traverse exhaust volume = 37,200 cfm

Volume of total gas samples (at meter conditions): convert H2O conden-
sate to water vapor volume at meter conditions:

Vw × Tm 138 cm 3 × 543°A
Vv = 0.00267 × = 0.00267 × = 7.92 ft 3
Pb × Pm 27.8" − 2.5"

Total gas sampled = Vv + Vm = 7.92 ft3 + 105 ft3 = 112.92 ft3

Moisture content of the gas sampled (by volume) = Mm = volume of the

moisture remaining in the metered gas at meter conditions in ft3

Vapor pressure of H2O at 83°F = 1.138" Hg

Vp × Vm 1.138" Hg × 105 ft 3
Mm = = = 4.72 ft 3
Pb − Pm 27.8" Hg − 2.5" Hg

Vv + M m 7.92 ft 3 + 4.72 ft 3
% moisture = × 100 = × 100 = 11.2%
Vv + Vm 7.92 ft 3 + 105 ft 3

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50 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Convert total sampled gas volume to stack conditions:

Pb − Pm T
Vt = (Vm + Vv ) × × s
Ps Tm
27.8" Hg − 2.5" Hg 700°A
= (105ft 3 + 7.92 ft 3 ) × × = 132.4 ft 3
27.8" Hg 543°A

Dust concentration is generally referred to as grains per cubic foot and

pounds per hour. To express concentration in grains/ft3, divide filtered dust
weight (Wt) by total sampled gas at stack conditions (Vt), and convert grams
to grains:

grains/ft3 = (Wt/Vt) × 15.43 = (23/132.4) × 15.43 = 2.68 grains/ft3

pounds/hour = (grains/ft3) × Vo × (60/70)

2.68grains 60 854 lb
= × 37,200 cfm × =
ft 3 760 hr

Answer: 854 pounds of dust are emitted from this stack every hour.

120. 6.1 mL of TCE are evaporated in a sealed container with dimensions of

1.65 × 1.65 × 2.35 meters. Chamber air and wall temperature are 25.5°C.
The barometric reading is 730 mm Hg. The density of TCE is 1.46 g/mL.
What is the TCE vapor concentration in the container?

Molecular weight of CHCl=CCl2 = (2 × 12) + 1 + (3 × 35.5) = 131.5

6.1 mL × 1.46 g/mL = 8.906 grams of liquid TCE

760 mm Hg 298.5 K
molar volume = 24.45 L × × = 25.5 liters
730 mm Hg 298 K

106 × ((8.906 grams/131.5grams)/gram-mole)

ppm = = 269.9
1000 × (1.65 × 1.65 × 2.35) meters/25.5 L

Answer: 270 ppmv TCE vapor.

121. A drying process using acetone is done on an open bench in the center
of a 20' × 20' × 10' room. The room has two to three air changes every
hour. Between 7 and 10 gallons of acetone evaporate every 8 hours as
determined by the department’s solvent purchase records. What are the
hazards? Risks? The vapor volume of acetone is 44 ft3/gallon. Calculate

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725 Problems with Solutions 51

average concentration of acetone vapor in the room assuming good mixing

of outside air with the vapor-contaminated air.
Estimate the hazards and the risks by assuming the worst-case situation,
that is, the evaporation of 10 gallons every 8 h and an air exchange rate of
two room volumes every hour.

20' × 20' × 10' = 4000 ft3

2 air changes 64,000 ft 3

4000 ft 3 × × 8 hours =
hour 8 hours

Total 100% acetone vapor volume = (44 ft3/gallon) × 10 gallons = 440 ft3

Total volume of air required to dilute to the TLV and PEL

volume of 100%solvent vapor × 106 440 ft 3 × 106

= = = 58,670 ft 3
TLV (in ppm) 750 ppm

58,670 ft 3 × 750 ppm

= 688 ppm
64,000 ft 3

Answer: Nearly 700v ppm acetone vapor. Use local exhaust ventilation!
Note: Use the lowest air exchange rate and highest acetone consumption
rate in calculations. Apply generous safety factor, for example, 10, to ensure
vapor levels are substantially below the action level and as low as techni-
cally and economically feasible. Give careful consideration to improved
work practices, alternative drying techniques, using mechanical local
exhaust ventilation, use of respirators, and so on.

122. The major component of natural gas is methane (CH4) which burns in
excess air (i.e., excess oxygen) according to the gas-phase reaction:

CH4 + 2O2 + 2 (3.78) N2 → CO2 + 2H2O + 7.56N2

which is 1 mole of methane + 9.56 “moles” of air yields 1 mole of

CO2 + 2 moles of H2O + 7.56 moles of N2.
Determine the weight and volume of air required to burn 1000 ft3 of CH4 if
the gas and air are at 70°F and 15 pounds per square inch absolute pressure.
According to the reaction, 9.56 “moles” of air are required for each mole
of fuel gas. Since the molar volume of both gases is the same at the same
temperature and pressure, (9.56) (1000 ft3) = 9560 ft3 of air are needed.
The molar volume at 70°F and 15 psia is

70°F + 460°F 14.7 lb/in 2

358ft 3 × × = 378ft 3
32°F + 460°F 15lb/in 2

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52 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

The molar volume is 358 ft3 at 32°F and 14.7 lb per square inch absolute,
that is, this is the volume of a pound-mole of any ideal gas or vapor at these
conditions. Therefore,

9560 ft 3
weight of air required =
378 ft 3 /pound-mole
= 25.3 “moles” air.

29 = the “apparent” molecular weight of air

(25.3 moles) (“29 lbs/mole” of air) = 734 pounds of air

Answer: 9560 ft3 of air × 0.075 lb/ft3 = 717 pounds of air precisely

123. Calculate the gas density from an Orsat analysis of the gas with moisture
content of 20% (from the wet and dry bulb temperatures): CO2 = 10.5%,
CO = 6.2%, O2 = 3.0%, N2 = 80.3%. Orsat analyses are on a dry gas basis.

H2O = 0.20 × 1.00 × 18 = 3.60

CO2 = 0.80 × 0.105 × 44 = 3.70
CO = 0.80 × 0.062 × 28 = 1.39
O2 = 0.80 × 0.03 × 32 = 0.77
N2 = 0.80 × 0.803 × 28 = 17.99
27.45

Gas density = (27.45/28.966) = 0.947 (28.966 is the “apparent” molecular

weight of air).

Answer: 0.947 (air = 1.000).

124. A correction factor for excess air is often required in combustion processes.
The flue (exhaust) gases are analyzed for CO2, O2, and CO with an Orsat
apparatus. Nitrogen gas is determined by difference. A flue gas analyzed
by an Orsat device contained 10.1% CO2, 11.1% O2, and 0.8% CO. Based
on allowable 50% excess air, correct the flue gas dust loading. The flue gas
contained 0.493 lb of dust per 1000 lb of gas.

N2
Ratio of actual:theoretical air =
N 2 − 3.782 (O2 − 1/2 CO)
N2
= = 0.209
N 2 − 3.782 (O2 − 1/2 CO)

% total air = 100% + percent excess air

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725 Problems with Solutions 53

Ratio of actual to theoretical air = percent total air/100

(2.09)(0.493 lb dust/1000 lb gas)

= 0.687 lb dust/1000 lb gas
150/100

Answer: 0.687 pound of dust per 1000 pounds of flue gas.

125. An industrial hygienist would like to estimate a welder’s actual exposure

to welding fume during “arc time” discounting interval periods when
the welding arc fume generation does not occur. He obtains a 3-hour and
36-minute air sample at an average air flow rate of 2.13 L/min. The differ-
ence in the filter’s weight after air sampling was 6.77 milligrams. If seven
measurements of the actual electric arc time on this production welder were
21, 19, 14, 13, 26, 20, and 15 seconds of arc time per minute, what was the
approximate average welding fume concentration during the actual welding
process?

21 + 19 + 14 + 13 + 26 + 20 + 15 18.3seconds
= × 100 = 30.5% “arc time”
7 60 seconds

3 hours and 36 minutes = 216 minutes

216 minutes × (2.13 liters/minute) = 460 liters

6.77 milligrams 14.71mg total fumes

=
0.460 m 3 m3

1 14.71mg 48.33mg fume

× =
0.305 m3 m3

Answers: 30.5% actual arc time. TWAE level during sample period was
14.71 mg/m3. The average concentration during the welding arc generation
was 48.33 mg/m3 which, of course, must not be construed as the welder’s
actual TWAE.

126. Relative evaporation rate of toluene has been reported by the American
Alliance of Insurers (Handbook of Organic Solvents) to be 4.5 times slower
than diethyl ether. If 25 mL of “ether” completely evaporates from a flat sur-
face in 21 seconds, how long before 1 gallon of toluene evaporates at similar
conditions of liquid and surface temperatures, air temperatures, exposed
surface area, and air flow rate over the liquid surface?

“ether”: 25 mL/25 second = average of 1.19 mL evaporates/second

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54 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Toluene: (1.19 mL/second)/4.5 = average of 0.264 mL evaporates/second

3785mL second
1gallon × × = 14,337seconds = 240 minutes = 4.0 hours
gallon 0.264 mL

Answer: 4 h (very approximate).

127. A 43-mm long NO2 gas permeation tube was used to calibrate a direct read-
ing air-sampling instrument. What is the outlet concentration of NO2 in
parts per million if the flow rate of NO and NO2-free nitrogen over the tube
is 43 mL/minute, and the diluent pure air flow rate is 11.6 L/min? System
temperature is maintained at 30°C, and permeation rate, PR, for NO2 gas at
this temperature is 1200 nanograms/minute-centimeter. The permeation K
value (diverse density in L/g) for NO2 at 30°C is 0.541.

43 mm = 4.3 cm

1200 ng 5160 nanograms

× 4.3cm =
minute-cm minute

PR×K
ppm = ,
A+B

where
P R = generation rate of permeation tube, micrograms/minute
K = generation rate constant supplied by the manufacturer
A = flow rate of diluent air, L/min
B = flow rate of diluent nitrogen, L/min

(5.16 mcg/min) × 0.541

ppm NO2 = = 0.239
(11.6 L/min) + (0.043 L/min)

Answer: 0.24 ppmv NO2 = 240 ppbv NO2

128. A large activated charcoal air-sampling tube has a desorption efficiency of

68% for an alcohol vapor. Weight of this alcohol reported by an industrial
hygiene chemist is 4.23 milligrams for a 119 minute air sample obtained at
an average air flow rate of 770 mL/min. What is concentration in ppm if
molecular weight of the alcohol is 74? Assume air-sampling temperature
was 77°F, and barometric pressure was 760 mm Hg.

corrected milligrams detected weight,milligrams 4.23mg

= = = 6.22 mg
sample desorption efficiency 0.68

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725 Problems with Solutions 55

Air volume sampled = 199 minutes × 0.77 L/min = 91.63 liters

(6220 mcg/91.63 L) × 24.45

ppm = = 22.43 ppm R − OH
74

Answer: 22.4 ppmv of alcohol vapor. MeOH, especially, is very poorly col-
lected on, and desorbed, from charcoal. Silica gel or other adsorbents must
be used.

129. A critical air-sampling orifice was calibrated at an elevation of 2000 feet at

65°F and at 1.40 L/min. The orifice will be used at 9000 feet at 80°F. What
is the air flow meter correction?

2000 feet = 13.7 psia = 27.82" Hg

65°F = 18.33°C = 291.3 kelvin

9000 feet = 10.5 psia = 21.39" Hg

80°F = 26.67°C = 299.7 kelvin

CP × AT
Lpmactual = Lpmindicated × ,
AP × CT

where
P and T = pressure and temperature in absolute units
C = calibration conditions
A = actual sampling and critical orifice use conditions

13.7 psia × 299.7K

Lpmactual = 1.4 Lpm × = 1.62 L/min
10.5psia × 291.3K

Answer: 1.62 liters per minute

1.62 lpm
Correction factor = = 1.157.
1.40 lpm

See Problem 311 for an explanation of the square root function for orifice
air flow meters such as rotameters and critical orifices. Do not use Charles’
and Boyle’s laws for correction of temperature and pressure for orifice air
flow meters.

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56 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

130. One milligram of typical mineral dust is equivalent to about 30−50 mil-
lion dust particles as determined by standard impinger counting techniques.
In a respirable dust cyclone breathing zone the air sample obtained at 1.67 L/
min for 450 minutes, the filter weight gain was 0.35 milligrams. What is the
weight of the respirable dust per cubic meter? How many particles does this
represent? What is this in mppcf?

(1.67 L/min) × 450 minutes = 751.5 liters

350 micrograms 30 to 50 × 106 particles 14 to 23 × 106 particles m3

× = 3
×
751.5 liters mg dust m 35.3ft 3
= 0.40 to 0.65mppcf

350 mcg/751.5 L = 0.466 mcg/L

Answers: 0.466 mg/m3. 14−23 million. 0.40−0.65 mppcf.

131. NIOSH reports a coefficient of analysis variation of 0.06 for 1,1-dichloro-

ethane (DCE). The coefficient of variation (CV) for rotameter measure-
ments is 0.05 when air sampling is carried out with activated charcoal
tubes. What is the total sampling and analysis CV?

CV = (0.06)2 + (0.05)2 = 0.0061 = 0.078

Answer: The combined sampling and analysis CV is 0.078.

132. What volume of air is needed to dilute the vapors from 1 gallon of varnish
maker and painter’s naphtha below 20% of LEL? LEL of VM & P naphtha
is 0.9%. Cubic feet of VM & P naphtha per gallon at 70°F = 22.4 ft3. When
7 gallons solvent are evaporated from parts every hour in a drying oven,
what rate of ventilation (in cfm) is required to keep VM & P naphtha vapor
concentration below 20% of the LEL?

Dilution volume (ft3) required for each gallon of solvent

(100 − LEL) (cubic feet of vapor per gallon)

=
20% LEL
(100 − 0.9) (22.4 ft 3 /gallon) 12,332 cubic feet of air
= =
0.20 × 0.9% gallon of VM & P naphtha

7 gallons 12,332 ft 3 hour

× ×
hour gallon 60 minutes
= 1439 ft 3 of air (at NTP, i.e., oven supply air) per minute

Answers: 12,332 ft3/gallon. 1439 cfm are needed with good, uniform mix-
ing of the dilution air with the vapors and gases in the oven.

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725 Problems with Solutions 57

133. A 170-cubic inch gasoline engine is running in an enclosed garage at

850 rpm. What volume of exhaust gases is produced every hour? If exhaust
gases contain 0.76% CO by volume (7600 ppmv), how many cubic feet of
CO gas are generated per hour?

engine displacement (in 3 ) × engine rpm (60 minutes/hour)

2* × (1728 in 3 /ft 3 )
= exhaust volume in ft 3 /hour (not corrected for temperature of the hot gas)

(*Note: The denominator of 2 allows for 50% volume of pistons in the

engine’s cylinders, that is, some up, some down.)

170 in 3 × 850 rpm × (60 minutes/hour)

= 2509 ft 3 /hour
2 × (1728 in 3 /ft 3 )

(2509 ft3 total exhaust gases/hour) × 0.0076 = 19.1 ft3 of CO/hour

Answers: 2509 ft3 of total exhaust gases per hour. This engine generates
19.1 ft3 of CO gas per hour.

134. If the garage in Problem 133 has natural ventilation air exchange rate of 0.5/
hour, what is the CO concentration 5 minutes after starting the engine? This
garage is 4000 ft3.
Contamination of air in enclosed spaces is calculated from the rate of
generation of the air pollutant and ventilation of the space [assumes con-
taminant generation is steady and the ventilation provides uniform air mix-
ing (increase and decay kinetics)].

100 K (1 − e − Rt )
C = ,
RV

where
C = % (volume/volume) of the gas or vapor in the space after time, t
R = air changes of the space/hour
t = time, hours
V = volume of the space, ft3
K = contaminant generation rate, ft3/hour

100 19.1ft 3 hour (1 − e − (0.5)(0.083) ) (1910 ft 3 ) (1 − e −0.0415 )

C = =
(0.5)(4000 ft 3 ) 2000 ft 3
(1910)(1 − 0.959)
= = 0.0392% CO = 392 ppm CO
2000

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58 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Answer: 392 ppmv CO. Gas concentration will increase and eventually
will plateau as the engine continues to operate and the generation rate is
balanced by ventilation loss. 392 ppmv CO does not exceed the NIOSH
IDLH level of 1500 ppmv, but exceeds OSHA’s 200 ppmv ceiling concentra-
tion. Evacuate, stop the engine stat, ventilate, and test the air for CO before
allowing reentry.

135. A calibrated length of stain CO detector tube indicates the breathing zone
concentration of 100 ppmv ± 25% at a barometric pressure of 625 mm Hg.
What is the CO gas concentration corrected to sea level?

760 mm Hg
100 ppm ± 25% × = 122 ppm ± 25% = 90−153 ppm CO
625mm Hg

Answer: 90 to 153 ppmv CO gas.

136. What is resultant density of air that contains 1% (vol/vol) CO gas? Density
of 100% CO gas = 0.97, and 100% air = 1.00 (no units).
1% CO (v/v) = 10,000 ppmv CO in 990,000 ppmv air.

Air 0.99 × 1.00 = 0.9900

CO 0.01 × 0.97 = 0.0097

Resultant density = 0.9900 + 0.0097 = 0.9997

Answer: Density of a 10,000 ppmv concentration of CO gas in air is 0.9997
(essentially equal to that of air). CO gas stratification will never occur.
However, warm exhaust gases tend to ascend, and this mixture would tend
to rise if the CO source was organic fuel combustion.

137. A breathing zone air sample was obtained from a paint sprayer for
443 minutes at an average rate of 0.83 liter/minute using a large charcoal
tube preceded by a 37 mm PVC membrane filter cassette. The difference
in filter weight after sampling was 6.37 milligrams. The charcoal tube con-
tained 2.97 mg n-butyl alcohol, 14.66 mg toluene, 48.49 mg mineral spir-
its, and 7.01 mg xylene. Benzene was not detected. What was the painter’s
8-hour TWAE to these vapor air contaminants? Approximate molecular
weights = 74.1, 92.1, 99, and 106.2, respectively. What was painter’s expo-
sure to airborne particles? Assume an 8-hour exposure.

443 minutes × (0.83 L/minute) = 367.7 liters

(micrograms/liter) × 24.45
ppm v =
molecular weight

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725 Problems with Solutions 59

(2970/367.7) × 24.45
n-butanol: = 2.7 ppm v
74.1

(14,660/367.7) × 24.45
Toluene: = 10.6 ppm v
92.1

(48,490/367.7) × 24.45
Mineral spirits: = 32.6 ppm v
99

(7010/367.7) × 24.45
Xylene: = 4.4 ppm v
106.2

6370 micrograms/367.7 liters = 17.32 mg/m3

480 minutes/8 hour work shift

443minutes
= 1.084 multiplier factor for 480 minutes exposure

Answers: 2.9 ppmv n-butanol, 11.5 ppmv toluene, 35.3 ppmv mineral spirits,
and 4.8 ppmv xylene. 18.77 mg/m3 total airborne particulates. Particulate
exposure exceeds the PEL. See Problem 138 for solvent vapor TWAEs.

138. What is the additive exposure to solvent vapors in Problem 137? Does it
exceed the PEL for the mixture? PELs are 50 (C), 100, 100, and 100 ppmv,
respectively. How many parts of vapor per million parts of air are in the
mixture?

2.9 ppmv + 11.5 ppmv + 35.3 ppmv + 4.8 ppmv = 54.5 ppmv

2.9 11.5 35.3 4.8

+ + + = 0.574 (57.4% of the PEL for the mixture)
50 100 100 100

There is compliance with the additive mixture PEL, however, the action
level is exceeded. It is, therefore, probable that the painter’s exposure exceeds
the PEL on other days. Even though solvent vapor exposures may not rou-
tinely exceed the PEL, the inhalation of airborne paint solids is excessive.
A good organic vapor and paint spray mist respirator or, better, an air-line
respirator is needed until the ventilation, work practices, and other industrial
hygiene controls are substantially improved.
“Nuisance” particulates (not otherwise classified, i.e., there are no com-
pounds of lead, chromates, isocyanates, epoxy resins, etc. in the paint) have
an 8-hour TWAE PEL of 10 mg/m3. The author loathes the term “nuisance”
because, in his experience, others often discount adverse effects of these
particles on respiratory function.

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60 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

188% of “nuisance” particulate limit assuming paint mist contains no

hazardous components. What can be done to reduce exposures?—improve
ventilation, use solvents of lower toxicity, modify work practices, reduce
paint spray gun pressures, and so on.

139. A high-volume air sampler ran for 8 hours and 7 minutes at an average air
flow rate of 47.3 ft3/minute. How many cubic meters of air were sampled?

480 minutes + 7 minutes = 487 minutes

487 minutes × (47.3 ft3/minute) = 23,035.1 ft3

23,035ft 3
= 652.3m 3
35.315ft 3 /m 3

140. 172 grams of liquid phosgene splash on a floor. What gas volume quickly
results after evaporation at an air temperature of 24°C and an atmospheric
pressure of 742 mm Hg? The boiling point of phosgene is 447°F.

COCl2 molecular weight = 12 + 16 + (2 × 35.5) = 99

PV = nRT

172 grams
n= = 1.737 gram-moles
99 grams/gram-mole

T = 23°C + 273 = 296 kewin

nRT (1.737 gram-moles)(0.0821 L-atm/K-mole)(296 K )

V = = = 43.183
P (742 mm Hg//760 mm Hg) = 0.976 atmosphere

Answer: 43.2 × 108 liters of air would be needed to dilute this gas to 10%
of the TLV of 0.1 ppm (dilution to 10 ppb).

141. A detection limit of 40 micrograms/m3 was reported for 1,2-dichloroethane.

How long must one sample at 100 mL/minute with a small charcoal tube to
detect this concentration? The analytical sensitivity for DCE is 1 microgram.

1 mcg
Sampling time, minutes =
(40 mcg/10 mL) × (100 mL/minute)
6

= 250 minutes

Answer: Sample for 250 minutes (4 hour and 10 minutes).

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725 Problems with Solutions 61

142. An electroplater was exposed to HCl gas at four operations: parts dipping
(1.6 ppmv for 2.5 hours), parts draining (2.9 ppmv for 3.25 hours), acid replen-
ishment (8.8 ppmv for 15 minutes), and cleanup (0.7 ppmv for 0.5 hours).
Assuming that he had negligible exposure for the balance of his 8-hour
work shift, what was his TWAE to hydrogen chloride gas?

C × T = concentration × exposure time = CT = dose (Haber’s law)

Dipping 1.6 ppmv × 2.5 hours = 4.00 ppmv-hours

Draining 2.9 ppmv × 3.25 hours = 9.43 ppmv-hours
Replenishment 8.8 ppmv × 0.25 hour = 2.20 ppmv-hours
Cleanup 0.7 ppmv × 0.5 hour = 0.35 ppmv-hour
Other 0.0 ppmv × 1.5 hours = 0.00 ppmv-hours
8.0 hours 15.98 ppmv-hours

Total dose = (15.98 ppmv hours/8 hours) = 2.0 ppmv TWAE to HCl gas.
Exposure when replenishing acid exceeds 5 ppmv OSHA STEL. A full-face
acid-gas respirator must be worn until ventilation is improved or better
methods of replenishing are adopted.

143. A 4- 12 pound chunk of calcium phosphide fell into a vat of water and released
phosphine gas according to the following reaction. How much phosphine
gas was generated disregarding water solubility and assuming stoichiomet-
ric conversion?

Ca3P2 + 6H2O → 3Ca(OH)2 + 2PH3↑

Molecular weight of Ca3P2 = 182.19 grams/gram-mole

Molecular weight of PH3 gas = 34.00

4.5 lb Ca3P2 × 454 grams/lb = 2043 grams Ca3P2

2043 grams Ca 3 P2
= 11.21 moles of Ca 3 P2
182.19 grams/mole

11.21 moles of Ca3P2 → 22.42 moles of PH3 ↑

22.42 moles × 34.00 grams/mole = 762.28 g PH3

Answer: 762 grams of phosphine gas were released to the air.

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62 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

144. In Problem 143, what would be the phosphine gas concentration in ppmv if
this occurred in an unventilated room with dimensions of 20' × 50' × 50'?
Assume a uniform mixing of the PH3 gas with the room air.

20' × 50' × 50' = 50,000 ft3 = 1416 m3

(762, 280 mg/1416 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = 387 ppm PH 3
34

Answer: 387 ppmv PH3! TLV and PEL of phosphine gas are only 0.3 ppmv
with a STEL of 1 ppmv. SCBAs, training, ventilation, and so on are necessary.

145. ASHRAE recommends dust collectors, not air filters, to clean exhaust air
when the dust concentrations exceed four grains of dust for every thousand
cubic feet of exhaust air. What is this dust concentration in mg/m3?

4 grains 35.315 ft 3 0.06480 gram 1000 mg 9.15 mg

× × × =
1000 ft 3 m3 grain gram m3

Answer: 9.15 milligrams of total particulates per cubic meter of air.

146. A vertical hazardous liquid waste incinerator has a gas flow rate of 6900 cfm
at 70°F. The interior dimensions of the incinerator are 9 feet square and 37
feet high. The design operating temperature of the incinerator is 2200°F.
What is the residence time for a molecule of vapor in this incinerator? What
is the actual flow rate of gas? What incinerator dimensions are required for
3-second residence time? This residence time is sufficiently long to fully
oxidize the supplied waste.

70°F = 530°R

2200°F + 460 = 2660°R

Vi T
Applying Charles’ law: = i:
Vf Tf

Tf × Vi 6900 cfm × 2660°R

Vf = = = 34, 630 cfm
Ti 530°R

Q = AV

34, 630 cfm

V = Q /A = = 428 fpm
9’ × 9’

428 fpm
= 7.1 feet/second
60 seconds/minute

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725 Problems with Solutions 63

37 feet
= 5.2 seconds average residence time/molecule
7.1 feet/second

Incinerator volume = 9' × 9' × 37' = 2997 ft3

2997 ft 3 x ft 3
Incinerator volume for a 3 second residence time = =
5.22 seconds 3 seconds

x = 1729 ft3. The length to cross-sectional area ratios must remain identi-
cal to ensure necessary transit velocity and molecule residence time in the
combustion space.

Answers: 5.2 seconds. 34,630 cfm. 1727 ft3. Perhaps a smaller incinerator
could be used, say, 7' × 7' × 37' that would provide a 3.1 second residence
time.

147. Industrial waste liquid chlorobenzene is fed into a large vertical hazard-
ous waste incinerator at an atomizer nozzle feed rate of 1670 pounds/hour.
What are the stack gas combustion products assuming 100% oxidation
with 70% excess air?

 0.79 
C6 H 5 Cl + 7 O2 +  × 7 N 2  → HCl↑ + 6 CO2 ↑ + 2 H 2 O↑
 0 .21 
 0 .79 
+ × 7 N2 
 0.21 

at 70% excess air:

 0.79 
C6 H 5 Cl + (1.7 × 7) O2 + 1.7 × × N 2  → 6 CO2 ↑ + 2 H 2 O↑ + HCl↑
 0 . 21 
 0.79 
+ (0.6) 7 O2 + 7 1.6 × N
 0.21  2

molecular weights (grams/gram mole−1): chlorobenzene = 112.5, oxy-

gen = 32, nitrogen = 28, HCl = 36.5, carbon dioxide = 44.
One pound-mole of chlorobenzene requires 7 pound-moles of O2

1670 pounds/hour 7 × 1670 pound-moles O2

=
112.5 lb/lb-mole 112.5

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64 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

1670
= 14.84
112.5

1670
CO2 : × 6 = 89.07
112.5

1670
H 2 O: × 2 = 29.69, and so on.
112.5

Incinerator combustion products:

CO2 6 lb-mole × 44 × 14.84 = 3918 lb

H 2O 2 lb-mole × 18 × 14.84 = 534 lb
HCl 1 lb-mole × 36.5 × 14.84 = 542 lb
O2 0.6 lb-mole × 7 × 32 × 14.84 = 1995 lb
1.6 × 0.79
N2 lb-mole × 7 × 28 × 14.84 = 17,507 lb
0.21
Total 24,496 lb
3918 lb/24,496 lb = 0.160
534 lb/24,496 lb = 0.022
542 lb/24,496 lb = 0.022
1995 lb/24,496 lb = 0.081
17,507 lb/24,496 lb = 0.715
1.000

Answers: 24,500 pounds/hour. 16% CO2, 2.2% H2O, 2.2% HCl, 8.1% O2, and
71.5% nitrogen-argon.

148. A solvent paint stripper is 30% by volume methylene chloride and 70%
by volume methanol. What is the volume percent composition of the
vapor at normal room temperature? The vapor pressures of CH2Cl2 and
MeOH are 350 and 92 mm Hg, respectively. Their respective densities are
1.33 and 0.79 g/mL, and their molecular weights are 84.9 and 32.1 grams/
gram mole−1, respectively.
Using 100 mL of the solvent mixture as a basis for Raoult’s law calculations:

30 mL × 1.33 g/mL = 39.9 g CH2Cl2

70 mL × 0.79 g/mL = 55.3 g MeOH

Partial pressure CH 2 Cl 2
(39.9 g/84.9 g/mole) × 350 mm Hg
= = 75 mm Hg
(39.9 g/84.9 g/mole) + (55.3 g/ 32.1 g/mole)

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725 Problems with Solutions 65

Partial pressure MeOH

(55.3 g/32.1 g/mole) × 92 mm Hg
= = 72.3 mm Hg
(39.9 g/84.9 g/mole) + (55.3 g/ 32.1 g/mole)

75 mm Hg + 72.3 mm Hg = 147.3 mm Hg total vapor pressure for both

solvents

75 mm Hg
× 100 = 50.9% methylene chloride vapor
147.3 mm Hg

72.3 mm Hg
× 100 = 49.1% methyl alcohol vapor
147.3 mm Hg

Answers: 50.9% CH2Cl2 and 49.1% MeOH in the vapor phase. Refer
to Problem 18 for a discussion of the application and deviations from
Raoult’s law.

149. A rotameter calibrated in cubic feet per hour was used in an air-sampling
train operating for 2 hours and 39 minutes. What volume of air was sam-
pled in liters if the average rotameter reading was 4.6?

4.6 ft 3 hour 28.32 L

× × 159 minutes × = 345 L
hour 60 minutes ft 3

Answer: 345 liters of air.

150. A solvent drum filling operator has an average exposure to 83 ppmv methy-
lene chloride for 3- 12 hours, 32 ppmv isopropyl alcohol for 1- 12 hours, and
17 ppmv toluene for 3 hours. If their respective TLVs are 50, 400, and
20 ppmv, are solvent vapor exposure controls warranted?

83 ppm × 3.5 hours

× 100 = 72.6% of the TLV for CH 2 Cl 2
50 ppm × 8 hours

12 ppm × 1.5 hours

× 100 = 1.5% of the TLV for IPA
100 ppm × 8 hours

17 ppm × 3 hours
× 100 = 31.9% of the TLV for toluene
20 ppm × 8 hours

72.6% + 1.5% + 31.9% = 106% of the additive TLV for this work shift
exposure.

Answer: Yes, industrial hygiene controls are required because combined

exposure exceeds the action level based on additive toxicological effects.

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66 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Remember: Permissible exposure limits are worst acceptable conditions, and

must not be regarded as goals, objectives, and end points. A major industrial
hygiene premise is the control of every exposure to as low as possible using
best available technology. Control of methylene chloride vapors is especially
important since it is a possible human carcinogen with multiple toxic effects,
and contributes the highest percent distributional exposure to the mixture of
vapors.

151. A railroad hopper car filler has an 8-hour TWAE to mixed grain dust (bar-
ley, oats, wheat) of 3.4 mg/m3 (TLV = 4 mg/m3). He has a simultaneous
exposure to respirable silica (a-quartz) released from the cascading dry
grain dust of 0.036 mg SiO2/m3 (TLV = 0.1 mg respirable quartz/m3). Are
industrial hygiene controls needed? If so, what would you prescribe?

3.4 mg/m 3 0.036 mg/m 3

+ = 0.85 + 0.36 = 1.21
4 mg/m 3 0.1 mg/m 3

21% > TLVmixture

Answer: Industrial hygiene controls (powered air-purifying respirator?,

working in filtered air booth?, PFTs, training, etc.) are necessary because
grain dust exposure exceeds the action level, and the combined exposure
to both dusts is 2.4 times the action level. Since adverse pulmonary effects
(fibrosis) are common to both dusts, good control of inhalation exposures
assumes great importance.

152. A calibrated combustible gas indicator was used to measure explosive

vapors in a gasoline tank. A gas/vapor-sampling probe attached to the CGI
was lowered into the tank. The needle immediately “pegged” above 100%
of LEL and then quickly dropped to less than 2% of the LEL. Assuming a
nonabsorptive sampling gas/vapor-sampling probe, which of the following
is most likely?
a. The meter correctly indicates less than 2% of the LEL.
b. A CGI Wheatstone bridge electronic circuit is quickly “poisoned” by
organic lead vapors emitted from the gasoline and then reads low.
c. There is less than 4% oxygen in the tank’s vapor space.
d. Since gasoline is a mixture of numerous hydrocarbons, an inaccurate
reading results if the instrument was not calibrated with the actual gas-
oline vapor being tested.
e. The vapor concentration is not less than 2% of the LEL; it is actually
above the UEL.

Answer: e. The concentration of gasoline vapors is so rich that no com-

bustion can occur in the instrument. This is a very dangerous situation
because unsuspecting persons may assume a safe atmosphere with respect
to explosion. As vapors are diluted down into the LEL−UEL range with

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725 Problems with Solutions 67

air, an explosion will occur if there is an ignition source. Dilute the explo-
sive vapors with nitrogen to or argon <20% LEL, then use air to <TLV
or <PEL. Verify concentrations of oxygen, flammable vapors, and toxics
with recently calibrated combustible gas indicator, oxygen level meter, and
atmospheric toxicant instruments.

153. A paint sprayer has 8-hour TWAEs to toluene at 19 ppmv (TLV is 20 ppmv),
n-butyl alcohol at 16 ppmv (“C” is 50 ppmv/skin), and noise at 84 dBA. What
are the major industrial hygiene issues?

Answer: In addition to the additive narcotic effects of these two solvent

vapors, reports in the occupational medical literature have indicated loss
of hearing in people with chronic work place exposures to these solvents.
Therefore, effects of the inhaled solvent vapors are presumed additive to
physical effects of noise on the painter’s hearing. All elements of a hear-
ing conservation program must be applied along with careful practices to
reduce vapor and skin and eye contact exposures. Also, toluene is a repro-
ductive health toxicant that may be additive to reported effects of noise
(especially high frequency) on the embryo-fetus.

154. A maintenance welder is exposed to 3.6 mg iron oxides/m3 and 27.4 mg of

total dust per m3 in a corn flour mill. What must you recommend to protect
his health from these dust and fume exposures?

Answer: Perish forbid! First, get him to stop welding before he blows
the mill and everybody who works there to smithereens! After getting his
attention, start a fire safety and welding safety training program includ-
ing “hot work” permits, grain dust explosion prevention practices, ventila-
tion engineering, respiratory protection, supervision, plant housekeeping,
and so on. He and others must never use compressed air wands to remove
settled dust from surfaces. Seal all leaks. Use vacuum suction to control
fugitive dust leaks.

155. How much air is exhausted from a drying oven operating at 320°F if 1360
cubic feet of air at 65°F are supplied per minute to the oven?

65°F + 460°F = 525o absolute (Rankine)

320°F + 460°F = 780o absolute (Rankine)

780°R 1360 ft 3 2020.6 ft 3

× =
525°R minute minute

Answer: 2021 cfm at 320°F, although the mass of hot air remains the same.

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68 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

156. A gray iron foundry cupola attendant leaves work after 6 hours going home
with an intense headache, dizziness, and nausea. This 26-year old man, feel-
ing better after an hour, decides to strip paint from an old chair in his base-
ment. His wife finds him an hour later collapsed on their basement floor.
He died from cardiac arrest after ventricular fibrillation. His medical history
includes chronic hemocytic anemia. What is a reasonable forensic conclusion?
a. He should not have gone to work that morning.
b. There was an oxygen-deficient atmosphere near the cupola.
c. Silica dust and formaldehyde gas in the foundry act in an additive man-
ner with methylene chloride vapors that volatilize from paint strippers.
d. He should have worn a good dust respirator while at work so his lungs
would be capable of detoxifying any solvent vapors he inhaled while
working in his basement.
e. The carbon monoxide he inhaled at work was additive to the in vivo
conversion of inhaled methylene chloride vapor to carbon monoxide
while at home.
f. Anemia was a significant risk factor.

Answer: e. Cupola workers have potential exposures to high concentra-

tions of CO gas. His symptoms are consistent with COHgb concentration
exceeding 10–20% or more. His symptoms occurred late in work shift indi-
cating he went home with a significant body burden of COHgb. Methylene
chloride vapor, in addition to being a potential sensitizer of the myocar-
dium, is present in most paint strippers and metabolizes partly in vivo to
carbon monoxide. His anemia was likely contributive.

157. Air was sampled at an average flow rate of 2.14 L/m through a 37-mm mem-
brane filter for 7 hours, 47 minutes. The sample was obtained to measure weld-
er’s TWAE to aluminum fume as oxide, Al2O3. An industrial hygiene chemist
analyzed 7.93 millligrams of aluminum on the filter after filter blank correc-
tion. What was the concentration of aluminum oxide fume? The atomic weight
of aluminum is 27, and the molecular weight of aluminum oxide is 102.

1 aluminum oxide 102

= = 1.89 = the Al to Al 2 O3 molar conversion factor
2 aluminum 2 × 27

7 hours, 47 minutes = 467 minutes = (467/480) × 100

= 97.3% of an 8-hour work shift

467 minutes × 2.14 L/m = 999.4 liters

7.93 mg Al/m3 × 1.89 = 14.99 mg Al2O3/m3 TWAE

14.99 mg/m3 × 467 minutes = 7000.33 mg/m3-minutes

0 mg/m3 × 13 minutes = 0 mg/m3-minutes

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725 Problems with Solutions 69

7000.33 mg/m 3 − minutes

= 14.58 mg/m 3 TWAE
480 minutes

(assuming that the balance of his/her work shift is free of Al2O3 fume
exposure).
This result is anomalous because the TLV for aluminum oxide is 10 mg/m3
(as aluminum). This exposure to the fume meets the TLV when calculated
as Al, but exceeds the TLV and PEL of 10 mg/m3 for “nuisance” particu-
lates. (The author abhors the term “nuisance.”) Clearly, however, exposure
to welding fume requires better control. Since welding of aluminum is often
done by MIG technique, ozone gas can be generated in large amounts. Note
that there is a specific TLV of 5 mg/m3 for aluminum welding fume that
resolves apparent anomaly. Al2O3 dust has a justifiably higher TLV than
that for Al2O3 fume.

158. Convert 1.78 mg HF gas per cubic meter of air to ppm. Molecular weight of
HF is 20.

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (1.78 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm v = = = 2.18 ppm v HF gas
molecular weight 20

HF gas ceiling concentration is 5 ppmv.

159. An industrial hygiene chemist detected less than 5 micrograms of toluene

in a charcoal tube used for collecting a 9.76 liter air sample. What was the
toluene vapor concentration?

≤5 mcg toluene
≤ 0.512 mcg/L
9.76 L

Molecular weight of toluene = 92 grams gram-mole−1

(≤ 0.512 mcg/L) × 24.45

≤ 0.136 ppm
92

Answer: Less than 0.14 ppmv toluene (≤140 ppbv).

160. What was the average flow rate of an air-sampling pump if pre-sampling
and post-sampling elapsed times through a 1000 mL soap bubble apparatus
were 83.5 and 84.9 seconds, respectively?

83.5 seconds + 84.9 seconds

= 84.2 seconds average
2

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70 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

60 seconds/minute
= 0.713 L/m
84.2 seconds/liter

Answer: Average air flow rate = 0.713 liter per minute = 713 mL/min.

161. What is the density of methyl chloroform vapor? The density of air at
NTP = 1.2 milligrams per cubic centimeter = 1.2 mg/mL.

CH3CCl3 molecular weight = (2 × 12) + (3 × 35.5) + (3 × 1) = 133.5 grams/

gram-mole

molecular weight × (mcg/L) 133.5 5.46 mg 1 mL

1 ppm CH 3 CCl3 = = = ≈
24.45 24.45 m3 m3

5.46 mg MC/mL
= 4.55
1.2 mg air/mL

Answer: The density of 100% methyl chloroform vapor is 4.55 (air = 1.00).

162. Convert 1 ppmv hydrogen selenide gas to mg/m3. The molecular weight of
H2Se is 81.0 grams/gram-mole.

(mcg/L) × 24.45 3.31 mcg 3.31 mg

1 ppm H 2 Se = = =
81 L m3

Answer: 1 ppm H2Se = 3.31 mg H2Se/m3

163. Knowing the concentration of CO gas in inhaled air and a few other impor-
tant parameters permits one to estimate the percent unsaturated hemoglo-
bin in a CO-exposed person. An equation for this is

% COHb = (2.76 × e h 7000 ) + (0.0107 a C 0.9 t 0.75 ),

where
h = height above sea level (ft), a = activity (3 = rest, 5 = light activity,
8 = light work, and 11 = heavy work), C = ppmv inhaled CO, and
t = the exposure duration (hours).

What is the predicted COHb concentration in a man performing light

work at 8000 feet for 6 hours at 50 ppmv CO?

% COHb = (2.76 × e h 7000 ) + 0.0107 (8 × 500.9 × 60.75 )

= (2.76 × e1.142 ) + 0.0107 (8 × 33.8 × 3.83) = 19.74%

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725 Problems with Solutions 71

Answer: About 20% COHgb; that is, a worker who has an intense head-
ache, weakness, and perhaps nausea, vomiting, and dimness of vision, tin-
nitus, and so on and possibly a myocardial infarction if she/he has a history
of ischemic heart disease, ventricular fibrillations, myocardial infarction, or
other compromised cardiac capacity.

164. “Standard man” in toxicology weighs 70 kilograms (= 154.35 pounds). He

inhales 22,800 liters of air per day: 9600 L at 8 hours of light work, 9600 L
at 8 hours nonoccupational, and 3600 L resting and sleeping. What weight
of dry air does he inhale yearly? Dry air weighs 1.2 kg/m3 at 21°C at sea
level. Assume this “standard man” lives in Seattle.

22,800 L = 22.8 m3

22.8 m 3 365.25 days 1.2 kg 9993 kg

× × =
day year m3 year

9993 kg 2.205 lb 22, 035 lb

× = .
year kg year

Answer: About 22,000 pounds (11 tons!) per year. Does this mean exhalation
of 11 tons of bad breath per year? Should there be a halitosis TLV of 1 ppbv?

165. What factors are of minor significance in stack sampling?

a. Air/gas density, condensed water, dust thimble weight
b. Stack gas flow rate, isokinetic sampling, temperature
c. Suction pressure at meter, condensed water, gas flow rate
d. Molecular weight of air, friction losses, season of the year
e. Flow rate through sampling train, barometric pressure, sample duration
f. Pitot correction factor, gas:dust ratio, presence of reactive gases,
temperature

Answer: d.

166. An air pollution chemist wants to determine the emission rate of chlorine
gas from a vent in a chemical synthesis reactor. Which of the following
should be of minor, negligible significance to her?
a. Concentration of chlorine in the gas stream
b. Isokinetic sampling
c. Density of air or gas stream containing the Cl2 gas
d. Process operation or cycle time
e. Volumetric total air or gas emission rates
f. Moisture content of the air or gas stream

Answer: b. Isokinetic stack sampling is not required when only gases

or vapors are determined. Isokinetic sampling is mandatory for airborne

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72 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

particulates in ducts, stacks, and exhaust vents (e.g., dust, fume, smoke,
mist, fibers, aerosols, spray, etc.). All other parameters are important in her
analysis.

167. A 10-inch internal diameter stack discharges air containing 23 ppmv chlo-
rine gas at 670 feet per minute. What is the chlorine gas mass emission rate?

(5 in )2
Stack area = π = 0.5454 ft 2
(144 in 2 /ft 2 )

Q = AV = 0.5454 ft2 × 670 fpm = 365.4 cfm

mg ppm × molecular weight 23 × 71 66.79 mg

= = =
m3 24.45 24.45 m3

66.79 mg m3 365.4 ft 3 691.4 mg Cl 2

3
× 3
× =
m 35.3 ft minute minute

Answer: 691 milligrams of chlorine are released per minute.

168. The LEL for methyl ethyl ketone at normal room temperature is 1.7%. What
is the MEK vapor level expressed in grams/m3?
Molecular weight of CH3-(C=O)-CH2CH3 = (4 carbon × 12) + (1 oxy-
gen × 16) + (8 hydrogen × 1) = 72 grams/gram-mol.

1.7% = 17,000 ppm (vol/vol)

mg ppm × molecular weight 17, 000 × 72 50, 061.14 mg 2-butanone

= = =
m3 24.45 24.45 m3

Answer: MEK LEL is 50 grams of vapor per cubic meter of air.

169. The LEL for MEK (2-butanone) is 1.7% (vol/vol) at standard room tempera-
tures. A vapor concentration of 1.4% (vol/vol) in air explodes. What might
be concluded?
a. The LEL of 1.7% must be wrong
b. The 1.4% vapor-in-air mixture must have been hotter than the standard
room temperature
c. The data provided are insufficient to conclude anything
d. The ignition source for the 1.4% vapor must have been hotter than normal
e. The oxygen concentration for the 1.7% LEL determination was higher
than existed in the explosion of the 1.4% concentration

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725 Problems with Solutions 73

Answer: b. Raising the temperature lowers the LEL, for example, the LEL
for MEK is 1.4% for this air:solvent vapor mixture at 200°F. Intuitively, we
understand this because the hotter air and vapor mixture has more energy
among the molecules. Therefore, less energy is required to ignite the explo-
sive mixture.

170. An air pollution control baghouse collects 93 pounds of dust for every
8-hour operating period. The ventilation duct leading to the baghouse ple-
num has an 18-inch internal diameter with average duct velocity of 3250
feet per minute. What is the average airborne dust concentration in the
influent duct in mg/m3?

18" diameter = 1.5' diameter

duct radius = 0.75 foot

Q = AV = π(0.75' × 0.75')2 × 3250 fpm = 5743 cfm

93 pounds 0.194 pound

=
480 minutes minute

(0.194 lb/minute) 0.0000338 pound

=
(5743 ft 3 /minute) ft 3

0.0000338 lb 454 g 1000 mg 35.3 ft 3 542 mg

× × × =
ft 3 lb gram m3 m3

171. A carbon adsorption unit air pollution control device operating at 6600 cfm
has an inlet vapor concentration of 360 ppmv and outlet concentration of
25 ppmv. What is the annual savings if the unit operates 100 hours per week
and 50 weeks per year? The cost of this solvent is $4.83/gallon. The sol-
vent’s molecular weight is 114. The solvent’s density is 0.83 g/mL. Assume
a 97% recovery of the solvent vapor adsorbed on the charcoal.
360 ppmv vapor at inlet − 25 ppmv at outlet = 335 ppmv (a 92.5% collec-
tion efficiency)

mg ppm × molecular weight 335 × 114 1562 mg

= = =
m3 24.45 24.45 m3

1562 mg m3 gram pound 0.0000975 lb

3
× 3
× × =
m 35.3 ft 1000 mg 454 grams ft 3

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74 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

0.0000975 lb 6600 ft 3 60 minutes 5000 hours

× × × × 0.97
ft 3 minute hour year
187, 259 lb solvent recovered
=
year

187, 259 lb 454 grams mL gallon $4.83 $130, 708

× × × × =
year lb 0.83 g 3785 mL gallon year

Answer: An annual savings of $130,708 minus maintenance costs, labor

costs, taxes, operating costs, and capital equipment depreciation. Other
opportunities for savings include alternative technologies, improved vapor
collection efficiency, improved liquid solvent recovery efficiency, and using
a less costly solvent.

172. A 210 ft3 compressed gas cylinder containing 10% by volume CO in air
crashes to the floor in a 10' × 30' × 60' room that has no ventilation. There is
no protective cover over the gas valve. The valve snaps off, and the CO gas
mixture is quickly released. The de-pressurizing, rapidly whirling cylinder
provides uniform gas mixing in the room. What is the final CO gas concentra-
tion after completely mixing with the room air? Disregard the small increase
in the overall atmospheric pressure in the room from the released gas.

210 ft3 × 0.10 = 21 cubic feet of CO

10' × 30' × 60' = 18,000 cubic feet room volume

21 ft 3 of CO
× 106 = 1167 ppm CO
18, 000 ft 3

Answer: 1167 parts of CO gas per million parts of air. It should be noted
that this answer is slightly incorrect because an amount of CO equal to the
cylinder volume will remain in the cylinder when it comes to atmospheric
pressure. For example, subtract 3 cubic feet from 210 ft3 if this is the cylin-
der’s interior volume. See Problem 327.

173. What volume of propane gas is required to yield a concentration of 1000 ppmv
in a gas calibration chamber with an internal volume of 765 liters?

volume of gas
ppm = × 106
volume of air

1000 × 765 L
volume of gas = = 0.765 L
106

Answer: 765 milliliters of propane gas.

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725 Problems with Solutions 75

174. The average dust concentration in a baghouse inlet plenum is 348 mg/m3.
The outlet dust concentration is 4.7 mg/m3. What is the average collection
efficiency of the baghouse filters for this dust?

Percent collection efficiency

 C   4.7 mg/m 3 
= 100 1 − out  = 100 1 − = 100 (1 − 0.0135) = 98.65%
 Cin   348 mg/m 3 

Note that this is the average mass collection efficiency. Since particle
weights are proportional to the cube of their diameters, the mass collec-
tion efficiency does not equal particle collection efficiency. Put in another
way, depending upon the type of dust, for example, 80% of the particles by
weight might only comprise 2% of the particles by count. Recirculating the
exhaust air from a dust bag collector with a collection “efficiency” of 95%,
for example, could be highly hazardous to workers. Always ask manufac-
turers of air pollution control devices how they determined the collection
efficiency of their products.

175. One gram-mole of SO2 occupies liters at o C

and mm Hg and contains molecules.
a. 22.4, 25, 760, 6 × 1023
b. 24.45, 0, 760, 6 × 1021
c. 24.45, 25, 745, 6 × 1023
d. 22.4, 0, 760, 2.023 × 1023
e. 24.45, 25, 760, 6 × 1023

Answer: e.

176. One milliliter of methyl chloroform becomes what vapor volume when
evaporated at a pressure of 720 mm Hg and a temperature of 25°C?

Density = 1.34 g/mL

PV = nRT

1.34 gram
= 0.010 mole
133.4 g/mole

n R T (0.010 mole)(0.0821 atm-liter/mole-K)(298 K)

V = = 0.258 liter
P (720 mm Hg/7600 mm Hg) = 0.947 atmosphere

Answer: 258 milliliters of 100% methyl chloroform vapor.

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76 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

177. refers to the number of molecules per

cubic centimeter of an ideal, perfect gas at 0°C (2.6782 × 1019).
a. Avogadro’s number
b. Loschmidt’s number
c. Fanning’s friction factor
d. Boyle’s number
e. Bunny’s number (313-123-4567)
f. Dalton’s number

Answer: b.

178. A 20' × 100' × 120' building has a ventilation system providing 6000 cfm
of the outside air. The outdoor design condition is 20°F at 60% relative
humidity (nine grains of moisture per pound). If we desire to maintain 50%
relative humidity at 75°F (66 grains of moisture per pound of air) at 13.78
cubic feet per pound of air in the air-conditioned space, how much liquid
water must be added to the air stream?

(CFH) (G )
The formula for humidification load =
(V )(7000)

where
CFH = cubic feet of air per hour (= cfm × 60 minutes/hour)
G = grains of moisture per pound of the inside air minus grains per
pound outside air
V = specific volume of inside air in cubic feet per pound of air
7000 = conversion factor, grains of moisture per pound

(6000 × 60)(66 − 9)
= 212.7 pounds of water per hour
(13.78)(7000)

212.7 pounds H 2 O/hour 25.5 gallons to be evaporated

=
8.33 pounds/gallon hour

Answer: About 25–26 gallons of water per hour. If there were no ven-
tilation system, an air infiltration rate of two air changes/hour could be
assumed for a building with tight construction in a cold climate. Instead of
the (6000 × 60) for CFH, we would use 2 (100' × 120' × 20'). The humidifi-
cation load then becomes 285 lb/hour.

179. One milligram of quartz dust in the particle size range reported for typical
foundry atmospheres contains 200–300 million particles. What does one
hypothetical silica dust particle weigh?

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725 Problems with Solutions 77

250 × 106 particles 250, 000 particles 250 particles 0.25 particle
= = =
1000 micrograms microgram nanogram picogram

Answer: This average particle weighs four picograms (4 × 10 −12 gram).

180. The behavior of airborne particles is best described by which following

physical laws and factors:
a. Stokes’ law, Archimedes’ principle, Newtonian gravity, and Brownian
motion
b. Frank’s friction factor, Cunningham’s factor, gravity, and Newtonian
gravity
c. Brownian motion, Avogadro’s law, gravity, and ion flux
d. Newtonian gravity, Stokes’ law, Drinker’s coefficient, McWelland’s
aerodynamic slip factors
e. Gravity, Stoke’s law, Cunningham’s factor, and Brownian motion

Answer: e.

181. A granite quarry worker’s exposures to dust were 192 mppcf for 3- 34 hours
during drilling, 1260 mppcf for 15 minutes blowing out holes, 12 mppcf
for 1- 14 hours changing drills, 9.8 mppcf for 2- 14 hours watching drills, and
lowest at 8.1 mppcf for 1/2 hour at broaching. What was TWAE to airborne
dust?

Activity mppcf × hours = mppcf-hours

Drilling 19 × 3.75 = 720
Blowing out holes 1260 × 0.25 = 315
Changing drills 12 × 1.25 = 15
Watching drills 9.8 × 2.25 = 22
Broaching 8.1 × 0.5 = 4
8.0 = 1076

1076 mppcf-hours/8.0 h = 134.5 mppcfw.

Answer: His 8-hour TWAE = 134.5 mppcf. Dusty! How about prescribing
a PAPR (Physician Assistants’ Prescribing Reference), wet methods of dust
suppression, mechanical local exhaust ventilation systems, and improve-
ments in his work practices? Very importantly, what was his exposure to
α- and β-quartz ?

182. A drying oven vents MEK vapor into a work space. If solvent consumption
rate is steady at one pint every 4 minutes, and the concentration of MEK
vapor leaving the oven is 200 ppm, what is the ventilation rate of the oven?
The vapor volume for MEK = 4.5 cubic feet of vapor per pint evaporated.

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78 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

contaminant released (cfm)

Concentration =
dilution air required (cfm)

4.5 ft 3 1 pint 1.13 ft 3 released

× =
pint 4 minutes minute

contaminant released (cfm) 1.13cfm

Dilution air required = = = 5650 cfm
concentration 200/106

Answer: 5650 cubic feet of air per minute—based on the oven’s inlet, not
the oven’s outlet air temperature. See Problem 188.

183. What is the maximum ground-level concentration of gas from a stack

designed for emergency venting of chlorine gas? The stack is 110 feet high.
The maximum emission rate is 5 cubic feet of Cl2 per second. The effective
stack height is 120 feet due to the gas injection velocity into the ambient air.
Assume wind velocity at the top of the stack is 10 miles per hour.
The Bosanquet−Pearson equation can be used to estimate maximum
ground-level concentration of a vent or stack-emitted air pollutant:

2.15 × Q × 105 p
Cmax = × ,
V ×H 2 q

where
p/q = x, y, and z plane diffusion parameters, often collectively taken as 0.63
H = effective stack height = the sum of the physical stack height plus
plume height resulting from the discharge velocity and the thermal
buoyancy of the gas, in feet
Cmax = maximum ground level concentration of the air pollutant, in ppmv
Q = emission rate of gas contaminant at ambient temperatures, in ft3/
second
V = wind velocity, in feet/second

10 miles 5280 feet hour minute 14.7 feet

= = × =
hour mile 60 minute 60 seconds second

2.15 × 5 ft 3 /second × 105

Cmax = × 0.63 = 3.2 ppm Cl 2
14.7 feet/second × (120 feet )2

Answer: 3.2 ppmv chlorine gas at ground level. The approximate distance
from the stack to the Cmax point is 10 H or, in this case, 10 × 120' = 1200
feet. Check the residential set-back distances. Consider an alkaline scrub-
ber (higher stack), injecting air into base of stack to promote dilution, wind
vane, and community emergency response plans.

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725 Problems with Solutions 79

184. 97 air sample results obtained at an industrial process were linearly dis-
tributed when plotted on log-normal graph paper. The graph gave a 50%
concentration as 1.03 ppmv and an 84% concentration as 2.41 ppmv. What is
geometric standard deviation for these air sample results?

84% value 2.41 ppm

GSD = = = 2.34
50% value 1.03 ppm

Answer: Geometric standard deviation is 2.34 (no units).

185. Air containing hydrogen sulfide gas was bubbled at 1 liter/minute for
12 minutes through an impinger containing 10 mL of 0.001 N iodine solu-
tion before the iodine was reduced (purple solution to colorless). What was
the H2S concentration?

S−2 + I2 → So + 2 I−1 iodine is the oxidant. H2S is the reducing agent.

(mL) (N) = milliequivalents

(10 mL) (0.001 N) = 0.01 milliequivalent of I2
1 meq I2 is equivalent to 0.5 meq of H2S
0.01 meq of I2 is equivalent to 0.005 meq of H2S
1 meq H2S is equivalent to 24.45 mL H2S at 25°C and 760 mm Hg
0.005 meq H2S ≈ 0.122 mL H2S

0.122 mL H 2 S 0.010 mL
=
12 L L

10 mL
= 10 ppm H 2 S
1000 L

H2S is a potent chemical asphyxiant that, after CO gas, is the second lead-
ing cause of acute chemical asphyxiation fatalities in the world.

186. A direct-reading air-sampling instrument was calibrated with the following

results:

Calibration (True) Concentration (ppmv) Instrument Reading (ppmv)

10 7
30 63
70 91
200 320
500 570

What is the group correlation between the dependent and independent

variables?

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80 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

This can be computed by most standard hand-held scientific calculators

or quite easily using computer spreadsheet analysis tools. The university
where I am a part-time instructor provides a convenient software package
with this capability. MicroSoft Excel® does as well.

Answer: Very high, at r = 0.986. Although group correlation is excellent,

some individual readings are unsatisfactory. This instrument should be
repaired or returned to the manufacturer for servicing and calibration.

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 200 400 600
x

187. 1.3 pints of cyclohexane are uniformly evaporated from a large tray over
a steam bath in an exhaust hood every 7 minutes. The exhaust hood face
dimensions are 2.5 feet × 4.5 feet. The average hood face velocity is 150 feet
per minute. The density of liquid cyclohexane is 0.78 g/mL. What is the
cyclohexane vapor concentration in the exhaust air of the hood?

1.3 pints/7 minutes = 0.186 pint of cyclohexane evaporated per minute

Q = A × V = (2.5' × 4.5') × 150 fpm = 1688 cfm

molecular weight C6H12 = 84 grams/gram-mole

0.186 pint 473 mL 0.78 g 1000 mg 68.623 mg

× × × =
minute pint mL gram minute

1688 ft 3 /minute 47.8 m 3

3 3
=
35.3 ft /m minute

68, 623 mg/minute 1435 mg

=
47.8 m 3 /minute m3

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725 Problems with Solutions 81

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (1435 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecular weight 84
= 418 ppm cyclohexane
Answer: 418 ppmv of cyclohexane vapor are in the exhaust air. This might
exceed local air pollution regulations. A significant portion of these exhaust
gases are water vapor because of the steam bath. Repeat the stack testing
and calculate the emissions on a dry air basis.

188. Calculate air volume in Problem 182 if the discharge air temperature from
the oven is 300°F.
Use the ratio of absolute temperatures, that is, since the air expands with
heat (but the mass remains the same), multiply the ratio of temperatures by
a factor that is greater than 1.

460°F + 300°F
Q = 5650 cfm stp × = 8102 cfm
460°F + 70°F

Answer: 8102 ft3 of air at 300°F are discharged from this oven per minute.
This is peculiar because the boiling point of water at sea level is 212°F. Is
the 300°F from waste energy from the oven? Is there an additional source
of needless sensible heat?

189. Which use of organic vapor monitors best characterizes a production work-
er’s 8-hour TWAEs to toluene and methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) vapors?
a. Use one OVM for the entire exposure period.
b. Use four OVMs sequentially for 2 hours each.
c. Use two OVMs sequentially for 3−4 hours each.
d. Use one OVM full shift on Tuesday. Repeat air sampling on Thursday.
e. Use two OVMs at the start of work. Remove one at lunch time and the
other at the end of work. Repeat this process on another day of exposure.
f. Sample randomly with one OVM for any 3-hour exposure period in the
week. Repeat this on another day.

Answer: e. This approach is powerful because the difference between

results can help one determine which, if any, half of work shift contributes
the highest exposure.

190. An electrician who infrequently works in a TDI polyurethane foam pro-

duction area develops asthma and can no longer work there without expe-
riencing dyspnea, chest tightness, and an anxious feeling. Seventeen air
samples obtained in the area over the past 3 years were between 0.001 and
0.014 ppmv as 8-hour TWAEs. The TLV for TDI is 0.005 ppmv with a ceil-
ing concentration of only 0.02 ppmv. What appears most plausible?
a. Since most of his exposures were well below the TLV, his illness must
be due to nonoccupational factors (perhaps hobbies, avocations, home
environment).

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82 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

b. He did not regularly work in the area, so it is unlikely he is sensitized to

TDI.
c. The TDI sample test results cannot be used as proof or disproof of an
existing illness. It appears he might be sensitized to TDI vapors. He
must no longer work in this area. To do so might risk his health and,
indeed, his life.
d. He is sensitized to the pyrolysis products released from hot insulation
coating from smoldering electrical wires.
e. There is insufficient information to reach any tentative conclusions.
It is not known if the air samples were 8-hour averages or short-term
samples. Obtain more data.
f. There is no work relatedness of his condition to his exposures because
no epidemiological studies have shown electricians are at an increased
risk of isocyanate sensitization.

Answer: c. Study the Preface to the ACGIH Threshold Limit Values® book.
Note these were area samples—not personal breathing zone samples. Area-
sampling results are typically misleading and are lower than breathing zone
samples. Apply the Precautionary Principle. Eliminate TDI emissions.

191. How many Pitot traverse readings should be taken when one measures
velocity pressures in 6" to 40" round stacks or ducts?
a. One carefully placed center line reading × 0.8
b. From 5–30 as long as 50% of measurements are within 10% of each
other provided that the gas or air is less than 100°F
c. Six
d. It depends upon the water vapor content, density, temperature, and dust
load of the air or gas being tested
e. Two 10-point traverses with 20 sampling points and both at 90° to each
other
f. Two five-point traverses with 10 sampling points and both at 90° to
each other provided that the gas or air is less than 100°F

Answer: e. Refer to most recent edition of ACGIH’s Industrial Ventilation.

192. A degreasing tank loses TCE vapor to the general plant atmosphere because
this tank does not have a mechanical local exhaust ventilation system.
Based on the solvent purchase records, 1.1 gallons evaporate from this tank
and the draining parts every 8 h. Determine the emission rate (mg/min) to
help design local exhaust ventilation for this 4 feet × 8 feet tank. The tank
is covered to reduce evaporative losses except for 40 hours during the week
when the process is operating. The density of TCE = 1.46 g/mL.

1.1 gallon 3785 mL 1.46 g hour 1000 mg 12, 664 mg

× × × × =
8 hours gallon mL 60 minutes g minute

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725 Problems with Solutions 83

Answer: The average TCE evaporation loss is 12,664 milligrams per min-
ute. Refer to OSHA’s ventilation requirements for open surface tanks [29
CFR 1910.94 (d)].

193. A tracer gas (SF6) was used to measure air infiltration rate into an empty
building. Initial gas concentration was 0.01% (100 ppmv). After 1 hour, it
was 0.0012% (12 ppmv). Dimensions of the building are 20' × 40' × 80'.
What was the infiltration rate?

C = C oe
−( kt ) /V

where
C = tracer gas concentration after elapsed time, t
Co = initial tracer gas concentration
e = 2.718
k = outside air infiltration rate
t = time
V = building volume
t = 1 hour = 60 minutes

V = 20' × 40' × 60' = 64,000 ft3

− ln[C /Co ] − ln[0.0012/0.01] − ln 0.12

k = = =
t /V 60 minutes/64,000 ft 3 0.0009375
−(−2.1203) 2263ft 3
= =
0.0009375 minute

Answer: The average air infiltration rate was 2262 ft3/minute.

194. Which tracer gases are used in building air exchange measurements?
a. Sulfur dioxide, hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, methane
b. Helium, phosgene, argon, hydrogen selenide, nitrogen
c. Argon, nitrogen, helium, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
d. Methane, SF6, ethane, nitrogen dioxide, helium
e. Sulfur hexafluoride, CO2, helium, phosphine, arsine
f. Nitrogen, CO2, SF6, helium, argon

Answer: d. Helium and SF6 gases are used most frequently.

195. An Orsat analysis of flue gas was 12.9% CO2 by volume in a combustion
process using 40% excess air. Residual oxygen was 4.9% by volume in flue
gas. What is the theoretical maximum concentration of CO2 gas by volume
in the flue gas under these conditions?

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84 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

% CO2 in flue gassample

Theoretical CO2 =
1 − [% O2 in flue gassample/21%]
12.9% CO2 12.9% CO2
= = = 16.8% CO2
1 − [ 4.9% O2 / 21% O2 ] 1 − 0.233

Answer: The theoretical maximum concentration of CO2 gas by volume

was 16.8%. The combustion efficiency, therefore, was (12.9%/16.8%) ×
100 = 76.8%.

196. Isokinetic sampling for dust in a cement plant stack will be done with an air
pump operating near 1 cfm. The velocity of the dust entering the nozzle must
equal the velocity of the dust passing the nozzle to ensure representative dust
sampling. The velocity of the stack gas is uniform and laminar at 37.65 feet/
second at dust sampling point. What collecting nozzle diameter is required?

π × d2
Sampling rate = 60 × V × ,
4 × 144 in 2 /ft 2

where
V = stack or duct velocity, feet per second
d = internal diameter of sampling probe, inches

Select a nominal meter stack sampling rate of 1 ft3/minute.

1 cfm = 0.327 × (37.65 feet/second) × d2

(1 ft 3 /minute)
d2 = = 0.0812 in 2
(0.327)(37.65 feet/second)

d = 0.0812 in 2 = 0.285 inches

The closest standard nozzle size is 0.25 inch internal diameter. Therefore,
calculation of meter rate for the smaller nozzle is necessary to give the same
probe-to-stack velocity (and collection of a representative dust sample):

Q=V×A
(37.65 ft/s) × (60 seconds/minute) = 2259 fpm
Answer: Air-sampling pump meter rate = 2259 fpm × 0.00545 × (0.25
inch)2 = 0.769 ft3/minute.

197. An Orsat stack gas analysis from burning natural gas is 10.4% CO2, 2.9%
O2, and 86.7% N2 by volume. The gas mixture is 89% methane, 5% nitro-
gen, and 6% ethane by volume. What is the maximum theoretical percent
CO2 and excess air? Use 90% as the approximation of ratio of dry products
of combustion (ft3/ft3 of gas burned) to the air required for stoichiometric
combustion (ft3/ft3 of gas burned).

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725 Problems with Solutions 85

10.4% CO2
% CO2 = = 12.06% CO2
1 − [2.9% O2 / 21% O2 ]

12.06% CO2 − 10.4% CO2

Excess air = × 0.90 = 14.37% excessair
10.4% CO2

Answers: 12.1% CO2 and 14.4% excess air (oxygen). This calculation
assists combustion engineers to achieve optimum oxidation of fuel ($ saved)
and the production of minimum amounts of CO gas and other emissions in
the flue and stack exhaust gases.

198. A pipe fitter working on a blast furnace inhaled 15,000 ppmv CO for 1 minute
(his first inhalation caused immediate collapse, and he continued to breathe
the CO gas, although unconscious, for another 50 seconds until he was res-
cued by a coworker). The background ambient CO concentration throughout
the steel mill was 3 ppmv. What was his 8-hour TWAE assuming that he had
no other exposures to CO that day? Where do you think his SCBA was?

1 minute × 15,000 ppmv CO = 15,000 ppmv-minutes

479 minutes × 3 ppmv CO = + 1437 ppmv-minutes
16,437 ppmv-minutes

16,437 ppmv-minutes/480 minutes = 34 ppmv

Answer: 34 ppmv TWAE to CO, assuming he survived this massive,

but brief, exposure. If he had not been rescued by his vigilant coworker,
should we have told his widow that his 8-hour TWAE complied with
OSHA’s 35 ppmv PEL for CO?

199. Two adjacent gas lines rupture in a chemical plant exposing workers to
an acrid aerosol. Five were hospitalized with severe pulmonary edema.
A laboratory reconstruction of the incident revealed a maximum concen-
tration of 6.3 milligrams of NH4Cl/m3 (STEL = 20 mg/m3), 0.3 ppmv Cl2
(STEL = 1 ppmv), and 3.6 ppmv NH3 (STEL = 35 ppmv). Workers were not
exposed for more than 10 minutes. What appears most plausible?
a. Since all exposures were well below PELs, these workers appear to have
some other effects, perhaps psychosomatic “illness” or mass hysteria
b. There were mistakes in the laboratory simulation tests
c. These air contaminants cannot cause pulmonary edema
d. The workers instead most probably have chemical pneumonitis
e. The ammonia gas reacted with the chlorine gas to form chloramines—
gases that are potentially far more injurious to the lungs than chlorine
or ammonia. The industrial hygienist failed to consider and detect the
de novo chloramines

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86 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

f. These workers must have had preexisting COPD (emphysema or

bronchitis).

Answer: e.

200. The analytical detection limit for a hydrocarbon vapor with a molecular
weight of 82 is 5 micrograms. The PEL is 150 ppmv. What fraction of PEL
could be reported with a 100 mL air sample?

(mcg/L) × 24.45 (5 mcg/0.1L) × 24.45

ppm = = = 14.9 ppm
molecular weight 82

Answer: 14.9 ppmv, or 10% of the PEL. Such a very small air sample
might be obtained to measure peak exposures. 100 mL could be drawn
through a small charcoal tube using a detector tube pump in 2 or 3 minutes.
This method of air sampling could be used to augment full work shift air
sampling using pumps on the worker’s belts and breathing zone collection
tubes.

201. The partial pressure of water vapor in an air sample at 22°C is 12.8 mm Hg.
The saturation vapor pressure of water at this temperature is 19.8 mm Hg.
What is the relative humidity of this air at 22°C and when heated to 28°C?
The water vapor saturation pressure at 28°C is 28.3 mm Hg.

(12.8 mm Hg/19.8 mm Hg) × 100 = 64.6% RH at 22°C

(12.8 mm Hg/28.3 mm Hg) × 100 = 45.2% RH at 28°C

Answers: 64.6% and 45.2% relative humidities, respectively, at 22°C and

28°C. If this air sample is cooled to 15°C, the air becomes saturated and
the relative humidity is 100% because the saturation vapor pressure of the
water is also 12.8 mm Hg.

202. A 5.3 cubic foot cylinder containing 2.7% arsine gas in nitrogen gas under
high pressure bursts inside a 10' × 18' × 38' room with no ventilation. What
is the gas concentration of AsH3 in ppmv after mixing? The molecular
weight of AsH3 is = 78 grams/gram-mole.

5.3 ft3 × 0.027 = 0.143 ft3 of arsine gas

10' × 18' × 38' = 6840 ft3

(0.143 ft3/6840 ft3) × 106 = 20.91 ppmv

Answer: PEL = 0.05 ppmv. This is an IDLH atmosphere. Molecular weight

is irrelevant.

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725 Problems with Solutions 87

203. A typical hydrocarbon emission rate for a stationary source coal combus-
tion unit exceeding 108 BTU/hour capacity is 0.2 lb per ton of coal burned.
What is the approximate annual hydrocarbon emission from a power plant
burning 275 tons of coal per day in a steam generator with a 450 × 106 BTU/
hour capacity?

275 tons 365.25 days 0.2 lb HC 20, 089 lb HC

× × =
day year ton year

Answer: Over 10 tons of hydrocarbon vapors and gases are emitted per year.

204. The annual hydrocarbon emission for fluid catalytic units in petroleum
refineries is typically 220 pounds for every 1000 barrels of fresh feed. What
are annual HC emissions for a unit with no CO boiler operating 250 days
per year and consuming 12,000 barrels of fresh feed per day?

12,000 barrels 220 pounds 250 days 660, 000 lb HC

× × =
day 1000 bbl year year

Answer: 660,000 pounds (330 tons) of hydrocarbon vapor emissions per year.

205. A worker leans into a large gasoline storage tank that was recently filled to
the 90%v level. He collapses, but fortunately was seen by another worker
and was revived by cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Analysis of the
tank’s head space shows 46.8 volume percent hydrocarbons. What was the
most likely cause for his syncope and close brush with the “Grim Reaper?”

Answer: Since the tank’s atmosphere contained 46.8% gasoline vapors,

the balance was 53.2% air. 21% of this was oxygen (0.21 × 53.2% = 11.2%
oxygen). The oxygen-deficient atmosphere plus the narcotic gasoline vapors
most likely acted in a toxicologically additive way to cause his collapse.
OSHA regards an atmosphere containing less than 19.5% O2 at any expected
ambient barometric pressure as oxygen deficient. Note that percent oxygen
in an atmosphere does change with increases in elevation although oxygen’s
partial pressure decreases at higher altitudes.

206. A 2-inch wide by 4-foot-long slot hood exhausts air at a rate of 2000 feet
per minute. How many pounds of air are exhausted per hour by this hood?
Assume this hood is in an industrial plant in Tampa, Florida.

2" × 48" 2000 ft 60 minutes 0.075 lb 6000 lb

2 2
× × × =
144 in /ft minute hour ft 3 hour

Answer: 6000 pounds (3 tons) of air are exhausted every hour.

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88 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

207. The driver of an LPG fork lift truck had the following CO exposures
throughout a 10-hour work shift: 14 ppmv for 3- 34 hours delivering parts
to work stations, 16 ppmv for 2- 12 hours returning empty pallets to the ship-
ping and receiving dock, 2 ppmv for two 15-minute breaks, 135 ppmv for
1- 12 hours inside railroad box cars, and 82 ppmv for 1- 34 hours inside truck
trailers. What was her TWAE to CO gas?

ppmv CO × Time (h) = ppmv-hours

Delivering parts 14 × 3.75 = 52.5
Returning pallets 16 × 2.5 = 40
Coffee breaks 2 × 0.5 = 1
Inside RR box cars 135 × 1.5 = 202.5
Inside truck trailers 82 × 1.75 = 143.5
10.0 439.5

439.5 ppmv-hours/10 hours = 43.95 ppmv TWAE.

Answer: Her TWAE to CO is 44 ppmv that exceeds the 35 ppmv TLV. Try
to reduce her exposure time inside trucks and rail cars.

208. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry regards 0.26 micro-
gram inorganic mercury per cubic meter of air as a concentration below
which adverse health effects should not occur with continuous exposure.
At a detection level of 0.1 microgram, how long must one sample at 1 liter/
minute through adsorbent tube to detect this concentration?

0.26 mcg m3 1L 0.00026 mcg

3
× × =
m 1000 L minute minute

minutes
0.1 mcg × = 384.6 minutes
0.00026 mcg

Answer: Sample for 385 minutes assuming a 100% collection and desorp-
tion efficiency.

209. Air was sampled at an average flow rate of 2.34 liters/minute through a
tared PVC membrane filter for 3 hours and 27 minutes. The filter weight
difference after air sampling was 2.32 milligrams. What was the airborne
TSP (total suspended particulates) concentration?

207 minutes × 2.34 L/m = 484.4 liters

2320 mcg/484.4 liters = 4.79 mg/m3

Answer: 4.79 milligrams of TSP/m3 of air.

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725 Problems with Solutions 89

210. A solvent blend is 20% ethyl acetate and 80% toluene (vol/vol). What is the
vapor-phase concentration of each component?

Ethyl Acetate Toluene

Density 0.90 g/mL 0.87 g/mL
Vapor pressure 74 mm Hg 22 mm Hg
Molecular weight 88.1 92.1

Use 100 mL of the solvent blend as the basis for your calculations.

20 mL × 0.90 g/mL = 18 g ethyl acetate

80 mL × 0.87 g/mL = 69.6 g toluene

Partial pressure of ethyl acetate

(18 g/88.1 g/mole) × 74 mm Hg 15.119

= = = 15.75 mm Hg
(18 g/88.1 g/mole) + (69.6 g/92.1 g/mole) 0.96

Partial pressure of toluene

(69.6 g/92.1 g/mol) × 22 mm Hg 16.63

= = = 17.32 mm Hg
(18 g/88.1 g/mol) + (69.6 g/92.1 g/mol) 0.96

15.75 mm Hg + 17.32 mm Hg = 33.07 mm Hg total vapor pressure

(15.75 mm Hg/33.07 mm Hg) × 100 = 47.6% ethyl acetate vapor

(17.32 mm Hg/33.07 mm Hg) × 100 = 52.4% toluene vapor

Calculations were made using Raoult’s law. Note how the minor (20%),
but more volatile, component in liquid phase increases and enriches in per-
cent composition in vapor phase (47.6%). Refer to Problem 18 for discussion
of application and deviations from Raoult’s law.

211. A process evaporates 1.3 pints of benzene into the air of an empty room
every 8 hours. The room is 10' × 16' × 35'. The density of benzene is 0.88 g/
mL. The molecular weight of benzene is 78.1 grams/gram-mole. What vol-
ume of dilution air is required to maintain benzene vapor concentration
below the NIOSH-recommended TWAE limit of 0.1 ppmv?

Answers: Benzene is too hazardous and toxic to rely on ventilation by

dilution air as a control method. Reduction in evaporation rate and the use
of mechanical local exhaust ventilation are recommended to protect health
of exposed workers. Substitute a less hazardous solvent, for example, water-
based, or toluene with <1 ppmv benzene.

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90 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

212. A gasoline-powered electrical generator engine produces 47 cfm of total

exhaust gases that contain 1.2% (vol/vol) of carbon monoxide in a 12' (h) ×
30' (w) × 40' (l) garage. Garage ventilation is 0.3 cfm/ft2 of floor area.
Assuming a negligible concentration of CO in the make-up air, what is
the concentration of CO gas in the garage atmosphere after 30 minutes of
engine operation?

G × 106 (1 − e −[Q /V ]t )
ppm v CO =
Q

where
G = rate of CO generation
V = volume of garage
Q = ventilation rate
t = time
e = 2.7813

47 cfm × 0.012 = 0.56 ft3 of CO generated/minute (G)

0.3 cfm/ft2 × 30' × 40' = 360 cfm (ventilation, Q)

V = 12' × 30' × 40' = 14,000 ft3

0.56 × 106 1 − e −[(360 × 30 /14,400 )] 

ppm v CO = = 824 ppm v CO
360 cfm

Answer: 824 ppmv CO gas after 30 minutes. Evacuate the building, turn
the generator off, ventilate with fresh air, do not permit occupancy until air
samples for CO are the same as ambient air, and educate and train generator
operator. Blood of exposed persons should be tested for carboxyhemoglobin
(COHgB).

213. In the preceding example, if the generator is turned off after an industrial
hygienist takes a CO detector tube air sample, how long will it take for the
CO concentration to reduce to 20 ppmv? Assume steady, uniform ventila-
tion of the garage.

V  C2  14, 400 ft 3  824 ppm 

Dilution ventilation time = ×  ln  = × ln
Q  C1  (360 ft 3 /minute)  20 ppm 
= 40 × ln 41.2 = 40 × 3.72 = 148.8 minutes

Answer: 149 minutes ≅ 2.5 hours.

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725 Problems with Solutions 91

214. A chemical plant operator is exposed to 87 ppmv MEK and 23 ppmv tolu-
ene. Both are narcotic solvents with additive toxic effects. Their respective
OSHA PELs are 200 and 100 ppmv. What is worker’s additive exposure to
these solvent vapors?

87 ppm + 23 ppm = 110 ppm

87 ppm 23 ppm
+ = 0.44 + 0.23 = 0.67
200 ppm 100 ppm

Answers: 110 ppmv total solvent vapors. Exposure is below PEL for the
mixture, however, it exceeds the action level (67% of PEL for the mixture of
solvent vapors; the action level is 50%). Industrial hygiene controls are war-
ranted. ACGIH TLV for toluene is 20% (20 ppmv) of the OSHA PEL based
on current toxicological evidence. One might be in regulatory compliance
but still fail to protect workers’ health and safety.

215. Many workers in a Wisconsin office building complain of eye irritation, sore
throat, headache, and sinus “problems” every winter. Several air samples
reveal vapor concentrations of mineral spirits from an adjacent printing oper-
ation ranging from 0.3 to 1.5 ppmv. (The geometric mean is 0.5 ppmv.) There
are no other remarkable industrial hygiene issues. What would you do?
a. Take more air samples.
b. Disregard their symptoms because the vapor concentrations average
less than 1% of the PEL.
c. Measure the relative humidity and consider the additive effects of dry
air plus solvent vapors on health and comfort. Suggest they be seen by
a physician. Consult with the physician.
d. Look for other air contaminants because mineral spirits’ vapors cannot
be the root cause of their mild complaints.
e. Increase the air velocity flow through the work areas.
f. Consider rotating some workers to other areas.
g. Test the mineral spirits for benzene contamination.
h. Their complaints are not statistically significant until 37% of the work
force reports similar problems. It was only 28% here from day to day.

Answer: c.

216. A reactive gas is present in a plant atmosphere. This gas dissociates into a
less hazardous gas at a predictable rate that is independent of the concen-
tration that is present in the air. The gas is also removed by plant exhaust
ventilation system. A direct-reading gas measurement instrument reveals
25 ppmv. Thirty minutes later, the gas concentration is 10 ppmv. What is the
combined decay constant for this gas with this ventilation and dissociation
decay? Assume no further release of the gas when measurements are made.

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92 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

 final concentration 
ln   = −T1/2 × time
 initial concentration 

 10 ppm 
ln   = −T1/2 × 30 minutes
 25 ppm 

ln 0.4 = −T1/2 × 30 minutes

− 0.9163
= −T1/2
30 minutes

−T1/2 = −0.0305/minute

Answer: Combined decay constant is 0.0305 per minute (i.e., 3.05% decay
every minute).

217. In the previous problem, the physical half-life of this gas is 40 minutes.
Calculate the combined effective half-life (Teff ) and dilution ventilation
half-life (Tv) of the gas.

−0.0305
ln (1.2) = × Teff
minute

−0.693
Teff = = 22.7minutes
−0.0305/minute

Tp × Tv
Teff = , where Tp = physical half-life
Tp + Tv

40 minutes × Tv
22.7 minutes =
40 minutes + Tv

908 + 22.7 + Tv = 40 × Tv

908/40 = (22.7 × Tv/40) = Tv

22.7 + 0.568 × Tv = Tv

22.7 = Tv (1 − 0.568)

Tv = 52.5 minutes

Answers: Combined effective half-life is 22.7 min. Ventilation half-life is

52.5 min.

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725 Problems with Solutions 93

218. An industrial hygiene chemist wants to prepare a 25-liter gas-sampling bag

with 35 ppmv CO to calibrate his instrument. What volume of 1760 ppmv
CO gas must he dilute with CO-free air to obtain a 35 ppmv concentration?

C1 × V1 = C2 × V2

C2 × V2 35 ppm × 25 L
V1 = = = 0.497 L
C1 1760 ppm

Answer: Dilute 497 mL of 1760 ppmv CO to 25 liters with CO-free air.

219. A room with dimensions of 12' × 20' × 26' contains an ammonia compres-
sor that leaks at a rate of 0.3 cfm. If 260 cfm is the volumetric rate of dilu-
tion air supplied to the room, by how much must air supply be increased to
ensure that the ammonia concentration does not exceed 10 ppmv.

12' × 20' × 26' = 6240 ft3

Qo = 260 cfm

C = 10 ppm

0.3 ft 3
Co = × 106 = 48 ppm NH 3
6240 ft 3

48 ppm
Q = 260 cfm × = 1248 cfm
10 ppm

Answer: Increase the dilution air by 988 to 1248 cfm. Instead, quit sand-
bagging. Stop and repair the leak!

220. According to the olfactory perceptions by room occupants, the odor intensity
in a work area has “doubled.” Assuming the source of the odor has a constant
generation rate, by how much was dilution ventilation apparently decreased?
The dilution ventilation for the initial odor concentration was 16,400 cfm.
The equation, with I = the odor intensity, is
I1 log cfm 2
=
I2 log cfm1

This equation is similar to the Weber−Fechner law of physiological reac-

tions in general, which is a physiological sensation is proportional to the
logarithm of the stimulus.

1 log cfm 2
=
2 log 16, 400 cfm

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94 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

log cfm 2
0.5 =
4.215

log cfm2 = 2.108

cfm2 = 128
Answer: Dilution air was reduced approximately from 16,400 to 128 cfm.
Or, stated another way, relatively tremendous volumes of clean air are
required to dilute an odor to 50% of its perceived olfactory intensity. See
Problem 221.

221. In the preceding problem where the sensory odor intensity doubled with
reduction of the dilution air from 16,400 to 128 cfm, by how much did the
actual odorant concentration apparently increase?

16,400 cfm/128 cfm = 128 times

Answer: As the odor concentration increases to the 2nd power, apparent

intensity doubles. Odor intensity varies with logarithm of concentration.
Another psychophysical bioreaction covering the senses (olfaction, hearing,
vision, taste, touch, etc.) is Stevens’ law:

I = k Cα

where I = perceived intensity of the sensation, or odor; k = a constant; and

C = the physical intensity of the stimulus, the odorant. As a rule, sensation
varies as a power function of the stimulus. In olfaction, α is less than 1.
Stevens’ law has generally replaced the Weber−Fechner logarithmic law
(refer to Problem 220). Since α is invariably less than 1, a change in concen-
tration results in a smaller change in odor perception. Typically, a ranges
from 0.2 to 0.7. With the exponent being 0.7, the odorant concentration must
be reduced by 10-fold to reduce the odor perception by a factor of 5. When
a equals 0.2, there must be a 3000-fold reduction in the concentration to
achieve a 5-fold reduction in odor perception.

222. An instrument calibrated at normal temperature and pressure (NTP = 25°C

and 760 mm Hg) indicated 57 ppm at 16°C and 630 mm Hg pressure. What
is the corrected concentration and the correction factor to be applied to all
readings?

P 298 K
ppm v at NTP = ppm v meter reading × ×
760 mm Hg T
630 mm Hg 298 K
= 57 ppm × × = 48.7 ppm
760 mm Hg 289 K

Answer: The correction factor = (49 ppmv/57 ppmv) is 0.86.

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725 Problems with Solutions 95

223. Pot room air containing caustic soda dust (NaOH) was bubbled through a
midget impinger at 0.92 L/m for 17.5 minutes. There were 13.2 mL of dilute
H2SO4 acid solution in the impinger. Each milliliter of the acid will neutral-
ize 0.43 micrograms of NaOH as indicated by a color change from purple to
green. Assuming 100% collection efficiency by the impinger, what was the
average airborne NaOH dust concentration when the indicator color (methyl
purple) changed?

0.92 L/m × 17.5 minutes = 16.1 liters of air were sampled

13.2 mL × 0.43 mcg/mL = 5.68 mcg NaOH

5.68 mcg NaOH/16.1 liters = 0.35 mcg/L

Answer: 0.35 mg NaOH dust per cubic meter of pot room air.

224. Sulfur hexafluoride, SF6, was used to measure reentry of the exhaust air
from a hood into a plant. The hood had an exhaust ventilation rate of 18,500
cfm. SF6 gas was released at a rate of 0.05 cfm into the hood’s exhaust sys-
tem. The plant had a general replacement air flow rate of 77,600 cfm. What
was the percent reentry if the SF6 steady-state concentration in the plant
was 0.004 ppmv?

0.05 cfm
Exhaust concentration = × 106 = 2.7 ppm
18, 500 cfm

77, 600 cfm

Ventilation dilution factor = = 4.19
18, 500 cfm

Concentration of SF6 measured inside the plant was 0.004 ppmv.

Contaminant dilution, therefore, is 2.7 ppmv/0.004 ppmv = 675 times.
Reentry of contaminants from the hood into the plant, given as a fraction
of the released SF6 = 4.19/675 = 0.0062.

Answer: 0.0062 × the released amount, or 0.62% reentry.

225. Contrast ratio of surface areas of 1-micron diameter particles to particles

with a diameter of 3 microns.

Surface area of a sphere = π × (diameter)2

for a 1-micron Ø particle: π × (1 μ)2 = 3.1416 square microns

for a 3-micron Ø particle: π × (3 μ)2 = 28.274 square microns

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96 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

28.274 microns2/3.1416 microns2 = nine (the square of the diameter, e.g., for
a 5-micron diameter particle, the surface area would be 25 times greater).

Answer: Nine times greater. As the particle diameter increases 3-fold, the
surface area increases by 6-fold. If the diameter increases, for example,
6-fold, the surface area increases (6)2-fold, or 36 times.

226. A virulent strain of infectious virus has a molecular weight of 55 × 106.

This virus, resistant to desiccation, is in an aerosol containing 12 picograms
of the virus per cubic meter of air. How many virus particles are inhaled
with each liter of aerosol?

12 picogram 0.000012 microgram 0.000000012 microgram of virus

= =
m3 1000 L L

1.2 × 10 −14 g mole 6.023 × 1023 molecules

× 6
×
L 55 × 10 gram mole
1.3 × 102 molecues
=
L

Answer: 130 infectious virus particles per liter of inhaled air.

227. A worker sprayed banana plants in Ecuador with a pesticide. A breathing

zone air sample using a tared PVC membrane filter was used to collect
spray aerosol mist. Assume 35% of the collected particulate was not pesti-
cide and 7% of the pesticide evaporated from the filter during air sampling.
If the air-sampling rate was 2.1 L/minute for 7 hours and 41 minutes, what
was sprayer’s pesticide exposure if initial filter weight was 45.46 mg, and
the final filter weight was 49.13 mg?

7 hours and 41 minutes = 420 minutes + 41 minutes = 461 minutes

(2.1 L/m) × 461 minutes = 968.1 liters

49.13 mg − 45.46 mg = 3.67 mg total aerosol particulate on this PVC filter

3.67 mg × 0.65 = 2.39 mg pesticide/m3

(2.39 mg pesticide/m3) × 1.07 for the evaporation factor = 2.56 mg pesti-

cide/m3 of breathing zone air.

228. During a laboratory instrument calibration for airborne oxidant (I2 vapor),
45.67 mg of iodine crystals were placed in a 0.17 ft3/minute NTP air stream.
I2 crystals were removed after 176 minutes and now weighed 43.79 mg.

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725 Problems with Solutions 97

What was the average concentration of sublimed iodine vapor in air stream
in ppmv? Molecular weight of I2 = 253.8 grams gram-mole−1

0.17 ft 3 28.3 L
× × 176 minutes = 846.7 L
minute ft 3

45.67 mg − 43.79 mg = 1880 mcg

1880 mcg 2.22 mcg

=
846.7 L L

(2.22 mcg/L ) × 24.45 L/gram-mole at NTP

ppm v = = 0.213865
253.8 gram/gram-mole

Answer: 0.21 ppmv sublimed I2 vapor in the effluent air stream. As you
collect instrument readings you will notice that iodine vapor concentrations
will initially increase and then stabilize. Use the stabilized value as your
calibration point. Then proceed to change the iodine vapor concentrations
by increasing and decreasing the air flow. Four more data points should
suffice to establish your instrument calibration curve by plotting instrument
reading versus ppmv I2 vapor. The instrument calibration apparatus must be
slightly warmer than ambient temperature to ensure that iodine vapor does
not condense on surfaces before the instrument insertion probe point.

229. A hospital requires humidification for occupant comfort. Engineering cal-

culations are based on an outdoor temperature of 41°F and a relative humid-
ity of 20%. An indoor temperature at a relative humidity of 50% is selected
as a design objective. Additional increases in humidity and dry bulb tem-
perature will be gained from the occupants, other water vapor sources,
and process lighting and heating, and so on. How much H2O vapor must
be evaporated into the influent outside air to achieve this humidity? Water
vapor saturation is 6.77 g/m3 at 41°F and 17.26 g/m3 at 68°F. This hospital is
in New York City.

Density of water vapor in 41°F air = 0.20 × 6.77 mg/m3 = 1.354 g/m3

Density of water vapor in 68°F air = 0.50 × 17.26 g/m3 = 8.63 g/m3

41°F = 5°C

68°F = 20°C

273 K + 20 293 K
One m 3 of air at 41°F expands to: = = 1.054 m 3 at 68°F.
273 K + 5 278 K

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98 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

8.63 g
Water vapor in 1.054m 3 at 68°F = 1.054 m 3 × = 9.10 grams
m3

The amount of water vapor to be added to each cubic meter of air at 41°F =
9.10 g − 1.35 g = 7.75 grams of H2O.

Answer: 7.75 grams of water vapor must be added to every cubic meter
of 41°F outdoor air at 20% relative humidity. Protracted relative humidity
beyond 60–70% will support mold growth on organic substrates. Humidity
measurements should be made regularly to ensure occupants’ comfort.

230. A pressure vessel contained CO compressed to 17 atmospheres at 43°F. The

tank ruptures at what was believed to be an internal CO temperature of
300°F. People died from blast effects and chemical asphyxiation. Incident
reconstruction attempts to determine the probable internal pressure of CO
when the tank blew apart.
Since the tank volume is constant, Vi = Vf, then:

PV PV P P 17 atmospheres Pf
i i
= f f becomes i = f = =
Ti Tf Ti Tf (43 + 460)° R (300 + 460)° R

Pf = 25.69 atmospheres

Answer: Tank rupture occurred near an internal pressure of 26 atmo-

spheres. Correction for the nonideal gas behavior at this high pressure
might be required.

231. A mixture of gases at 25°C contains nitrogen at 160 mm Hg, methane at

212 mm Hg, hydrogen at 110 mm Hg, ethane at 210 mm Hg, and propane at
195 mm Hg. What is the total pressure of the gas mixture and the percent
noncombustible gas in the mixture?

(160 + 212 + 110 + 210 = 195) mm Hg = 887 mm Hg

Nitrogen is the only noncombustible, nonflammable component:

160 mm Hg
× 100 = 18.04% N 2
887 mm Hg

Answer: 18% nitrogen. 82% flammable gases. 887 mm Hg total pressure.

232. A pressure vessel contains 3700 kilograms of ethane gas at 1 atmosphere

and 10°C. How much ethane could it contain at 30°C and 14 atmospheres?

Pi Pf
The tank volume is constant, therefore: ∝
Ti Tf

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725 Problems with Solutions 99

14 atm./(273 K + 30°C) K 0.046205

= = 13.0074
1 atm./(273 K + 10°C) K 0.003534

13.074 × 3700 kg = 48,374 kg C2H6

233. A boll weevil returns home from work in the fields with 600 nanograms of
pesticide with a molecular weight of 378 on each foot. He dies from acute
cholinesterase inhibition poisoning while being clutched by his wife. Their
subterranean nest—that has no ventilation—is 11 cubic centimeters. What
is the concentration of the pesticide vapor in the nest air after evaporating
from his feet? If the STEL for adult weevils is 1 ppmv (15 minutes), is his
wife in danger? She is not wearing a protective apron, impervious booties,
or a whole-body respirator (insects “breathe” through their integument).

1 nanogram = 10−9 gram = 10−3 micrograms

(600 nanograms/foot) × 6 feet = 3600 nanograms

Answer: 3.6 micrograms of pesticide evaporates from his feet.

L
11 cm 3 = 11 mL × = 0.011 L
1000 mL

3.6 mcg 327.3 mcg

=
0.011 L L

(327.3 mcg/L) × 24.45

ppm = = 21.2 ppm
378

Since wife weevil has continuous exposure, telephone 911 immediately to

request EMS team. Ask them to bring atropine and 2-PAM for antidote
injection. Instruct her to leave the nest (or remove her by stretcher). Keep
patient warm and at rest until help arrives. CPR (with an insect whole body
“intubator”) might be needed. Give nothing by mouth if she is unconscious.
Check their kids who are in school for signs and symptoms of OP pesticide
poisoning. Bar them and all others from entering the nest.

234. OSHA’s action level for asbestos fibers is 0.1 fiber per cc as an 8-hour
TWAE. Assuming a worker inhales 10 cubic meters of air containing 0.1 f/cc
during his work shift, how many asbestos fibers will he inhale?

1000 L 1000 cm 3 0.1 fiber

10 m 3 × × × = 106 fibers
m3 L cm 3

Answer: At least 1,000,000 asbestos fibers are inhaled during his 8-hour
work shift. This only includes those fibers with a length-to-width aspect

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100 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

ratio of 3-to-1 and with a length longer than 5 microns. If the fibers have
the same aspect ratio but are shorter than 5 microns, the total number of
inhaled asbestos fibers would be substantially higher, say, 103–106.

235. Thirty percent of the workers in a metal machining plant simultaneously

develop an acute illness and are too ill to work. Their symptoms include
fever, myalgia, headache, dyspnea, and extreme fatigue. Inhalation of aero-
sols from the metal working fluid is believed to be the source of an appar-
ent epidemic bacterial or viral infection. Analysis of the coolant reveals
the presence of 108 aerobic bacteria per mL and 130,000 Legionella pneu-
mophillae per mL. Workers were exposed to a geometric mean concen-
tration of 5.8 mg total airborne mist and aerosol/m3. If the coolant metal
working fluid was 95% water and had a density of 1 g/mL, how many
L. pneumophillae bacteria were inhaled in each liter of air at the geometric
mean concentration?
Consider the number of bacteria in 1 liter of air.

5.8 mg/m3 = 5.8 mcg/L

The volume of coolant mist generated and required to be filtered by

the  sampling device, V, to collect 5.8 mcg of particulates (including all
bacteria) is

V × (1.00 − 0.95) = 5.8 mcg

5.8 mcg
V = = 116 mcg of total mist (includes the aqueous porrtion)
0.05

g 1.0 mL
116 mcg × × = 0.000116 mL
106 mcg 1.0 g

130, 000 L. pneumophillae

0.000116 mL × = 15.08 L. pneumophillae
mL

Answer: 15 L. pneumophillae bacteria are inhaled in each liter of air. It has

been estimated that as little as one L. pneumophillae bacterium in 50 liters
of inhaled air can be an infectious dose in a susceptible human host.

236. Derive an equation to calculate the half-life for an air contaminant in a

room with a volume (V), uniform ventilation (Q), original concentration
(Co), and concentration at half-life time (C) after generation stops (G = 0).
t = the time required to reach the half-life concentration.
The volume of the space and the ventilation rate of the space determine
the half-life.

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725 Problems with Solutions 101

( )
C = Co × e − V
Qt

at one half-life: C = 0.5Co

Qt
0.5 Co −
=e V
Co

V  V 
t = −   ln 0.5 = 0.693  
Q
  Q 

V 
Answers: Air contaminant half-life = 0.693   .
Q 

237. Evaluate a plant that is 20' (h) × 45' (w) × 60' (l) that has a general venti-
lation rate of 1.3 cfm per square foot of floor area. Ventilation is evenly
distributed. If the CO gas concentration in this plant initially is 200 ppmv,
what is the concentration after three half-lives? What is half-life of CO gas
for this plant under these conditions?

1.3 ft 3 /minute 3510 ft 3

2
× (45’ × 60 ’) =
ft minute

Plant volume = 20' × 45' × 60' = 54,000 ft3

V   54, 000 ft 3 
Half-life = 0.693   = 0.693   = 10.66 minutes
Q   3510 cfm 

For three half-lives = (10.66 minutes/half-life) × 3 half-lives = 32 minutes

200 ppmv × (0.5)3 = 25 ppmv

Answer: The concentration of CO gas remaining in the plant atmosphere

after three half-lives (32 minutes) of ventilation is 25 ppmv, the current TLV,
assuming that CO release and generation stops when the ventilation begins.
The half-life for this situation is 10.7 minutes.

238. A dry cleaner operator was exposed to 11 ppmv “perc” vapor for 3.5 hours
at a spotting bench, 15 ppmv for 1.5 hours while sorting and loading clothes,
49 ppmv for 2.5 hours while removing and hanging clothes, and 2 ppmv for
2.5 hours while she took orders and returning cleaned clothing. What was
her TWAE to perchloroethylene vapor?

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102 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Job C × T = CT
Spotting 11 ppmv × 3.5 h = 38.5 ppmv-h
Sorting and loading 15 ppmv × 1.5 h = 22.5 ppmv-h
Removing and hanging 49 ppmv × 2.5 h = 122.5 ppmv-h
Taking orders 2 ppmv × 2.5 h = 5.0 ppmv-h
10.0 h = 188.5 ppmv-h

TWAE = 188.5 ppmv-hours/10 hours = 18.85 ppmv “perc” using Haber’s law.

Answer: Her 10-hour TWAE to perchloroethylene vapor was 19 ppmv.

8-hour = 23.6 ppmv.

239. A silver membrane air filter taken from a topside coke oven worker
was extracted with benzene. This tared filter weighed 78.56 mg before sam-
pling and 82.97 mg after air sampling. The same filter weighed 80.76 mg
after extracting with warm benzene. If air was sampled at 2.07 L/min for
463 minutes, what was the worker’s exposure to total airborne particulates
and to the benzene-soluble fraction of the airborne coke oven emissions?

(2.07 L/min) × 463 minutes = 958.4 liters

82.97 mg − 78.56 mg = 4.41 mg

4410 mcg total particulates 4.60 mg TSP

=
958.4 L m3

82.97 mg – 80.76 mg = 2.21 mg COE/m3

Answer: 4.60 mg TSP/m3 and 2.31 mg coke oven emissions/m3 (50% of

total much of which is benzene insoluble coal dust and soot).

240. A balloon man—an evil person—sold 12 balloons filled with 20% ammo-
nia and 80% helium instead of pure helium to kids at a birthday party. He
instructed them to prick every balloon at the same time for a birthday sur-
prise. Each balloon was filled with 6 liters of the mixed gas. He promptly
left the party being held in an 8' × 16' × 18' room with no ventilation. What
was the burst concentration of ammonia gas when the now-gleeful children
pricked their balloons?

6 liters
12 balloons × × 0.2 = 14.4 liters of ammonia
balloon

28.3 L
8' × 16' × 18' × = 65, 249 liters
ft 3

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725 Problems with Solutions 103

14.4 L
× 106 = 220.6 ppm NH 3
65, 249 L

Answer: The average concentration in the room was about 221 ppmv; how-
ever, the burst concentration near each balloon was less than 200,000 ppmv—
the ammonia concentration in each balloon. This would cause coughing and
tearing but not so much incapacitation that one could not call an EMS unit
at 911 and the police to report and apprehend this vicious balloon man—an
evil clown.

241. Which OSHA-approved gases and vapors are used to odorize LPG?
a. Ethyl mercaptan, thiophane, amyl mercaptan
b. Thiophene, butyl mercaptan, methyl mercaptan
c. Ethane thiol, isoamyl mercaptan, mercaptobenzothiazole
d. SO2, butyl mercaptan, acetylene
e. Propane thiol, thiophene, thiophane, hydrogen sulfide

Answer: a.

242. Ethyl mercaptan is typically used as the odorant for natural gas and lique-
fied fuel gases at a concentration of about 8 pounds per million cubic feet of
gas. What is concentration of C2H5-SH in the mixed gas in ppmv? Density
of ethyl mercaptan (ethanethiol) is 0.839 g/mL. Molecular weight of ethyl
mercaptan is 62.13 grams per gram-mole.

8 lb 454 g 1000 mg 35.3ft 3 128mg

× × × =
106 ft 3 lb g m3 m3

(128 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

= 50 ppm C2 H 5SH
62.13

Answer: 50 ppmv ethyl mercaptan. This greatly exceeds odor threshold

of approximately 0.5 ppbv (0.0005 ppmv) most people can detect. Source
concentration must be much greater than odor thresholds because substan-
tial dilution occurs between the leak and the person detecting the gas. An
important consideration, of course, is the notion that “If I’m smelling this
odorant at, say 1 ppbv, and the leak is 50 or more feet away, could concentra-
tion of LPG exceed its LEL somewhere between the source and me?” Any
ignition sources between the source and me?

243. What is the saturation concentration of “Heptachlor” in air at NTP? The

vapor pressure of this pesticide is 0.0003 mm Hg, and its molecular weight
is 373.4. Does the saturation concentration exceed the OSHA PEL of
0.5 mg/m3 (skin)?

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104 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

0.0003mm Hg
× 106 = 0.395 ppm
760 mm Hg

mg ppm × molecular weight 0.395 × 373.4 6.03mg

= = =
m3 24.45 24.45 m3

Answer: Six mg/m3, or a vapor saturation concentration of “Heptachlor”

about 12 times the OSHA PEL. However, in the field, the typical exposures
to this pesticide are to mist—not solely to vapor—and evaluations must
include appraisal of mist, vapor, and skin exposures among other issues of
industrial hygiene.

244. An explosion occurred in a tank where LPG was used as fuel for a heater
to dry the tank’s interior. In forensic accident investigation, the LPG cyl-
inder was found outside of the tank, and propane gas was fed into the
heater in the tank by a hose. The heater tipped over, the ignition flame was
extinguished, and leaking propane gas accumulated inside the tank. From
the tare weight and the water capacity stamped on the LPG container,
reweighing indicated 2.8 gallons of LPG had vaporized inside the eight-
foot diameter, 24' long cylindrical tank. The source of ignition appeared
to be an ineffective exhaust fan located near the far end of the tank. The
density of LPG is 0.51 g/mL. What was the maximum concentration of
propane gas in the tank?

(1400 mg/m 3 − hour ) 175 mg

Volume of cylinder = = ,
8 hours m3

clearly a need for a full-face airline respirator during spraying.

3.785.3mL 0.51g
2.8gallons × × = 5405.5grams
gallon mL

5405.5g 0.1582 g 158.2 mg 158,200 mg

= = =
34,164 L L L m3

Molecular weight of C3H8 = 44 grams/gram-mole

(158,200 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = 87, 909
44

Answer: 87,909 propane gas in the tank (= 8.79%). LEL = 2.2% = 22,000
ppmv. UEL = 96,000 ppm. 8.79% approaches the “richer” end of the LEL−
UEL range and, therefore—while certainly explosive—the magnitude of

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725 Problems with Solutions 105

any explosion of gas or vapor increases as the concentration approaches the

stoichiometric mid-range of explosibility.

245. The industrial hygienist often must explain how small a ppm is, how tiny
are these dust particles, “What’s a microgram?,” how short a 5 micron fiber
is, and “What does 0.002 mg Be/m3 mean?,” and so on. One good approach
that can be used is to relate the familiar to the unfamiliar. As an example,
to share the notion of the OSHA PEL for lead of 50 micrograms per cubic
meter, one could relate the weight of the artificial sweeteners (e.g., Equal®)
found in the little paper packages we see along with packets of sugar in
restaurants. This could be used to demonstrate the dust concentration inside
a building the size of, say, a football field 300 feet × 160 feet × 14 feet
high. The weight of artificial sweeteners in those little packets is 1 gram.
Assuming that the sweetener is an ultrafine lead powder, what would be
the airborne lead dust concentration if it was suspended in the air of this
gridiron-sized building?

1gram × (106 micrograms /gram) 53 mcg Pb

= .
300' × 160' × 14' /(35.315ft 3 /m 3 ) m3

Answer: 53 micrograms of lead per cubic meter, or slightly over the OSHA
PEL of 50 and 23 mcg/m3 above the action level for work place airborne
lead. Such a finely divided dust at this concentration would be essentially
invisible.

246. A 70-kilogram man inadvertently swallowed a 1-gram chunk of sodium

cyanide falling from dusty overhead beam onto a sandwich he ate for lunch.
Immediately, the soluble cyanide salt converted into HCN gas when con-
tacting his gastric HCl. This caused him to belch 400 mL of gas containing
2800 ppm HCN gas. How much cyanide was left in his body after belching?
Assume excess of hydrochloric acid in his stomach and that the belched gas
was totally expelled from his body.

NaCN + HCl → HCN ↑ + NaCl

molecular weights = 49 grams/gram-mole for NaCN and 27 for HCN grams/

gram-mole.

One gram NaCN/(49 grams/mole) = 0.02041 mole NaCN; therefore,

0.02041 mole of HCN was produced.

mg ppm × molecular weight 2800 ppm × 27

= =
m3 24.45 24.45
3092 mg 3092 mcg
= =
m3 L

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106 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

3092 mcg
× 0.4 L = 1237 mcg HCN
L

26
% CN − in HCN = × 100 = 96.3%
27

26
% CN − in NaCN = × 100 = 53.1%
49

1237 mcg HCN × 0.963 = 1191 mcg CN− = 1.19 mg CN−

1000 mg NaCN × 0.531 = 531 mg CN−

531 mg CN− − 1.19 mg CN− = 529.8 mg CN−

529.8 milligrams of cyanide remain as HCN in his body. This equals 529.8 mg/
70 kg = 7.6 mg CN−/kg, or (7.6 mg/kg) × (1/0.531) = 14.3 mg NaCN/kg. A
LDLo of 2.857 NaCN/kg has been reported for man. HURRY! HURRY!—
quickly administer antidotes amyl nitrite and sodium nitrite! Keep the per-
son warm. Give CPR, oxygen, and so on. Call a doctor, EMS, local Poison
Control Center. Do not become a victim yourself by inhaling exhaled HCN
of victim during mouth-to-mouth CPR.

247. An industrial hygienist evaluated a maintenance worker’s exposures to

methyl chloroform vapors during the removal of sludge from a solvent
degreasing tank. A 45 minute TWAE was 350 ppmv (1900 mg/m3, the
8-hour OSHA PEL). A few days later, the same worker was overcome from
methyl chloroform at a spray degreasing operation and admitted to a hos-
pital. Reconstruction of the exposure ironically showed that he was also
exposed to 350 ppm for 45 minutes. Charcoal tubes and air-sample pumps
were used for both studies. What could account for the man’s illness from
one exposure and not the other apparently identical exposure?
The first exposure was solely to methyl chloroform vapors, while the sec-
ond most likely included the inhalation of mist particles as well as vapors.
There is no good air-sampling technique that can distinguish between both
MC vapors and MC mist particles in an aerosol mixture. Inhalation of
respirable MC particles is expected to be far more irritating and injurious to
lungs than to the vapor alone. Compare, for example, eye irritation expected
from vapor exposure to that resulting from direct contact of liquid solvent
on the cornea. The glycolipid-covered membranes in the alveoli are more
susceptible to injury by mist particles than from vapor molecules. In the
evaluation of exposures to mixed aerosols, the industrial hygienist must be
vigilant for variations in biological responses from what appear to be the
“same” exposure concentrations. Observation of a mist cloud in workers’
breathing zones is a clue that exposures are to a two-phase aerosol.

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725 Problems with Solutions 107

248. A calibrated rotameter indicated an air flow rate of 2.37 L/minute at 7:07
am. This rotameter—used in a sampling system for airborne dust—indi-
cated 2.18 L/m at 4:02 pm. How much air was sampled?

2.37 L/min + 2.18 L/min

= 2.28 L/min average air flow rate
2

Elapsed time = 15:62 − 7:07 = 8 hours and 55 minutes = 535 minutes

(2.28 L/m) × 535 minutes = 1219.8 L

Answer: Approximately 1220 liters of air were sampled (1.22 m3).

249. The PEL for a dust is 0.3 mg/m3 as TSP. The detection limit is 5 micro-
grams. At an air-sampling rate of 1.06 L/m, how long must one sample take
to detect 10% of the PEL?

analytical sensitivity (in mcg)

minimum sampling time (in minutes) =
0.1 × PEL (mcg/L) × L/min
5 micrograms TSP
=
0.1 × 0.3 mcg/L × 1.06 L/min
= 157.2 minutes

Answer: Sample at least 2 h and 38 minutes.

250. A crane used in construction of a skyscraper raised a compressed gas bot-

tle containing 200 ft3 of 100% acetylene to welders on the 41st floor. The
bottle burst in free space at the 20th floor. If the gas concentration was
100,000 ppm 4 ft from the cylinder microseconds after bursting, what con-
centration of gas could be expected 8, 12, and 16 feet away from bottle (i.e.,
spheres with 16, 24, and 32 feet diameters)? Assume no wind or thermal air
currents immediately diluted the gas. Assume uniform energy dispersion as
the compressed cylinder of acetylene ruptured.
The inverse square law would appear to apply here; that is, the concentra-
tion will decrease as the inverse of the square of the distance from the source.
This is an expanding sphere of acetylene gas decreasing in concentration and
energy as the inverse of the square of the distance from the epicenter.

In the gas cylinder: 100% acetylene (i.e., 1,000,000 ppmv)

At 4 feet: 100,000 ppmv

At 8 feet: (1/22) × 100,000 ppmv = 25,000 ppmv (i.e., 2 × 4 feet)

At 12 feet: (1/32) × 100,000 ppmv = 11,111 ppmv (3 × 4 feet)

At 16 feet: (1/42) × 100,000 ppmv = 6250 ppmv (4 × 4 feet)

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108 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Answers: About 25,000 ppmv, 11,000 ppmv, and 6000 ppmv of C2H2 at 8',
12', and 16', respectively.

251. Consider a 1 cm3 solid crushed into 1 micrometer cubes. How many par-
ticles are created? How does the total surface area of the small particles
compare to surface area of the original cube? What are the implications for
alveolar surface activity?

Original: 6 facets × (1 × 1 cm)/facet = 6 cm2

1 cm = 104 microns/side

After crushing to tiny particles: 104 × 104 × 104 = 1012 particles

1012 particles × 6 microns2/particle = 6 × 1012 microns2 = 6 m2 (and biological

activity ↑

Answers: One large particle becomes 1,000,000,000,000 tiny particles,

and the surface area increases from 6 to 60,000 cm2. Ouch!

252. NIOSH reports that the inhalation of a single tubercle bacillus can cause
an active tuberculosis lesion (Occupational Respiratory Diseases, 1986).
This bacterium weighs as little as 10−13 gram. A careless laboratory worker
was exposed to an aerosol of tubercle bacilli estimated to be about 20,000
microbes per cubic meter. She inhaled at least 30 liters of bio-contaminated
air before leaving the facility. How many bacilli could she have inhaled?
What was the total inhaled mass of bacilli?

20,000 microbes/m3 = 20,000/1000 L = 20 microbes/liter of air

20 microbes
× 30 L of inhaled air = 600 microbes dose
L

600 microbes × 10−13 gram/microbe = 6 × 10−11 gram/microbe

= 60 picograms.

Viruses, by comparison, are about 1 attogram = 10 −18 gram = 10 −13

femtogram.

Answer: 600 tubercle bacilli microbes. 60 picograms of tubercle bacilli.

253. Jerry returns home from the dry cleaners with 26 pounds of clothing and
hangs it in a 3' × 4' × 8' closet with about 20% contents. One milliliter of
perchloroethylene remains in the clothing after he removes the plastic gar-
ment bags and hangs the clothing. He shuts the door. The closet has no ven-
tilation. Tom, the family cat, is working inside the closet making mouse

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725 Problems with Solutions 109

traps. What is Tom’s exposure when all of the perchloroethylene evaporates?

The molecular weight and “perc’s” density are 165.8 grams/gram-mole and
1.62 g/mL, respectively.

3' × 4' × 8' = 96 ft3

96 ft3 − (0.20 × 96 ft3) = 76.8 ft3

1.62 g “perc” 1,620,000 mcg ft 3 744.8 mcg

3
= 3
× =
76.8 ft 76.8 ft 28.32 L L

(744.8 mcg/L) × 24.5 L/g-mole

= 109.8 ppm “perc” vapor
165.8 g/g-mole

Answer: 110 ppmv perchloroethylene vapor. Consultation with a seasoned

veterinary industrial hygienist appears warranted.

254. Three grams of liquid mercury were spilled on a carpet. Vacuuming

removed the mercury but mercury vapors continued to be emitted from the
sweeper’s bag. If the evaporation rate during vacuum sweeper operation
was 300 micrograms of Hg per minute, and the exhaust rate was 50 cfm,
what was the concentration of mercury vapor in the air exhausted from the
sweeper?

300 mcg milligrams 0.3mg Hg

× =
minute 1000 micrograms minute

50 ft 3 m3 1.416 m 3
× 3
=
minute 35.315ft minute

0.3mg Hg/minute
= 0.212 mg Hg/M3
1.416 M3 /minute

Answer: 0.212 mg of mercury vapor per cubic meter of air. Would the
carpet fleas in the vacuum sweeper bag develop mercurialism? Become as
“mad and buggy as a hatter?”

255. A paint sprayer using an air line respirator painted the inside of a 14' diam-
eter by 30' long chemical storage tank with an epoxy resin paint. The paint
contained 28% methyl ethyl ketone (by weight) as the solvent. The tank had
no ventilation. If 1 gallon of the coating covers 325 ft2, what MEK vapor
concentration could be expected in the tank after the painter leaves? The

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110 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

resin coating weighs 12.3 pounds per gallon. MEK’s molecular weight is
72.1 grams/gram-mole.

Lateral tank surface area = 2 × π × r × h = (2) π (7') (30') = 1320 ft2

End surface areas = 2 × π × r 2 = (2) π (7 ft)2 = 308 ft2

Total tank surface area = 1320 + 308 = 1628 ft2

one gallon
1628 ft 2 × = 5.01gallons
325ft 2

This was verified by finding an empty 5-gallon pail of the resin coating
outside of the tank after the painter finished.

(12.3 lb/gallon) × 5.01 gallons × 0.28 = 17.25 lb MEK

Tank volume = π × r 2 × h = π(7')2 (30') = 4618 ft3

4618 ft3 × 28.32 L/ft3 = 130,782 L = 130.78 m3

(7,832,000 mg/130.78 m 3 ) × 24.45

= 20,308 ppm MEK vapor
72.1

Answer: Oh, boy! 20,308 ppmv methyl ethyl ketone vapor (2.03%) is aver-
age concentration in the tank! The LEL is 1.7%. The UEL is 11.4%. Ignition
sources? Explosion proof lighting in the dark tank? Blow air into the tank to
dilute the vapors to <PEL. Discharge explosive vapors to a safe area. Prohibit
entry. Check vapors with a calibrated CGI. Consider diluting MEK vapors
with nitrogen first to get well below the LEL, then follow with air dilution
to < PEL.

256. The air flow through a low flow air-sampling pump and small charcoal tube
was calibrated with a 100 mL soap film bubble tube. The calibration condi-
tions were at NTP. What was the average flow rate in L/min if two bubble
traverses required 73.7 and 74.1 seconds?

74.1seconds + 73.7seconds 73.9seconds

=
2 100 mL

60 seconds/100 mL 0.1L/minute 60 seconds

= =
× seconds/100 mL × L/minute 73.9seconds
0.1L 0.0812 L
= 0.812 × =
minute minute

Answer: 0.081 liter of air sampled per minute.

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725 Problems with Solutions 111

257. An impinger containing 8.9 mL of collection solution was analyzed and

found to contain 0.19 mcg TDI/mL. The sample of air had been collected
at 1.04 L/min for 16.5 minutes. If the collection efficiency of the impinger
was 85%, what was the concentration of TDI in the breathing zone of the
polyurethane foam maker? The molecular weight of TDI is 174.2 grams/
gram-mole.

(1.04 L/min) × 16.5 minutes = 17.16 liters

0.19 mcg 1
8.9 mL × × = 1.99 mcg TDI
mL 0.85

(1.99 mcg/17.16 L) × 24.45

= 0.016 ppm TDI
174.2

Answer: 0.016 ppmv of toluene 2,4- and 2,6-diisocyanate isomers.

258. Twelve and one-half pounds of methylene chloride quickly evaporate in

a 50 foot diameter × 95 feet long storage tank. A maintenance worker
inspecting the tank wearing a HEPA respirator remained in the tank for
2 hours, 40 minutes. What was his 8-h TWAE to vapor? The molecular
weight of CH2Cl2 is 84.9 grams per gram-mole.

Tank volume = π × (25')2 × 95' = 186,532.5 ft3

28.32 L m3
186,532.5ft 3 × × = 5282.6 m 3
ft 3 1000 L
453.59 g 1000 mg
12.5 lb × × = 5,669,875mg
lb g
(5,669,875mg/5282.6 m 3 ) × 24.45 L/g-mole
= 309 ppm
84.9

160 minutes × 309 ppmv = 49,440 ppmv-minutes

320 minutes × 0 ppmv = 0 ppmv-minutes

49,440 ppmv-minutes/480 minutes = 103 ppmv

Answer: HEPA filter respirator is worthless for protection against solvent

vapor. His TWAE to CH2Cl2 vapor was 103 ppmv. ACGIH classifies CH2Cl2
as A2 carcinogen with an 8-hour TWAE TLV® of 50 ppm.
In the preceding problem, assume the worker was found dead in the tank—
a victim of solvent vapor inhalation. What could explain his death? 309 ppmv?

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112 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

A 160-minute exposure to 309 ppmv CH2Cl2 would be an unlikely cause

of death unless there was ventricular fibrillation by sensitization of the
myocardium from endogenously released adrenaline. This solvent’s 100%
vapor density is much greater than air, and a pocket or stratified vapor
layer in the air would have a much greater concentration. The average
vapor or gas concentration is very misleading when investigating confined
spaces where gas and vapor pockets with very high concentrations can
occur. For example, if there were a spill, and the worker fell striking his
head and became unconscious, his breathing zone is now in a pocket of
highly enriched vapor. Death would ensue if he did not regain conscious-
ness, and he was not rescued. Clearly, in this example, OSHA’s confined
space entry standard was not in effect. His foreseeable death was fully
preventable.

259. A welder was exposed to 260 mcg Pb/m3 for 75 minutes while burning
bolts, 38 mcg Pb/m3 for 3 hours and 19 minutes when welding painted steel,
and 560 mcg Pb/m3 for 27 minutes when using abrasive blaster to remove
lead-containing paint from steel prior to welding. The balance of his 8-hour
exposure was 1.5 mcg Pb/m3. What was his 8-hour TWAE?

Job C (mg Pb/m3) × T (minutes) = CT (mcg/m3-minutes)

Burning 260 × 75 = 19,500
Welding 38 × 199 = 7562
Blasting 560 × 27 = 15,120
Other 1.5 × 179 = 269
480 = 42,451

42,451mcg Pb/m 3 − minutes 88.4 mcg Pb

=
480 minutes m3

Answer: Eight-hour TWAE to lead dust and fume is 88.4 mcg Pb/m3. This
exceeds OSHA’s PEL by about 77%. Implement the OSHA lead standard
(29 CFR 1910.1025).

260. A 10-pound chunk of calcium carbide fell into an open 55-gallon drum of
water in a room with inside dimensions of 10' × 12' × 12'. The room had no
ventilation, but there was a small candle burning in a corner. There was
quantitative conversion of calcium carbide into acetylene gas. Could there be
an explosion? Disregard any solubility of the acetylene in water. Other than
drum and candle, assume the room is empty. Respective molecular weights
of acetylene and calcium carbide are 64.1 and 26.04 grams/gram-mole.

CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2 ↑

10 lb × 453.59 g/lb = 4535.9 grams of calcium carbide

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725 Problems with Solutions 113

4535.9 grams CaC2

= 70.76 moles of CaC2
64.1grams/mole

Therefore, 70.76 moles of acetylene gas were generated and released into
the air.

70.76 moles C2H2 × 26.04 grams/mole = 1842.67 grams C2H2

10' × 12' × 12' = 1440 ft3 × (28.32 L/ft3) = 40,781 L = 40.78 m3

(1,842,670 mg/40.78 m 3 ) × 24.45 L/g-mol

= 42,427 ppm acetylene gas
26.04 g/g-mol

Answer: The average concentration of acetylene gas in the room is 4.24%.

The LEL−UEL range for acetylene gas in air is one of the widest of all
hydrocarbon gases: 2.5−80%. Although the concentration is toward the
lower end of the explosive range for acetylene, this room will be blown to
kingdom come. Leave pronto!

261. A railroad tank car containing 9 tons of liquid chlorine de-rails, tips, rup-
tures, and spills its contents into a drainage ditch that is parallel to the right-
of-way. A very light, hot summer breeze evaporates some liquid Cl2 into a
gas cloud that is about 1.3 miles long, 0.67 mile wide, and 200 feet high.
What is the average Cl2 gas concentration in this cloud? Assume 20% of the
liquid chlorine in the ditch evaporates before the remaining liquid chlorine
is contained by the emergency response team.

1.3 miles × (5280 feet/mile) = 6864 feet

0.67 mile × (5280 feet/mile) = 3538 feet

200' × 6864' × 3538' = 4.857 × 109 ft3 × (28.32 L/ft3) = 1.376 × 1011 liters
= 1.376 × 108 m3

2000 lb 453.59 grams 1000 mg

9 tons × × × × 0.20 = 1.633 × 109 mg Cl 2
ton lb gram

((1.633 × 109 mg Cl 2 )/(1.376 × 108 m 3 )) × (24.45 L/gram-mole)

70.9 grams/gram-mole
= 4.1 ppm v Cl 2

Answer: The mean concentration of chlorine gas in this cloud is 4.1 ppmv.
However, while this type of calculation is helpful for air pollution and com-
munity risk assessment purposes, a much greater concentration exists close

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114 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

to the spill that is subject to the prevailing meteorological conditions. This

would help determine gas diffusion parameters in x, y, and z planes and
expected concentrations at selected points away from the spill. A coeffi-
cient of prayer >1 should be factored into this equation if this gas release
was upwind and near a residential community, school, nursing home, or
hospital.

262. Air was to be sampled through a midget impinger containing 15 mL dis-

tilled water for a specified time at 1.09 L/min. The barometric pressure is
760 mm Hg. The ambient temperature is 14°F. The laboratory analytical
detection limit is 320,000 particles/mL. How long should one sample take
to determine 20% of a 30 mppcf airborne dust concentration?

Answer: Sample until the water freezes in the impinger (that will happen
in a minute or so)! Add NaCl, MeOH, or IPA to lower the freezing point of
air-sampling liquid. If this is done, the following calculations apply:
320,000 particles
× 15mL = 4, 800, 000 particles
mL
6 × 106 particles ft 3 211,684 particles
20% of 30 mppcf = 3
× =
ft 28.32 L liter
4, 800, 000 particles
= 22.66 liters
211, 864 particles/liter
22.66 liters
= 20.7 minutes
1.09 Lpm

263. The formula Q = 0.75 V (10 X2 + A) is used for calculations involving which
type of exhaust hood?
a. Slot hood without a flange and an aspect ratio of 0.2 or less
b. Slot hood with flange and aspect ratio of 0.2 or less
c. Plain opening hood without flange with aspect ratio of 0.2 or greater or
round without flange
d. Plain opening hood with flange and aspect ratio of 0.2 or greater or
round hood without flange
e. Circular canopy hood for hot gases, smoke, fumes, steam
f. Plain multiple slot opening hood with two or more slots and an aspect
ratio of 0.2 or greater
g. All sheet metal hoods, but not for flexible duct hoods

Answer: d.

264. What is the expected capture velocity 8 inches in front of a 2.5'' × 3'' flanged
slot hood with a slot velocity of 2000 fpm?
The basic equation for air flow for a flanged slot with an aspect ratio of
2.5''/36'' = 0.07 is Q = 2.6 LVX, where Q = air volume rate, L = slot length,
V = capture velocity, and X = distance in front of the hood face.

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725 Problems with Solutions 115

2.5 "× 36 " 2000 feet 1250 ft 3

Q = A×V = × =
144 in 2 /ft 2 minute minute

Q 1250 cfm 239 feet

V = = =
2.6 × L × X 2.6 × 3' × 0.67' minute

265. Five grams of mothball crystals (p-dichlorobenzene) remain in an empty

dresser drawer after the sweaters had been removed. The drawer is
19'' × 11'' × 28". The molecular weight of DCB is 147 grams/gram-mole.
DCB vapor pressure is 0.4 mm Hg at 75°F. What is the vapor concentra-
tion in the closed drawer expressed in mg/m3? How many milligrams of
DCB vapor are in air of the drawer? The OSHA PEL for DCB is 75 ppmv.
Assuming toxicokinetics of DCB in humans are similar to those in a moth,
is the moth excessively exposed?

0.4 mm Hg
× 106 = 526 ppm of DCB vapor at saturation
760 mm Hg

mg ppm × molecular weight 526 ppm × 147 3162 mg DCB

= = =
m3 24.45 L/g-mole 24.45 m3

19 "× 11"× 28 " 28.32 L m3

3 3
× 3
× = 0.0959 M3
(1728 in /ft ) ft 1000 L

3162 mg
× 0.0959 m 3 = 303milligrams of DCB
m3

Answers: 3162 mg DCB/m3. 303 mg DCB vapor. Yes.

266. The weighted average velocity pressure in a duct exhausting standard air is
0.84" wg. What is the duct’s air velocity?

V = 4005 × VP = 4005 × 0.84 = 3671fpm

Answer: 3671 feet per minute.

267. An exhaust duct static pressure is 1.34" wg. The total system pressure
is −0.63" wg. What is the standard air velocity pressure? What is the duct
velocity?
Since this is an exhaust duct, the static pressure is negative, or −1.34" wg.

SP + VP = TP

VP = TP a SP

VP = −0.63" − (−1.34") = 0.71"

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116 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Note: VP is always positive.

V = 4005 × VP = 4005 × 0.71 = 3375 feet per minute

Answer: Velocity pressure is 0.71" wg. Duct velocity is 3375 fpm.

268. A 14" internal diameter duct has an average duct velocity of 3160 fpm. What
is the duct’s volumetric flow rate?

π × (7" × 7") 3160 ft 3378 ft 3

Q = A×V = × =
144 in 2 /ft 2 minute minute

Answer: 3378 cubic feet of air are exhausted each minute.

269. Standard dry air at 70°F and 29.92" barometric pressure has a mass of
a. 0.13 lb/ft3
b. 0.013 lb/ft3
c. 22.4 lb/1000 ft3
d. 0.003 grains/ft3
e. 0.130 lb/1000 ft3
f. 0.075 lb/ft3

Answer: f.

270. The LEL for most combustible gases and vapors is normally constant up
to about 250°F. What approximation factor is usually applied above these
temperatures to account for the change in the LEL?
a. 0.3
b. 0.5
c. 0.7
d. 0.9
e. 1.3
f. 1.5

Answer: c.

271. An empty 47' × 166' × 20' building is supplied with outdoor air at 7300 cfm.
How many air changes occur hourly? How many minutes are required per
air change? How many cubic feet are supplied per square foot of floor area?
The ceiling height is 20 feet. Forty-seven people will work in this single-
story building. What is the outdoor air ventilation rate per person if 90% of
the air is recirculated?

7300 cfm × 60 minutes/hour = 438,000 cfh

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725 Problems with Solutions 117

438,000 cfh
= 2.8 air changes/hour
47' × 166' × 20'

60 minutes/hour
= 21.4 minutes/air change
2.8air changes/hour

7300 cfm
= 0.94 cfm/ft 2
47 ft × 166 ft

0.1 × 7300 cfm 15.5 ft 3 /minute

=
47 occupants occupant

Answers: 2.8 air changes per hour. 21.4 minutes per air change. 0.94 cfm
per ft2 of floor area. 15.5 cubic feet of outside air per minute per worker/
occupant.

272. Industrial hygienists rarely prescribe canopy hoods because of their often
poor performance, and because these hoods are vulnerable to cross drafts.
One engineering equation used to design such hoods, however, is
a. Q = 1.4 PDV
b. Q = (LWH/2) × V
c. Q = Ce × SPh × V
d. Q = V (5 X2 + A)
e. Q = π CLW

Answer: a. Where P = the tank’s perimeter, in feet. D is the vertical dis-

tance between the tank edge and the bottom edge of the canopy, in feet. V
is the design capture velocity (fpm) and can range from as low as 50 fpm in
undisturbed locations to 500 fpm or higher when moderate cross drafts and
thermal convection air currents are disruptive to capture. Canopy hoods
are generally contraindicated because workers leaning over the tank are
in a vapor and/or a mist cloud originating from the source and ascending
to the canopy hood. They can be excellent for humidity control of steamy
sources.

273. If 1000 cfm are needed to capture air contaminants 6 in from a hood’s face,
what exhaust air volume is needed to capture contaminants 12 inches from
hood’s face?
a. 500 cfm
b. 1000 cfm
c. 2000 cfm
d. 4000 cfm
e. 9000 cfm
f. 16,000 cfm

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118 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Answer: d. Air volume varies as the square of the distance from the air
contaminant source. This points out the importance of placing the exhaust
hood face as close as possible to the source of air pollutants. Exhaust vol-
ume is conserved, and more effective capture is achieved. Tempered make-
up air requirements are greatly reduced.

274. A side draft exhaust hood with face dimensions of 32" × 50" has an average
face velocity of 110 fpm. What volume of air is exhausted by this hood?
What will be the average face velocity if the hood opening is reduced to
26" × 40"?

32" × 50" 1222 ft 3

2 2
× 110 fpm =
144 in /ft minute
26" × 40"
New area = = 7.2 ft 2
144 in 2 /ft 2
1222 cfm
V =Q×A= = 170 fpm
7.2 ft 2

Answer: 1222 cfm. The hood capture velocity increased to 170 fpm by
slightly reducing the opening and improving the process enclosure.

275. Static pressure at fan inlet of an exhaust system is −2.75" H2O. Static pres-
sure at the fan outlet is 0.25". The internal diameter of the exhaust duct at
the fan inlet is an odd size: 23". The system exhausts 4000 cfm. What is the
fan’s static pressure?

23" diameter duct = (π r 2)/144 in2/ft2 = 2.885 ft2

4000 cfm 1836 ft

Fan inlet velocity, V = =
2.885ft 2 minute
V2 (1386)2
VP = = = 0.12 "
(4005)2 (4005)2

Fan SP = SPin + SPout a VPin = 2.75" + 0.25" − 0.12" = 2.88"

Answer: 2.88 inches of water. This is used to select appropriate fan from
commercial fan tables and catalogues.

276. An exhaust system operates at 19,400 cfm. A hood is added to the system
that requires a total system capacity of 23,700 cfm. By how much should fan
speed be increased to handle the extra exhaust volume? Let Q1 be original
exhaust volume, and Q2 is new exhaust volume.

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725 Problems with Solutions 119

Q2 rpm 2 23, 700 cfm

Since CFM varies directly with fan rpm: = = = 1.22.
Q1 rpm1 19, 400 cfm
Answer: Increase fan speed by 22%, that is, multiply the fan rpm × 1.22.
Caution: Ensure that the maximum fan rpm and safety-rated tip speed are
not exceeded to prevent the shattering of fan blades producing shrapnel. This
information is available from the fan manufacturer or distributor. Normally,
such safety information is located on a metal tag attached to the motor or fan
housing.

277. In the preceding problem, what is the required increase in fan horsepower
to handle the increased air volume?
Fan horsepower varies as the cube of the fan speed and cube of fan vol-
ume. Therefore, the required ratio of increase in the fan speed (rpm) is
3
 23,700 cfm 
 19,400 cfm  = 1.82
 

Answer: The required ratio of the increase in the fan horsepower is 1.82.
This is an 82% increase in the energy requirements for only a 22% increase
in fan volume and speed. Caution: be certain that the fan horsepower rating
is ample. Check the motor plate for specifications and maximum operating
capacity. Consult a professional electrician.

278. A ventilation system was designed to exhaust 17,500 cfm at a static pressure
of 3.46" at the fan inlet. A static pressure reading at the fan inlet is 2.66" 2
years after the system was installed. What is the present exhaust volume?
What’s up?

SPnow 2.66 "

Qnow = Qthen × = 17, 500 cfm × = 17, 500 cfm × 0.877
SPnow 3.46 "
= 15, 348 cfm

17, 500 cfm − 15, 348 cfm = 2152 cfm

Answer: System volume decreased 2152 cfm, or about 12%. Diagnosis

could include dirty filters and ducts, slipping fan belt, sticking dampers,
corrosion and holes in system (air shunting), and plugged or dirty heat
exchange coils. Note the exhaust volume varies as square of static pressure
at the fan inlet, whereas exhaust volume varies directly as the fan revolu-
tions and as the cube of the horsepower.

279. What is the discharge air volume from a 50-foot high plant with a 30 ft2 out-
let in the roof and a 35 ft2 inlet at the ground level if the outdoor temperature
is 20°F and the discharge air temperature is 75°F (Δt = 55°F)?

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120 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

ASHRAE provides a convenient formula to estimate “chimney” or

“stack effect” ventilation due to temperature differentials existing between
the floor of a building and its roof outlet:

Q (cfm) = 9.4 × A × h × t in − tout ,

where
A = total inlet or discharge area (ft2) at ground or ceiling (use the smaller
of the two)
h = distance between inlet and outlet, ft
tin = air inlet temperature, °F
tout = air outlet temperature, °F

Q = 9.4 × 30 ft 2 × 50' × 75°F − 20°F = 14, 788 cfm

Answer: About 14,800 cfm are naturally exhausted due to thermal gradi-
ent demonstrating large volumes of natural ventilation result from differ-
ences in temperature forces alone. For example, it has been estimated, in
some steel mills, 600 tons of air is naturally exhausted for every ton of
steel produced.

280. A 10-inch diameter circular air supply duct is blowing air at 4200 feet per
minute (fpm) as measured at the discharge point. What general quantitative
statement applies regarding air velocity (“throw”) at some distance away
from the duct outlet?
Answer: The velocity 30 duct diameters away is about 10% of the discharge
velocity. That is, in this case, 30 duct diameters = 30 × 10" = 300" = 25 feet.
The air velocity at this distance reduces to nearly 420 fpm if there are no
significant cross drafts.

281. A low circular canopy hood is positioned over a circular tank containing
water at 180°F. Distance between the tank and hood is less than 3 feet. If
the room air temperature is 70°F and tank diameter is 4 ft, what is the total
air flow rate required for this hood to capture the water vapor?

Q = 4.7 × ( D)2.33 × (T )0.42 ,

where
Q = total hood air flow, cfm
D = hood diameter, feet (add 1 ft to source diameter)
T = difference between the temperature of the hot source of air contami-
nants and the ambient temperature, °F

Q = 4.7 × (4'+1')2.23 × (180°F − 70°F )0.42 = 4.7 × (5)2.23 × (110)0.42

= 4.7 × 36.2 × 7.2 = 1225 cfm

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725 Problems with Solutions 121

Answer: 1225 ft3 of air per minute. Fan selection must be based on ther-
mally expanded air volume and the air temperature existing at the inlet of
the fan.

282. What is the approximate capture velocity 12 inches away from an un-flanged
one-foot diameter duct exhausting air at a duct velocity of 3600 fpm?
Answer: A rule of thumb is the capture velocity one duct diameter away
from an un-flanged exhaust opening is about 10% of the duct velocity or, in
this case, 360 fpm.

283. To ensure uniform capture and air distribution that is applicable to

most exhaust hoods, a maximum plenum velocity should be no more
than % of the slot velocity.
a. 10%
b. 30%
c. 50%
d. 75%
e. 110%
f. 150%
Answer: c. For example, the maximum plenum velocity for a 2000 fpm
slot hood should not exceed 1000 fpm. This is a good choice for uniform air
flow across the slot and a moderate pressure drop. If, during design, calcu-
lated plenum velocity is too high (i.e., >50% of the design slot velocity), the
size of the plenum must be increased—that is, the depth must be increased
to slow the air velocity down in the plenum.

284. A standard bench grinder hood has a coefficient of entry of 0.78. A piece of
string wrapped around the take-off exhaust duct to measure the circumfer-
ence was 16". The throat static pressure of the hood is −2.75". What volume
of air is exhausted by this hood—that is, what is the volumetric flow rate in
cfm, standard air?

Q (cfm ) = 4005 × A × Ce × SP ,

where
A = cross section area of duct at throat, ft2
Ce = coefficient of hood entry
SP = static pressure at hood throat, inches of water

Duct circumference = 2 × π × r = 16"

16 "
r = = 2.55 inches
2×π

Therefore, the internal duct diameter = 5" (a standard size—the true duct
radius = 2.5 inches).

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122 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

π × (2.5 ")2
A= = 0.136 ft 2
(144 in 2 /ft 2 )

ppm return air − ppm mixed air

% outdoor air = × 100
ppm return air − ppm outdoor air
750 ppm − 650 ppm 100 ppm
= × 100 = × 100 = 28.6%
750 ppm − 400 ppm 350 ppm

285. In general, the addition of a flange to an exhaust system hood opening

improves air contaminant capture by about percent.
a. 15%
b. 25%
c. 40%
d. 60%
e. 75%
Answer: b. Alternatively, at equal capture velocities, the flange decreases
the air flow rate by about 25%. Typically, the width of the flange should be
equal or exceed 25% of the square root of the hood’s face area. In other
words, a hood is 5' × 6' = 30 ft2. 0.25 [(30 ft2)0.5] ≅ 1.4 feet. This applies to a
free-standing exhaust hood. If this hood rests on the floor, the floor acts as
a boundary layer. Accordingly, exhaust volume might be reduced, and the
flange can be 25% smaller, or 1.4' × 0.75 = 1.05'. Ensure the flange edges
are guarded with a soft material to prevent cuts and other injuries. Splitting
a garden hose longitudinally and placing over sharp metal or plastic edges
works. Alternatively, consider a flexible soft rubber flange.

286. A duct velocity of 3740 feet per minute is equivalent to what velocity
pressure?
The basic equation is

V = 4005 × VP.

V = duct velocity of standard air (0% humidity, 70" F, and 29.92" Hg), fpm
VP = velocity pressure, inches water gauge

Rearranging:

2 2
 V   3740 fpm 
VP =  = = 0.872 inch of water
 4005   4005 fpm 

Answer: This velocity pressure equals 0.872" H2O assuming standard air
is transferred. Standard air is defined as air at 0% relative humidity, 29.92"
Hg, and 70°F. We often refer to the “volume” of air that is being transferred.

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725 Problems with Solutions 123

What we really should state is the “volumetric flow rate,” for example, cubic
feet of air per minute, cfm.

287. A ventilation system supplies air through five branch ducts. The system
delivers 15,000 cfm, and another duct will be added to increase the total
supply volume to 17,000 cfm. The static pressure at the fan discharge is
0.59". The static pressure in the main duct where the branch is to be added
is 0.38". What are the new static pressures at the fan discharge and at the fan
inlet plenum?
Calculate new SP drop in the main duct from the fan to the new connection:

17, 000 cfm

× (0.59 " − 0.38 ") = 1.065 × 0.21 = 0.22 " H 2 O
15, 000 cfm

New SP at fan discharge = 0.38" H2O + 0.22" H2O" = 0.6" H2O

17, 000 cfm

New static pressure at fan inlet plenum = × 0.30" = 0.34"H 2 O
15, 000 cfm

Answers: 0.22" is the new static pressure drop at new duct. 0.50" is new
static pressure at the fan discharge. 0.34" is the new static pressure at the
fan inlet. The required increase in fan rpm and horsepower can now be
obtained from fan performance catalogues.

288. A five horsepower fan motor exhausts 3250 cfm. Amperes measured on the
circuit are 9.8. The fan motor’s rated amps are 13.2 for five horsepower at
220 volts. What will be the new air volume if the fan speed is increased to
fully load the motor at five horsepower?
measured amperage
Actual horsepower = × rated horsepower
rated amperage
9.8 amps
= × 5 HP = 3.7 horsepower
13.2 amps

According to the fan laws, horsepower varies as the cube of the air vol-
ume (cfm) or the fan speed (rpm):
3
HP1 Q 
=  1
HP2  Q2 
0.333
 HP  5 HP
Q2 = Q1 ×  2  = 3250 cfm × 3 = 3592 cfm
 HP1  3.7 HP

Answer: The new volume at full five horsepower is 3592 cubic feet per
minute.

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124 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

289. What is the density of dry air at 120°F? The density of dry air at 70°F is
0.75 lb/ft3.
Air density varies with the absolute temperature. That is, the density
decreases as the air temperature increases:

0.075 lb 460° + 70°F 0.075 lb 530°A 0.0686 lb

× = × =
ft 3 460° + 120°F ft 3 580°A ft 3

Answer: The density of dry air at 120°F is 0.0686 lb/ft3.

290. In Problem 289, what is density of the air at 2000 feet elevation? The stan-
dard barometric pressure at 2000 feet is 27.80" of Hg.
The density of air (or any gas or vapor) is reduced by elevation:

0.075 lb 530o A 27.80 " Hg 0.0637 lb

× × =
ft 3 580o A 29.92 " Hg ft 3

Answer: Therefore, it can be seen that as air is heated and reduced in pres-
sure, its density is reduced by both forces. That is, air expands into a larger
volume, but it retains its original mass. Mass is conserved.

291. What happens to air density when an inlet duct is used? For example, cal-
culate the density correction for an inlet duct with a—20" inlet suction at an
atmospheric pressure of 407" H2O. Apply this to air at 120°F and 2000 feet
elevation.

407 " − 20 "

= 0.951
407 "

0.075 lb 530°A 27.80 " Hg 0.951 × 407 " 0.0605 lb

Density = × × × =
ft 3 580°A 29.92 " Hg 407 " ft 3

292. What happens to the density of dry air as water vapor is added to it?
Answer: Density of air is reduced as water vapor is added to it (as in wet
scrubber systems) because water vapor molecules weigh less than air mole-
cules. Air’s “apparent” molecular weight is 29; molecular weight of water is
18). As an example, consider water-saturated air at 120°F, 2000 feet eleva-
tion, and at 20" water suction (see Problems 289, 290, and 291):

0.0605 lb 27.80 " Hg 387 " 0.0535 lb

× × =
ft 3 29.92 " Hg 407 " ft 3

293. A fan must be selected for a 20" suction pressure at the fan inlet at an air
density of 0.0605 lb/ft3. How would you do this?

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725 Problems with Solutions 125

Since the pressure ratings of fans are based upon a standard gas den-
sity of 0.075 lb/ft3, the selection pressure must be adjusted to a density of
0.075 lb/ft3.

0.075 lb/ft 3
Fan selection static pressure = 20 " × = 24.88 "
0.0605 lb/ft 3

Answer: 24.8 in of water static pressure.

294. Minimum basic design dilution ventilation rates, respectively, for propane
fuel and gasoline fuel lift trucks are
a. 300 and 600 cfm
b. 600 and 300 cfm
c. 1000 and 2000 cfm
d. 6000 and 10,000 cfm
e. 5000 and 8000 cfm
Answer: e. This assumes regular engine maintenance program, less than
1% and 2% CO in the exhaust gas, truck operating times less than 50%,
good distribution of dilution ventilation air flow, and at least 150,000 ft3
plant volume per lift truck. See ACGIH’s Industrial Ventilation for other
conditions of maintenance, truck operation, and ventilation parameters.

295. A fan exhausts 1000 cfm of air at 600°F at a static pressure of 10" of H2O.
What is the required fan horsepower? What will be the savings in horse-
power (i.e., electricity costs) if the air is cooled to 100°F?

Fan horsepower = 0.000158 × 1000 cfm × 10" H2O = 1.58

Use Charles’ law to calculate the new air volume at 100°F:

Q (at100°F ) 100 °F + 460°

=
Q (at 600°F ) 600°F + 460°

1000 ft 3 560°A
Q (at100°F ) = × = 528 cfm,
minute 1060°A

where Q (at 100°F) denotes volume flow rate at 100°F, and (100°F + 460°)
is absolute temperature. Assuming the increase in density at the lower tem-
perature results in a negligible reduction in pressure loss, then at 100°F:

Fan horsepower = 0.000158 × 528 cfm × 10 = 0.83 HP

Answer: 0.83 horsepower that = (0.83/1.58) × 100 = 52.5% of the horse-

power required at 600°F.

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126 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

296. A paint spray booth is 7 feet high × 10' wide. Spraying is often done as far
as 5 ft in front of the booth. A nearly draft-free area requires 100 feet per
minute capture velocity at the point of spraying. Determine the required
exhaust rate.

 10 x 2 + 2 A 
Q =V 
 2 

This is a modification of classic ventilation equation that applies to a

free-standing, unobstructed hood. The above equation is applied to rectan-
gular hoods bounded on one side by a plane surface. The hood is considered
to be twice its actual size with an additional portion being mirror image of
the actual hood and the bounding plane being the bisector.

[(10)(5')2 ] + (2)(7')(10') 19, 500 ft 3

Q = 100 fpm × =
2 minute

Q (19, 500 ft 3 /minute) 280 feet

Hood face velocity = = =
A 7' × 10' minute

Answer: Hood’s exhaust rate is 19,500 cfm. Average hood face velocity is
280 fpm.

297. A 28-inch diameter fan operating at 1080 rpm supplies 4700 cfm at 4.75
inches of static pressure. What size fan of the same type and series would
supply 10,900 cfm at the same static pressure?

0.333
 10, 900 cfm 
Fan diameter =   × 28 " = 37 inches
 4700 cfm 

Answer: 37-inch diameter is an odd dimension. A 36", 38", or 40" diam-

eter fan would most likely be available from most fan manufacturers and
distributors.

298. A fan exhausts 600°F air from a drier at 12,000 cfm. Density of this air is
0.0375 lb/ft3 (because of its high water vapor content). The static pressure
at the dryer’s discharge is 4 inches of water. The fan speed is 630 rpm. The
fan uses 13 horsepower. What is the required horsepower if 70°F air is
exhausted?

0.075 lb/ft 3
HP = 13 HP × = 26 HP
0.0375 lb/ft 3

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725 Problems with Solutions 127

Answer: 26 horsepower are required. If only a 15-horsepower fan, for

example, was in this system requiring 26 HP, it would be necessary to use
damper when starting “cold” to prevent electrically overloading the fan
motor. Always ensure the installation of a fan with sufficient horsepower to
handle the system requirements. The cost of installing a slightly larger fan
can often be justified at initial installation since future system modifications
can be anticipated (e.g., adding another hood to the exhaust system or a col-
lector with a higher static pressure drop).

299. Assume that there are 63,000,000 automobiles in the United States and that
each uses an average of 3 gallons of gasoline every day. Further assume
that there are no gasoline vapor recovery systems when the car’s fuel tank
is filled and that each gallon of gasoline pumped to the fuel tank displaces a
gallon of saturated gasoline vapor. If the average molecular weight of gaso-
line is taken as approximately 72 grams gram-mole−1, and average vapor
pressure of gasoline is 130 mm Hg, how many tons of gasoline vapors are
evaporated and enter the atmosphere by filling automobile fuel tanks every
year in the United States? Assume that the national average barometric
pressure for high-density population areas is 740 mm Hg, and that the aver-
age temperature for these areas is 50°F.

130 mm Hg
× 106 = 175, 676 ppm gasoline vapor at saturation
740 mm Hg

mg ppm × molecular weight 175, 676 × 72 530, 343 mg

= = =
m3 23.85 L/g-mole at 50°F 23.85 m3
530.34 g
=
m3

530.34 g lb m3 0.1337 ft 3 0.0044225 lb

3
× × 3
× =
m 454 g 35.315 ft gallon gallon

0.0044225 lb 3 gallons/day 365.25 days

× × × 63, 000, 000 automobiles
gallon automobile year
3.053 × 108 lb ton 152, 648 tons
= × =
year 2000 lb year

Answer: Approximately 150,000 tons of gasoline vapor per year. This

crude estimate does not consider evaporative hydrocarbon losses from
trucks, airplanes, locomotives, and so on. Nor are hydrocarbon emissions
that result from careless overfilling of tanks, refining, filling storage tanks,
trucks, and so on considered in this simplified accounting. Noel De Nevers

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128 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

in his Air Pollution Control Engineering (McGraw-Hill, 1995, p. 287) esti-

mated 400,000 gallons “lost” to the United States (Earth’s) atmosphere
daily from gasoline vapor displacement emissions.
The average density of gasoline is 6.073 lb/U.S. gallon.

152,648 tons/year (author’s calculation) × 2000 lbs/ton

= 305,296,000 lbs/year.

(305,296,000 lbs/year)/6.073 lbs/gallon = 5,027,036 gallons/year. My

estimate is much higher than De Never’s pointing out the difficulties in
estimating these and similar emissions on an annual basis for any number
of stated assumptions.

300. A bizarre analytical chemist found that the average concentration of butyric
acid in an adult tennis shoe was 4.7 micrograms after wearing it for a basket-
ball game. What is the concentration of butyric acid existing in an unven-
tilated empty gymnasium locker after evaporating from a pair of stinky
shoes? The locker is 12" × 12" × 66". The molecular weight of butyric acid
is 88.11 grams/gram-mole.

4.7 mcg BA
× two shoes = 9.4 micrograms of butyric acid vapor
shoe

12 " × 12 " × 66 " 28.32 L

× = closed locker volume = 155.8 L
(1728 in 3 /ft 3 ) ft 3

(mcg/L) × (24.45 L/g-mole) (9.4 mcg/155.8 L) × 24..45

ppm = =
88.1 g/g-mole 88.1
= 0.0167 ppm BA

Answer: 16.7 parts of butyric acid vapor per billion parts of stale locker
air. Phew!! Odor threshold for butyric acid (0.0006 ppmv = 0.6 ppbv—a
stench) is considerably less. Butyric acid and butyraldehyde are found in
rancid butter and putrefying animal fatty acids. Not surprisingly, neither
have a TLV or a OSHA PEL because their horrid odor limits exposure to
less than reversible toxic effects. Tibetan monks have burned animal butter
fat candles in caves for centuries with apparently no adverse health effects.

301. Silica sand and steel shot are used in an abrasive blasting cabinet to remove
lead-containing paint, cadmium plating, plutonium–mercury–beryllium
alloy, and osmium tetroxide from arsenic–nickel castings! The interior
dimensions of this cabinet are 3.5' × 3.5' × 4.5'. The total area of openings
into the cabinet is 1.7 ft2. What is the required exhaust rate if no less than
500 fpm face capture velocity is used? What is the exhaust rate if no less
than 20 air changes per minute are necessary in the cabinet?

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725 Problems with Solutions 129

Q = A × V = 1.7 ft2 × 500 fpm = 850 cfm

Q required for 20 air changes/minute = 20 × booth volume = 20 × (3.5' ×

3.5′ × 4.5′) = 103 cfm.
Recalculating face capture velocity using the larger of the two exhaust
volumes:

V = Q/A = 1103 cfm/1.7 ft2 = 649 fpm

Answer: 850 and 1103 cfm. Use the larger of these. Give very careful atten-
tion to the engineering control of dust emissions in the exhaust air. Perhaps
use of ultra-high efficiency bag filters connected in series (and in parallel
for system maintenance) should be considered. Maybe the baghouse filter
housings should be in separate exhausted enclosures each with their inde-
pendent dust collection and absolute containment systems. Maintenance
of these systems is a consummate challenge to ensure superior industrial
hygiene control work and engineering practices.

302. Two duct branches in an exhaust ventilation system have greatly different
static pressures at their union. Balance could be achieved by increasing
the flow in the branch with the lower loss. The air volume for the smaller
branch is 580 cfm. The static pressure calculated for branch is –1.75". The
static pressure for combined branches at the junction is –3.5". What is cor-
rected exhaust air volume for this branch?
Since pressure losses increase as the square of the volume, increase the
air flow through the branch with the lower resistance:

SPjunction −3.5 "

Qnew = Qcalc × = 580 cfm ×
SPbranch −1.75 "
820 ft 3
= 580 cfm × 2 =
minute

Answer: The new ventilation volume rate in the smaller branch is 820 cfm.

303. A sulfur-bearing fuel oil is burned in a combustion process using 20%

excess air. Analysis of the oil is (% by weight): 88.3% carbon, 9.5% hydro-
gen, 1.6% sulfur, 0.10% ash, and 0.05% water. Assuming 4% conversion
of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide, what is the required amount of com-
bustion air and the total concentration of sulfur oxides in the stack flue
gases? What is the ash concentration in the flue gases at 12% CO2 assuming
complete combustion? This fuel oil has a theoretical dry air combustion
requirement of 176.3 standard cubic feet (scf) per pound. The combustion
requirement is 177.6 scf at 40% relative humidity and 60°F per pound of
this fuel oil.

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130 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Use 1 pound of this fuel as the basis for your calculations.

Theoretical combustion air requirement:

C + O2 → CO2 ↑ (0.883 lb) (32/12) = 2.35 lb of O2

H2 + 1/2 O2 → H2O ↑ (0.095 lb) (16/2) = 0.076 lb O2
S + O2 → SO2 ↑ (0.016) (32/32) = 0.016 lb O2

2.35 lb O2 + 0.76 lb O2 + 0.016 lb O2 = 3.13 lb O2 per pound of fuel

2.35 lb 176.3ft 3
for CO2 : × = 132.4 scf of air
3.13 lb lb oil

0.76 lb 176.3ft 3
for H 2 : × = 42.8scf of air
3.13 lb lb oil

0.016 lb 176.3ft 3
for S: × = 0.90 scf of air
3.13 lb lb oil

Air requirements at 20% excess combustion air:

176.3 scf × 1.2 = 212 scf dry air/lb of oil

177.7 scf × 1.2 = 213 scf moist air/lb of oil

Combustion products:

(0.883 lb CO2) (44/12) (379 scf/44 lb/mole) = 27.9 scf CO2

(0.095 lb H2O) (18/2) (379 scf/18 lb/mole) = 18.0 scf H2O from combustion

(0.0005 lb H2O) (379 scf/18) = 0.011 scf from water in fuel

Nitrogen: (212 scf) (0.79) = 167.5 scf

Water in air at 40% relative humidity and 60°F:

(0.0072 scf/scf air) (213 scf) = 1.5 scf H2O

Sulfur oxides as SO2: (0.016) (64/32) (379/64) = 0.19 scf SO2

Oxygen: (176.3 scf) (1.20 − 1.00) (0.21) = 7.4 scf

Total scf of combustion products: 27.9 + 18.0 + 0.011 + 167.5 + 1.5 +

0.19 + 7.4 = 222.3 scf

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725 Problems with Solutions 131

SO2 concentration:

(0.016) (379/32) (1/222.3) (106) (0.96) = 818 ppmv SO2

SO3 concentration:

(0.016) (379/32) (1/222.3) (106) (0.04) = 34 ppmv SO3

Flue ash concentration:

(0.001 lb) (7000 grains/lb) (1/222.3) = 0.0315 grain/scf

Answers: 213 scf of moist air per pound of fuel oil. 818 ppmv SO2, 34 ppm
SO3, and 0.0315 grain per standard cubic foot of air.

304. BZ air was sampled for total barley dust at 1.8 L/m for 5 hours, 40 minutes
with a 37 mm MCE MF with respective pre-sampling and post-sampling
weights of 33.19 and 38.94 mg. What was the grain silo filler’s 8-hour
TWAE exposure to respirable dust if 85 mass-percent was nonrespirable?

5 hours, 40 minutes = 340 minutes

1.8 L/m × 340 minutes = 612 L = 0.612 m3

38.94 mg − 33.19 mg = 5.75 mg

5.75 mg/0.612 m3 = 9.4 mg/m3 TWAE (assuming 340 minutes represented

an 8-hour exposure)

340 minutes × 9.4 mg/m3 = 3196 mg/m3-minutes

+ 140 minutes × 0 mg/m3 = 0 mg/m3-minutes

480 minutes 3196 mg/m3-minutes

3196 mg/m3-minutes/480 minutes = 6.7 mg/m3 8-hour TWAE

15% mass respirable:

9.4 mg/m3 × 0.15 = 1.4 mg/m3 respirable

6.7 mg/m3 × 0.15 = 1.0 mg/m3 respirable

Grain dust TLV (oats, wheat, barley) = 4 mg/m3

Answers: 9.4 mg/m3 TWAE to total barley dust assuming the 340-minute
dust exposure represented 8-hour exposure. 6.7 mg/m3 assuming balance of
loader’s exposure was essentially dust-free. 1.4 mg/m3 TWAE and 1.0 mg/
m3 TWAE as respirable dust for 340-minute and 8-hour exposures, respec-
tively (total airborne BZ dust, i.e., grain, silica, silicates, pesticides, insect
parts, microbes, endotoxins, spores, ad nauseum).

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132 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

305. Air was sampled for HCl gas (MW = 36.45 grams/gram-mole) in 15 mL of
impinger solution at 0.84 L/m for 17 minutes, 20 seconds. The HCl collec-
tion efficiency was 80%. A chemist analyzed 4.7 mcg Cl/mL in the sample
and 0.3 mcg/mL in control blank impinger. What was the steel pickler’s
exposure in ppmv?

17 minutes, 20 seconds = 17.33 minutes

0.84 L/m × 17.33 minutes = 14.56 L

Correcting for collection efficiency: 4.7 mcg Cl/mL/0.8 = 5.88 mcg Cl/mL

Correcting for control blank: 5.88 mcg Cl/mL − 0.3 mcg Cl/mL
= 5.58 mcg Cl/mL

5.58 mcg Cl/mL × 15 mL = 83.7 mcg Cl

83.7 mcg Cl × (36.45/35.45) = 86.06 mcg HCl

(mcg/L) × (24.45 L/g-mole) (86.06 mcg/14.56 L) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecular weight 36.45
= 4.0 ppm

Answer: 4 ppmv HCl gas ACGIH TLV for HCl is 2 ppmv (C). Control inter-
vention is required.

306. Determine the 8-hour TWAE of a scrap metal processor to Pb dust and
fume with exposures of 3 hours, 15 minutes to 17 mcg Pb/m3; 97 minutes
to 565 mcg Pb/m3; and 2 hours, 10 minutes to 46 mcg Pb/m3. The worker
wore an approved HEPA dust/fume/mist filter cartridge respirator for
5- 12 hours.

Concentration (C) × time (T) = dose (CT) (Haber’s law)

17 mcg Pb/m3 × 195 minutes = 3315 mcg/m3-minutes
565 mcg Pb/m3 × 97 minutes = 54,805 mcg/m3-minutes
46 mcg Pb/m3 × 130 minutes = 5980 mcg/m3-minutes
422 64,100 mcg/m3-minutes

OSHA Pb PEL = 50 mcg/m3 × 480 minutes = 24,000 mcg/m3-minutes

64,100 mcg/m3/minutes/24,000 mcg/m3-minutes = 2.67 × PEL

64,100 mcg/m3/480 minutes = 133.5 mcg Pb/m3 TWAE

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725 Problems with Solutions 133

If we assume the balance of the 8-hour work shift was “zero” exposure:

(422 minutes/480 minutes) × 133.5 mcg/m3 = 117.4 mcg Pb/m3 TWAE

Answers: TWAE = 133.5 mcg Pb/m3, or 2.67 × the PEL. Assuming the
balance of the work shift was “zero” exposure: TWAE = 117.4 mcg Pb/m3.

307. A 7000-gallon storage tank in Albuquerque where the barometric pressure is

640 mm Hg contains 2000 gallons of chlorobenzene. Chlorobenzene vapor
pressure is 12 mm Hg at 70°F. The molecular weight of DCB is 112.6 grams/
gram-mole. What is the vapor saturation concentration in ppmv, %, and
mg/m3? What does chlorobenzene smell like? What is its reported odor
threshold?

12 mm Hg
× 106 = 18,750 ppm = 1.875%
640 mm Hg

mg ppm × molecular weight 18,750 × 112.6 86, 350 mg

= = =
m3 24.45 24.45 m3

Answers: 18,750 ppmv. 1.875%. 86,350 mg chlorobenzene vapor/m3. The

odor threshold (detection, not necessarily recognition) for chlorobenzene
vapor is reported as 1.3 ppmv. Chlorobenzene is reported to smell like
almonds. Almonds smell like what? Why, chlorobenzene, of course!

308. A chemical plant operator had the following 8-hour TWAEs on Monday:
32 ppmv toluene, 19 ppmv xylene, and 148 ppmv MEK. Their respective
TLVs are 50, 100, and 20 ppmv. By what percent is the additive exposure
limit exceeded?

32 ppm v 19 ppm v 148 ppm v

+ + = 8.23 (no units)
50 ppm v 100 ppm v 20 ppm v

Answer: 823% in excess of the TLV, or about 16.5 times the action level of
0.5.

309. Air in an empty room (20' × 38' × 12') contains 600 ppmv cyclohexene
vapor. How long will it take to dilute this to 6 ppmv with a 1550 cfm vane-
axial exhaust fan? K factor = 3.

t = ? to Co → C

600 ppmv diluted to 6 ppmv

20' × 38' × 12' = 9120 ft3

2.3 room volume for 10% of Co (or 60 ppmv)

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134 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

another 2.3 room volume for 10% of previous dilution (diluted to 6 ppmv), or

2.3 volume + 2.3 volume = 4.6 volume

4.6 volume × 9120 ft3 = 41,952 ft3
minutes
41,952 ft 3 × = 27.1minutes
1550 ft 3

K estimate = 3
27.1 minutes × 3 = 81.3 minutes
Solved another way:

− ln [C /Co ] − ln[6 ppm/600 ppm] − ln 0.01

t = = =
Q /V 1550 cfm/9120 ft 3 0.17mminute
−(−4.605)
= = 27.1 minutes
0.17 minute

Answer: With perfect mixing, the concentration of 600 ppmv would dilute
to 6 ppm in 27.1 minutes. Applying the ventilation imperfect mixing factor
of 3, the dilution time increases to over 81 minutes. Verify the cyclohexene
vapor concentration is less than 10% of the TLV by air sampling before
allowing reoccupancy. The TLV is 300 ppmv.

310. 7.3 μL liquid styrene (MW = 104.2 grams/gram-mole, density = 0.91 g/mL)
was evaporated in 21.6 L glass calibration bottle. What is styrene vapor con-
centration in ppmv?

7.3 μL = 0.0073 mL
0.0073 mL × 0.91 g/mL = 0.00664 g = 6.64 mg
21.6 L = 0.0216 m3

(mg/m 3 ) × (24.45 L/g-mole) (6.64 mg/0.0216 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecular weight 104.2
= 72.1 ppm

311. A rotameter was calibrated at 25°C and 760 mm Hg (NTP). What is the
corrected air flow rate when the rotameter indicates 2 L/min at 630 mm Hg
and 33°C?

Pcal T 2 liters 760 mm Hg 306 K

Qactual = Qindicated × × field = × ×
Pfield Tcal minute 630 mm Hg 298 K
2.23 L
=
minute

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725 Problems with Solutions 135

Square root function must be used with orifice meters (e.g., rotameters
and critical orifices). This derives from orifice theory and must be used
when an air flow rate orifice functions at pressure and temperatures dif-
fering from calibration conditions. In such situations, Charles’ and Boyle’s
laws must not be applied. Displacement meters such as wet or dry test
meters do not require application of this correction equation.

312. What is the effective specific gravity of 13,000 ppmv of a gas in air when the
gas has a specific gravity of 4.6? Will the mixture stratify with the denser
gas at floor level?

13,000 ppmv = 1.3% (i.e., 98.7% air)

0.987 × 1.0 = 0.987

+ 0.013 × 4.6 = + 0.0598

1.000 = 1.0468

Answer: 1.0468 is only 4.68% greater than the density of air. No, never,
pointing out fallacy of placing exhaust air ducts at the floor level to
capture vapors “heavier than air” or near the ceiling for gases that are
“lighter than air.” Of course, in those facilities, such as a paint mixing
“kitchen,” where large volumes of organic solvents might spill, exhaust
air hoods near the floor are often advisable to capture solvent vapors as
they evaporate and to promote good ventilation mixing near the areas
where a combustible air and vapor mixture could be produced. Breathing
zone ventilation must also be provided. Total reliance on the so-called
“floor sweeps” is unacceptable.

313. Analysis of an 866 L MF air sample detected 2667 mcg Zn. How much
zinc oxide (ZnO) fume does this represent in the welder’s breathing zone?
Molecular weights of Zn and O are 65 and 16, respectively.

ZnO molecular weight = 65 + 16 = 81

81/65 = 1.246
2667 mcg Zn × 1.246 = 3323 mcg ZnO
3323 mcg ZnO/866 L = 3.84 mg ZnO/m3

314. What is air flow rate through an 8-inch diameter duct with a transport veloc-
ity of 2900 fpm? What capture velocity is expected 8 inches in front of the
duct inlet if there is a wide flange around the inlet? Without cross-drafts,
what discharge velocity is expected 20 feet from the exhaust outlet? What
is the expected reduction in capture velocity 8 inches in front of the exhaust
inlet if this wide flange is removed?

Area of circle = πr 2 = π(4")2 = 50.27 in2 = 0.349 ft2

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136 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Q = AV = (0.349 ft2) (2900 fpm) = 1012 cfm

at 8": 290 fpm (one duct diameter)
at 20': 290 fpm (30 duct diameters)
290 fpm × 0.75 = 218 fpm

Answer: 1012 cfm. 290 fpm at one duct diameter on the exhaust side of
the fan. 290 fpm at 30 duct diameters on exhaust air discharge side. Both
assume no significant disruptive ventilation cross-drafts. Capture veloc-
ity on the suction side of the fan increases up to 25% with a wide flange.
Therefore, with the absence of a wide flange, the capture velocity one duct
diameter in front of the exhaust inlet would be about 75% of the nominal
capture velocity with a flange, or 290 fpm – (290 fpm × 0.25) = 218 fpm.

315. Nine detector tube BZ air samples were obtained randomly during a work
shift with results of 2, 10, 5, 6, 2, 4, 14, 3, and 6 ppmv SO2. What are work-
er’s arithmetic mean and median exposures? Assuming air samples are
log-normally distributed, what are standard deviation and 95% confidence
range of his or her exposures?
n=9

SO2, ppmv
x log x (log x)2
2 0.301 0.0906
2 0.301 0.0906
3 0.477 0.2275
4 0.602 0.3264
5 0.699 0.4886
6 0.778 0.6053
6 0.778 0.6053
10 1.000 1.0000
14 1.146 1.3133
Σ = 52 Σ = 6.082 Σ = 4.7836

Arithmetic mean (the average) = 52 ppmv SO2/9 = 5.8 ppmv SO2

Median = antilog 6.082/9 = antilog 0.6758 = 4.5

4.7836 − (6.0822 / 9)
standard deviation = antilog
9 −1
4.7836 − 4.1101
= antilog
8
= antilog 0.0842 = antilog 0.2902 = 1.95

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725 Problems with Solutions 137

Values of the Student’s t-distribution for 95% confidence range (bilateral

test) are

Number of Measurements Degrees of Freedom t-Value

2 1 12.706
3 2 4.303
4 3 3.182
5 4 2.776
6 5 2.571
7 6 2.447
8 7 2.365
9 8 ⇒ 2.306
10 9 2.262
11 10 2.228
21 20 2.086
31 30 2.042
51 50 2.009
101 100 1.984
501 500 1.965
1001 1000 1.962
∞ ∞ 1.960

 0.0842 
95% confidence range = antilog 0.6758 ± 2.306
 9 


= antilog [0.6758 ± 2.306 (0.09670)] = antilog (0.6758 ± 0.2230)

Upper limit = antilog 0.8988 = 7.9 ppmv SO2

Lower limit = antilog 0.4528 = 2.8 ppmv SO2

Answers: Arithmetic mean = 5.8 ppmv SO2. Median = 4.5 ppmv SO2.
Standard deviation = 1.95. The 95% confidence interval range of the expo-
sures = 2.8 to 7.9 ppmv SO2.

316. A sealed 55-gallon drum containing 2 gallons of n-butylamine was in an

empty room (20' wide × 40' long × 10' high) for 3 weeks. A process opera-
tor wearing a full-face airline respirator and protective clothing finishes
filling the drum with n-butylamine. The air-tight room has no operating
ventilation during the drum filling. This plant is located in Montana at an
elevation where the barometric pressure is 680 mm Hg. Vapor pressure and
molecular weight of n-butylamine are 82 mm Hg and 73.2 grams/gram-
mole, respectively. There is a single 1550 cfm exhaust fan in 20' wall with
negative pressure-activated make-up air louver located in opposite wall.
The ventilation mixing factor, K, is estimated at 3 (unitless).

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138 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

• What is the saturation concentration of n-butylamine vapor in the drum

in ppmv and mg/m3 before it is filled?
• What is the average n-butylamine vapor concentration (in ppmv) in the
room after the drum has been filled and the bung has been tightened?
• After the full drum is sealed, how long will it take to dilute n-butylamine
vapor in the room to less than 1 ppmv by operating the exhaust fan?

82 mm Hg
× 106 = 120, 588 ppm ≅ 12%
680 mm Hg

LELv = 1.7%
UELv = 9.8%
FP = 10°F
IDLH = 2000 ppmv

ACGIH TLV, OSHA PEL, and NIOSH REL

= C 5 ppmv (C is 15 mg/m3.) SKIN

mg ppm × molecular weight 120, 588 × 73.2 361, 024 mg

= = =
m3 24.45 24.45 m3

55 gallons − 2 gallons = 53 gallons = 200.6 liters (the volume of saturated

air that is displaced into the room)

200.6 L × 361 mg/L = 72,417 mg n-butylamine vapor

20' × 40' × 10' = 8000 ft3 = 226.6 m3

72,417 mg/226.3 m3 = 320.0 mg/m3

(mcg/L) × 24.45 (320 mcg/L) × 24.45

ppm = = = 106.99 ppm
molecular weight 73.2

8000 ft3 × 2.3 room volumes = 18,400 ft3 (yields 10% of 106.9 ppmv
= 10.7 ppmv)

8000 ft3 × 4.6 room volumes = 36,800 ft3 (yields 1% of 106.9 ppm
= 1.07 ppmv)

36,800 ft3/1550 cfm = 24 minutes (approximately)

24 minutes × K (= 3) = 72 minutes. Therefore, operate the exhaust fan for at

least 72 minutes. Verifying by another equation:

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725 Problems with Solutions 139

− ln [C /Co ] − ln[1ppm/107 ppm ] − ln 0.00935

t = = =
Q /V 1550 cfm/8000 ft 3 0.194 minute
4.673
= = 24 minutes
0.194 minute

24 minutes × K(= 3) = 72 minutes

Answer: 120,588 ppmv. 361,024 mg/m3 107 ppmv. > 72 min. Vapor concen-
tration is actually lower than this because the high vapor pressure of this
amine produces back pressure on the liquid somewhat hindering evapora-
tion. See Part I for further explanation of calculating the saturated vapor
concentration of very volatile materials—in general, those with a vapor
pressure exceeding 20 mm Hg at 20°C.

317. An industrial hygienist determines a worker’s peak exposure to isopro-

pylamine by drawing the BZ vapor through a small charcoal tube using a
100 mL detector tube pump. Since pump’s orifice samples at a critical rate
of 33 mL/minute, this method ensures maximum sampling rate for this size
charcoal tube is not exceeded. TLV for isopropylamine is 5 ppmv. If the true
peak BZ concentration is 0.5 ppmv, how much vapor will industrial hygien-
ist collect? Molecular weight of isopropylamine is 59.08 grams/gram-mole.

mg mcg ppm × molecular weight 0.5 × 59.08 1.208 mcg

3
= = = =
m L 24.45 24.45 L

1.208 mcg
× 0.1L = 0.1208 mcg
L

Answer: 0.12 microgram of isopropylamine. Check with the industrial

hygiene chemist to ensure that enough vapor has been collected to satisfy
the minimum analytically detectable concentration. Otherwise, a larger air
sample is required.

318. Calculate the flash point of an aqueous solution containing 75% methyl
alcohol by weight. The flash point of 100% methanol is 54°F. Methanol’s
vapor pressure at this temperature is 62 mm Hg.
Calculate based on 100 pounds of solution. The mole fractions for each
solution component are needed to apply Raoult’s law. Remember that the
number of moles = mass/molecular weight.

Pounds Molecular Weight Moles Mole Fraction

Methanol 75 32 2.34 0.63
Water 25 18 1.39 0.37
3.73 1.00

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140 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Raoult’s law is used to calculate the vapor pressure (Psat) of pure methanol
based on the partial pressure required to flash, where x is the mole fraction and
p is the vapor pressure of the 100% flammable component at its flash point.

p = x Psat

p 62 mm Hg
Psat = = = 98.4 mm Hg
x 0.63

Answer: Using graph of the vapor pressure of methanol versus tempera-

ture, the flash point of aqueous solution is approximately 67.5°F. Addition
of water, if miscible with the flammable solvent, not surprisingly, raises the
flash point. See Problem 18 for the discussion of applications and the devia-
tions from Raoult’s law.

319. The LEL and UEL for a flammable gas are 2.2% and 7.8% (volume/volume),
respectively. At the mid-point between the LEL and the UEL (≅ 5%), the
explosion pressure is about _____ times greater than an explosion occurring
just above the LEL or just below the UEL, respectively.
a. 2
b. 4
c. 10
d. 50
e. 100
Answer: c. This obviously varies from explosive gas to explosive gas,
vapor to explosive vapor, and dust to explosive dust, but at the stoichio-
metric mid-point, the explosion pressure generated is typically an order of
magnitude greater than that at the LEL or about an order magnitude greater
than blast pressure at the UEL.

320. Generally, with excellent mixing of clean dilution ventilation with contami-
nated air, _____ complete air changes are necessary to ensure confined
space atmosphere equals the ambient atmosphere concentration.
a. 2
b. 5
c. 10
d. 20
e. 53
Answer: d. Assumption made of the confined space atmosphere is 100%
contaminant (i.e., 1,000,000 ppmv). After 2.3 air changes, the concentra-
tion is reduced to 100,000 ppmv. After another 2.3 air changes (4.6 total),
the level is reduced to 10,000 ppmv. After a total of 6.9 air changes, the
concentration is now 1000 ppmv. After another 2.3 air changes (9.2 total),
level is 100 ppmv. After another 2.3 changes (11.5 total), the initial 100%
concentration has been reduced to 10 ppmv. After 18.4 total air changes,
the concentration is reduced to 0.01 ppmv, and after 20.7 air changes, the

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725 Problems with Solutions 141

concentration is finally at 0.001 ppmv (1 ppbv)—level well below most

TLV®s and PELs (bis-chloromethyl ether and osmium tetroxide are current
notable exceptions for gases and vapors). The above of course, requires that
there is excellent mixing of the ambient air with the contaminated air, and
there is recirculation of exhaust air into the make-up air inlet.

321. In testing atmosphere of a confined space for air contaminants, what is the
proper sequence (first, second, third)? Consider flammables and combus-
tibles the same.
a. Toxics, oxygen, flammables
b. Oxygen, flammables, toxics
c. Combustibles, toxics, oxygen
d. Oxygen, toxics, flammables
e. Flammables, oxygen, toxics
f. Toxics, flammables, oxygen
g. None of the above because the sequence is not important
Answer: b. Remember the mnemonic “OFT” = Oxygen, Flammables,
Toxics—and done very OFTen.

322. VICI Metronics, Inc. (Santa Clara, California), a high-quality manufacturer

of gas and vapor diffusion vials, gives the following example to produce
10 ppmv toluene vapor in a 1000 cubic centimeters/minute air stream at
30°C:
a. Calculate the required vapor generation rate:

FC 24.47 L/g-mole
r = , where K = = 0.266
K 92.13 = molecular weight

(1000 cc/minute )(10 ppm v ) 37, 594 nanograms

r = =
0.266 minute

b. Calculate the vapor diffusion rate:

known: molecular weight of toluene = 92.13 (g/mole)

Diffusion vial length = 7.62 cm = L

T = 30° + 273 K = 303 K

a = 36.7 mm Hg (toluene vapor pressure at 30°C)

Do = 0.0849 cm2/s (diffusion coefficient at 25°C)

P = 750 mm Hg (atmospheric pressure)

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142 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

A = 0.1963 cm2 (5-mm diameter diffusion vial cross-section)

 0.1963 
r = (1.9 × 10 4 )(303 K ) (0.0849) (92.13)  x
 7.62 
 750  25,276 nanograms
log 
750 − 36 . 7 = minute
 

c. Length of capillary tube can be shortened to give a higher diffusion

rate, for example:

r1 25,276 ng/min
L2 = L1 × = 7.6 2 cm × = 5.1cm
r2 37,594 ng/min

d. To estimate diffusion rate of a given volatile compound, use the

equation:

 A  P 
r = 1.90 × 10 4 × T × Do × M ×   × log  
L
   P − ρ

Capillary diffusion tubes can provide a constant source for dynamic gas
and vapor calibration systems generating ppb to high ppm concentrations.
Generation rates are easily calibrated and verified by simple gravimetric
procedures. The principle is based on fact gases and vapors will diffuse
at a steady rate through a capillary tube held at constant temperature and
pressure. The vapor pressure will remain constant and serves as the con-
stant driving force for diffusion through a capillary tube. The bore diameter
and the diffusion path length then determine the rate for a specific volatile
material. Variations in atmospheric pressure and temperatures and the car-
rier gas composition affect the diffusion rate. The actual rate is verified by
simply pre- and post-weighing the diffusion tube during the period of use.

323. One gallon of gasoline is accidentally spilt into a 10' × 10' × 10' press pit
below a large metal stamping machine. The pit does not have a fixed forced
mechanical ventilation system. Hours go by. What is the average concen-
tration of gasoline vapor? What are the hazards? The density of gaso-
line is 0.75 g/mL. Average molecular weight of gasoline is approximately
73 grams/gram-mole.

10' × 10' × 10'

= 28.32 m 3
35.3ft 3 /m 3

3785mL 0.75g 1000 mg

1gallon × × × = 2, 838, 750 mg
gallon mL g

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725 Problems with Solutions 143

(mg/m 3 ) × (24.45 L/g-mole) (2, 838, 750 mg/28.32 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecular weight 73
= 33, 572 ppm

Note the LEL and UEL for gasoline are 1.4% and 7.6% (by volume),
respectively. The concentration is in the highly dangerous mid-explosive
range. TLV = 300 ppmv (0.03%) with a ceiling of 500 ppmv and an IDLH
concentration of 5000 ppmv (0.5%, or ≅ 1/3 of the LEL). The benzene vapor
concentration alone in this vapor mixture is near 300 or more ppmv. What
if a welder later performs repairs on the press above the pit without taking
“hot work” precautions? Does the vapor mixture have a “built-in match”:
a volatile explosive liquid that, at saturation concentration, is between the
LEL and its UEL?

324. A compressed gas cylinder contains hydrogen at 25°C and at a gauge pres-
sure of 2200 psig. The cylinder volume is 45 liters. What is the mass of
hydrogen in this cylinder?

Pi Vi = Pf Vf

Pi Vi (2200 psig + 14.7 psia ) (45 L )

Vf = = = 6780 L
Pf 14.7 psia

mole 2 grams H 2 kg
6780 L × × × = 0.555 kg
24.45 gram-mole 1000 g

Answer: 0.555 kilogram of hydrogen = 1.1 pounds of H2.

325. Determine the volume that 1.5 moles of diethylsulfide [(C2H5)2S] would
occupy at 275°C and 12.33 atmospheres. The critical pressure (Pc) is 39.08
atmospheres. The critical temperature (Tc) for (C2H5)2S is 283.8°C.
At this temperature and pressure, this chemical, like many other gases,
does not behave like an ideal gas. Corrections, therefore, are required in the
calculations.

12.33atm
Pr = = 0.316
39.08atm

275o C + 273K
Tr = = 0.983
283.8o C + 273K

From tables in physical chemistry handbooks, we obtain Z from the

above correction factors = 0.87. Z is the compressibility factor, an empirical
correction factor for the nonideal behavior of real gases.

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144 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

(0.87)(1.50 moles) (0.0821 L-atm/mole-K) (548K)

V = = 4.776 L
12.33atm

326. The vapor pressure (Pv) can be measured by passing an inert gas over a
sample of the material and analyzing the composition of the gaseous mix-
ture. Calculate the vapor pressure of mercury at 23°C and 745 mm Hg if
a 50.40 gram sample of nitrogen plus mercury vapor contains 0.702 mil-
ligram of mercury.
The basic equation is

Pv n
= .
Pt n + ninert

The amount of each gas in the mixture is

7.02 × 10 −4 g
n (Hg) = = 3.50 × 10 −6 mole
200.59 g mole −1

[50.40 − (7.02 × 10 −4 )] g
n(N 2 ) = = 1.8 mole
28 g mole −1

3.5 × 10 −6
Pv = (745mm Hg) × = 1.45 × 10 −3 mm Hg
(3.5 × 10 −6 ) + 1.8

Answer: 0.00145 mm Hg.

327. A compressed gas cylinder contains 75 liters of CO at 215 psig and 25°C. If
the room atmospheric pressure is 14.4 psi, what mass of CO is vented to the
laboratory when the valve is opened?

PV
CO originally in cylinder = n1 =
RT
(215 + 14.4) psi [6895 Pa)/(1psi)] (75L)
=
(8314 L Pa K −1 mole −1 ) (298K)
= 48.0 moles

(0 + 14.4) psi (6895 Pa )(75 L)

CO remainingat 0 psig = n2 = = 3.0 moles
(8314)(298K )

[(48.0 − 3.0) moles](28 × 10−3 kg/mole) = 1.3 kg

Answer: 1300 grams of CO gas are released into the laboratory air.

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725 Problems with Solutions 145

328. A liquid with a molecular weight of 86 evaporates into the air of a work-
place from an 8 feet × 2 feet open surface tank. The vapor pressure of this
liquid is 30 mm Hg. The air and liquid temperature are both 25°C. The
room air passing over the liquid is 100 feet per minute. What is the vapor
generation rate?
The vapor generation rate, G (in lb/hour), is estimated from the EPA
equation:

0.5
13.3792 MPA  DabVz 
G= ×  ,
T  ∆Z 

where
M = molecular weight (lb/lb-mole) = 86
P = vapor pressure (inches of mercury) = 30 mm Hg = 1.18" Hg
A = liquid surface area (ft2) = 8' × 2' = 16 ft2
Dab = diffusion coefficient (ft2/sec of a through b in air) = ? (solved below)
Vz = air velocity (feet/minute) = 100 ft/minute
T = temperature (K, kelvin) = 25°C = 298.15 K
ΔZ = pool or tank length along flow direction (feet) = 8 feet

0.5
4.09 × 10 −5 (T 1.9 ) [(1/ 29) + (1/M )] ( M −0.33 )
Dab = ,
Pt

where
T = temperature (K, kelvin) = 25°C + 273.15 K = 298.15 K
Pt = pressure (in atmospheres) = 30 mm Hg = 0.03947 atm

4.09 × 10 −5 (298.15 K )1.9 [(1/ 29) + (1/86)]0.5 (86 −0.33 )

Dab =
0.03947 atmospheres
= 2.57 cm 2 /second = 0.00277ft 2 /second

(13.3792) (86 lb/lb-mole) (1.18′′ Hg)(16 ft 2 )

G=
298.15 K
(0.00277 ft 2 /second) × (100 ft/minute)
× = 13.56 lb/hour
8feet

Answer: Approximately 13–14 pounds of liquid evaporates per hour. From

this estimate, one can design industrial hygiene controls (e.g., enclosures,
less volatile and/or toxic solvents, local exhaust ventilation (general dilution
ventilation), etc.).

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146 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

329. Assume from the preceding problem that general ventilation (10,000 cfm)
is used to dilute vapors, and the ventilation mixing factor is 3. What is the
contaminant concentration in the workplace?

(1.7 × 105 )( K )(G )

C = ,
M ×Q×k

where
C = air contaminant concentration (ppmv)
K = ambient air temperature (degrees kelvin)
G = vapor generation rate (gm/sec)
M = molecular weight (grams/gram-mole)
Q = ventilation rate (cfm)
k = ventilation mixing factor (dimensionless, based on subjective judgment)

13.56 lb 453.6 grams hour minute 1.709 grams

× × × =
hour lb 60 minutes 60 seconds second

(1.7 × 105 )(298.15 K )(1.709 g/sec)

C = = 33.6 ppm v
(86 g/g-mole) (10, 000 cfm) (3)

330. The saturation pressure of water vapor in air at 22°C is 19.8 mm Hg. What
is the mass concentration of water vapor in air at this temperature when the
barometric pressure is 725 mm Hg, and the relative humidity is 50%?

 19.8mm Hg  6
0.50 ×   × 10 = 13,655ppm v = 1.3655% water vapor in air
 725mm Hg 

mg ppm v
=
m3 ((22.4 L/g-mole) /molecular weight)
× (absolute temperature/273.15 K ) × (760 mm Hg/725 mm Hg)
13,655 ppm v 9687 mg H 2 O
= =
(22.4/18) × (295.15/273.15) × (760/725) m3

Answer: 13,655 ppmv = 9687 mg H2O vapor/m3

331. An industrial hygienist using a direct-reading instrument is measuring the

mercury vapor in the atmosphere of a chloralkali plant. When the meter
indicates a level of 0.04 mg Hg/m3, there is a release of chlorine gas that,
measured with a detector tube, was about 0.7 ppmv Cl2. At this time, the
mercury vapor meter reading fell to 0.01 mg/m3. What could explain this
apparent reduction?

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725 Problems with Solutions 147

Answer: Mercury vapor detector instruments are only responsive to ele-

mental mercury vapor and not to mercury salts, oxides, or organomercury
compounds. Most likely, since chlorine is a strong oxidizer, there was a gas-
phase reaction of the mercury vapor and chlorine gas to produce mercurous
chloride and mercuric chloride salts both of which are not detected by UV
mercury vapor meter. The astute industrial hygienist is constantly vigilant
for such possibilities in anomalous results (high or low).

mg ppm v × molecular weight 0.7 ppm v × (2 × 35.5) 2.03mg Cl 2

= = =
m3 24.45 24.45 m3

Therefore, the excess chlorine molecules help ensure stoichiometric reac-

tions in sufficient time.

Hgo + Cl2 → HgCl2

2 Hgo + Cl2 → Hg2Cl2

332. A worker inhales 1000 ppmv ethyl alcohol vapor continuously throughout
his 8-hour work shift. He alleges ethanol intoxication. Is this likely?

Molecular weight CH3CH2OH = 46.07 grams gram-mole−1

Density of EtOH = 0.789 g/mL

mg ppm v × molecular weight 1000 ppm v × 46.07 1884 mg

= = =
m3 24.45 L/g-mole 24.45 m3

During an 8-hour work shift, an average worker inhales approximately

10 cubic meters of air, so

1884 mg
10 m 3 × = 18, 840 mg EtOH = 18.84 g EtOH
m3

Assuming this worker absorbed 100% of inhaled EtOH (a reasonable

assumption since EtOH is readily soluble in mucous membranes and readily
absorbed into the systemic circulation from the respiratory tract):

mL
18.84 g EtOH × = 23.9 mL EtOH
0.789 g

This equates to 0.8 ounces of ethyl alcohol, or nearly 1.5 12-ounce bottles
of 4.5% ethanol beer—distributed over 8 hours while, concurrently, detoxi-
fication is occurring following zero-order kinetics.

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148 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Answer: Although absorption of ethyl alcohol vapors through respiratory

tract is complete, and the absorbed ethanol does not initially pass through
hepatic portal circulation, the amount absorbed over 8 hours (while there
is detoxification at a rate high enough to prevent bioaccumulation to toxic
levels) will not yield clinical intoxication. One on Antabuse® therapy, how-
ever, is compromised. Exposure of alcoholics on Antabuse to EtOH vapor
is contraindicated because of the possibility of a violent adverse reaction.
Furthermore, 1000 ppmv of ethanol vapor are, in the author’s experience,
highly irritating to upper respiratory tract mucous membranes. Few workers
would willingly tolerate this vapor exposure for more than a few minutes.

333. One-micron particles are the optimal size for penetration into, and reten-
tion in, the terminal airways, the alveoli. What is the settling velocity of
1-micron particles of silica (density of α-quartz, SiO2 = 2.65 g/cm3) in still
air? Will such particles fall from the air and settle to the floor and the
ground?
Apply Stoke’s law:

g d 2 ( r − ra)
ns = ,
18 h

where
vs = the particle settling velocity (in centimeters per second)
g = gravitational attraction of particle (981 centimeter/second)
d = particle diameter (centimeter)
ρ = particle density (g/cm3)
ρa = air density at 25°C (= 0.0017 g/cm3)
η = coefficient of air viscosity (= 1.828 × 10−4 poise) at 25°C

[981 cm/second ](0.0001 cm )2 (2.65 g/cm 3 − 0.00117 g/cm 3 )

ns =
(18)(1.828 × 10 −4 poises)
0.0079 cm
=
second

0.0079 cm 60 sec 60 min 28.4 cm

× × =
second min hour hour

Answer: 28.4 cm/hour = 0.93 feet/hour. Normal air currents tend to keep
such very small particles permanently suspended in air until they serve
as condensation nuclei for atmospheric moisture or until they flocculate
with other dust particles. Practically speaking, lung-damaging dust will
not normally settle out of work place air. These invisible particles remain
airborne. Note: Particles below 1 μm in diameter require application of
Cunningham’s factor to calculate settling rates in still air. This factor, or

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725 Problems with Solutions 149

coefficient, = C = C'[1 + K[1/r]], where C' = the calculation (as above)

using Stoke’s law, K = 0.8–0.86, and r = particle radius in centimeters.
Particles with a radius less than 0.1 micron behave like gas mol-
ecules and “settle” according to Brownian motion and the equation:
A = ( RT /N ) × (t / 3phr ), where A = the distance of motion in time, t;
R = the universal gas constant (8.316 × 107); T = absolute temperature;
N = number of molecules in 1 mole (6.023 × 1023); γ = the viscosity of air
in poises (1.828 × 10 −4 at 70°F); and r = the particle radius in centimeters.

334. The smallest particles visible to the unaided eyes under the best of view-
ing conditions (lighting, contrast, color, steadiness, etc.) are about
50−100 microns in diameter. The period at the end of this sentence is about
60–65 microns. Such large particles (“rocks” to industrial hygienists and air
pollution engineers) do not penetrate far into respiratory tract. A 100-micron
particle, for example, will not reach the alveolar region of the lungs. Less
than 1% of all 100 micron particles penetrate as far as the tracheobronchial
region. Close to 50% of the 100 micron particles are deposited in the naso-
pharyngeal region (nostrils and upper throat). The remaining 50% are not
deposited and tend to be exhaled. Compare the settling rate of a 100 micron
particle in still air to that of a 1 micron particle as calculated in Problem 333.

ns =
[981 cm/second ] (0.001cm)2 (2.65g/cm3 − 0.00117g/cm 3 )
(18) (1.8828 × 10 −4 poises)
0.789cm
=
second

0.789 cm 60 sec 60 min 2840 cm

× × =
second min hour hour

Answer: 2840 centimeters per hour (= 93 feet per hour = 1.55 feet per min-
ute). Even such “large” particles (still with relatively small mass) tend to be
buoyant in normal air currents (e.g., 50 fpm or less is often taken as “still”
air). It is easy to see how these larger, nonrespirable particles settling at a
rate of 1.55 fpm in quiescent air tend not to settle in an atmosphere having
perceptible air motion. That is, imagine a 100 micron particle “settling” at
1.55 fpm being tossed around by a 50 fpm air current—not unlike a cork
bobbing in a turbulent sea.

335. In the estimation of a worker’s total daily work place exposure to toxic
agents (i.e., dose), the industrial hygienist must account not only for inha-
lation exposures, but those occurring from the percutaneous, or dermal,
route as well as from ingestion and intraocularly. In the author’s experi-
ence, toxicant absorption routes beside inhalation are often not adequately
addressed and tend to be discounted. This is no doubt due, more often than

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150 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

not, to the difficulty in quantitatively assessing the contribution of these

routes of absorption to the overall body burden of a toxicant. With skin-
absorbed contaminants, one must not only consider the toxicological legacy
of a material to pass through intact skin and its dermal absorption rate (in
units, e.g., of μg/cm2 of skin surface area/hour), but also the skin contact
time, skin surface area contacted, and the type of skin (e.g., eyelids have
the thinnest skin, and the soles of the feet and the palms have the thickest
integument).
Consider a worker falling into a tank and becoming totally immersed in
a liquid at room temperature (the aromatic amine, Methyl Ethyl Death®)
that has a dermal absorption rate of 2.3 μg/cm2/hour. The elapsed time from
when he fell into the tank until he was extracted and totally decontaminated
was less than 17 minutes. This worker, Joe B. Lunchbox, was 6'-2" tall and
weighed 200 pounds. Estimate his total maximum dermal absorption (using
worst-case assumptions).
The Du Bois formula is used to calculate total body surface area of adult
humans:

BSA in m 2 = (weight in kg)0.425 × (height in cm)0.725 × 0.007184

0.425 0.725
 kg   2.54 cm 
= 200 lb × × 74 in × × 0.007184
 2.204 lb   inch 
= 2.173m 2

2.173 m2 × (10,000 cm2/m2) = 21,730 cm2

(2.3 µg/cm 2 ) hour

× 17 minutes × × 21,730 cm 2 = 14,160 µg
hour 60 minutes
≅ 14.1mg

Answer: ≅ 14.1 milligrams of aromatic amine was the maximum dermally

absorbed dose to which should be added the estimated inhalation and inges-
tion exposure doses.

336. The velocity pressure in a duct is 0.48 inches of water. The barometric pres-
sure is 640 mm Hg. The air temperature is 190°F. Assume dry air. What is
the duct air velocity?

Pb = 640 mm Hg = 25.197" Hg

460°A + 190°F = 650°A

Pb 25.197 0.05136 lb
Air density, D = 1.325 × = 1.325 × =
Tabs 650 ft 3

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725 Problems with Solutions 151

Pv 0.48" H 2 O 3351 ft
Air velocity,fpm = 1096.2 × = 1096.2 × =
D 0.05136 min

Note the air density decreases, in this case, by about one-third as air
temperature increases and barometric pressure decreases. This should be
intuitive for those familiar with the gas laws.

337. “Standard dry air” (at 70°F and 29.9" Hg) has a mass density of:
a. 0.055 lb/ft3
b. 0.065 lb/ft3
c. 0.075 lb/ft3
d. 0.085 lb/ft3
e. 0.095 lb/ft3
f. None of the above
Answer: c.

338. An industrial process generates 17,300 mg of contaminant hourly into

a workplace atmosphere. It is desired to limit the workers’ exposures
to this solvent vapor to no more than 10 mg/m 3 as an 8-hour TWAE by
the use of general dilution ventilation. If ventilation imperfection mix-
ing factor is 4, how much ventilation is needed assuming make-up air is
contaminant-free?

17,300 mg/hour = 288.3 mg/minute

 288.3mg/minute  35.3ft 3 4071ft 3

Vreq = 4  3  × =
 10 mg/m  m3 minute

Attempt to reduce the ventilation requirements by reducing generation

rate (always the first priority), improving the mixing of fresh air with the
contaminated air, using a less volatile, lower toxicity solvent and a lower
amount of solvent, and improving the industrial hygiene work practices.
Dilution ventilation is unacceptable for high toxicity chemicals, includ-
ing carcinogens (e.g., benzene, carbon disulfide, dioxane, nitrobenzene),
teratogens. (Refer to the latest edition of Industrial Ventilation—a Manual
of Recommended Practices (the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists) for general dilution ventilation-restricted chemicals.)

339. Direct-reading, “real time” random spot breathing zone air sampling of a
worker for NO2 gas during 8 hours gave the following results: 1.3, 0.2, 0.6,
8.1, 15.6, 1.9, 0.5, 0.1, and 27.3 ppmv. What is the geometric mean of these
test results? You may assume the air-sample test results are log-normally
distributed.

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152 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Test Result (ppmv) Log of Test Result

1.3 0.1139
0.2 −0.6990
0.6 −0.2218
8.1 0.9085
15.6 1.1931
1.9 0.2788
0.5 −0.3010
0.1 −1.0000
27.3 1.4361
Σ = 1.7086

Arithmetic average (mean) of Σ of logs = 1.7086 ppmv NO2/9 = 0.1898 ppmv

NO2. This, however, is not the arithmetic mean of the test results.

antilog of 0.1898 = geometric mean = 100.1898 = 1.55 ppmv NO2

Answer: Geometric mean = 1.6 ppmv NO2 gas. That is, 50% of the NO2 gas
concentrations are expected to be above 1.6 ppmv and 50% below. Note that the
arithmetic mean of the nine results is 6.2 ppmv. The arithmetic mean (average)
is not normally a meaningful and predictive statistic for air pollutant concen-
trations. The geometric mean is one of the most valuable descriptive statistics.

340. A low-flow personal air-sampling pump was calibrated using a 100 mL

burette and required 51.3 seconds for the soap film bubble to traverse
78 milliliters. What was the air-sampling rate in liters/minute?

51.3seconds
= 0.855minute
60 seconds/minute
78 milliliters
= 0.078 liter
1000 mL/liter

0.078 liter 0.091L 91mL

Air flow rate = = =
0.855minute minute minute

Answer: 0.091 liter of air per minute. This low air flow rate does not exceed
the recommended maximum rate of 100 mL air/minute for small charcoal
tubes.

341. 6.6 liters of chlorine dioxide gas are inadvertently released into an empty,
sealed 12' × 30' × 10' laboratory. After complete mixing, what is ClO2 gas
concentration?

 28.32 L 
(12' × 30' × 10') ×  3  = 101,952 L
 ft 

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725 Problems with Solutions 153

6.6 liters
ppm v = × 106 = 64.7 ppm v ClO2
101,952 liters

Since this is a highly reactive oxidizing gas, the concentration will decay
in time as this gas reacts with reducing agents and organic materials in the
room and in air. Do not enter this room! It is too dangerous without SCBA or
until exhaust and dilution ventilation and confirmatory air sampling demon-
strate that the ClO2 gas level is <0.05 TLV or, better, at nondetectable levels.

342. The air velocity in an 8-inch diameter duct is 2500 fpm. What is the new
duct velocity as this air passes into a constricted 6-inch diameter duct
opening?

Area of circle = π r 2
6" Ø area = 0.1963 ft2
8" area = 0.3491 ft2
V1 × A1 = V2 × A2, where V1 = air velocity in duct with area A1, and
V2 = air velocity in duct with area A2

V1 × A1 2500 fpm × 0.3491ft 2 4446 feet

V2 = = =
A2 0.1963ft 2 minute

343. An open-top beaker containing 100 mL of liquid chlorine rests on the edge
of a laboratory bench. The Cl2 gas concentration 9 inches below the edge of
the bench is 10,000 ppmv (1%), and the air and gas mixture at this point has
a specific gravity of 1.015 (see Problem 8). What is the settling rate of this
Cl2 gas and air mixture?

2 g (SG − 1) h
Vs = ,
SG

where
Vs = the settling rate of the gas or vapor mixture, ft/sec
g = gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2
h = distance from source, ft
SG = specific gravity of the air and gas or vapor mixture relative to the
specific gravity or density of air (unitless)

2 × (32.2 ft / sec 2 ) × (1.015 − 1) × 0.75ft 0.845feet

Vs = =
1.015 second

Answer: 0.845 feet per second = 50.7 feet per minute, essentially identi-
cal to air velocity that is characteristic of “still” air (<50 fpm). Note: this

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154 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

equation cannot be used for gases or vapors farther than 1 ft from their
emission source or when air currents disrupt the vapor or gas cascade.

344. An amateur photographer carelessly poured 1 liter of 3% sulfuric acid solu-

tion (vol/vol) into an open developing tray in a home basement darkroom.
She leaves not recognizing her mistake. The tray contained 500 mL of 60 mg
sodium sulfide/mL solution. Her unventilated darkroom is 5' × 10' × 8'.
Which toxic gas evolved, and in what quantity, if 30% of the gas dissolves
in the solution? What is the average concentration of the gas in the dark-
room’s air after mixing?

Na2S + xs H2SO4 + H2O → Na2SO4 + H2S↑ + H2O

Observation of relative amounts of reactants (an excess of H2SO4) indi-

cates there will be a stoichiometric reaction: that is, quantitative conversion
of sodium sulfide into a strong acid solution to hydrogen sulfide gas.

5' × 10' × 8' = 400 ft3 = 11.33 m3

500 mL × (60 mg Na2S/mL) = 30,000 mg Na2S

Molecular weight Na2S = 78.04 grams/mole

Molecular weight H2S = 34.08 grams/mole

grams 30 g Na 2 S
Moles = = = 0.384 mole
molecular weight 78.04

Therefore, 0.7 × 0.384 = 0.269 mole of H2S was released (i.e., 30% is
dissolved).

grams H2S released = molecular weight of H2S × moles released

34.08 grams
= × 0.269 mole = 9.17 g H 2 S
mole

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (9170 mg H 2 S/11.33 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecular weight 34.08
= 581ppm H 2 S

H2S is a potent chemical asphyxiant that produces respiratory paralysis.

This gas concentration greatly exceeds the 15 ppmv ACGIH STEL TLV®
for H2S. The IDLH for H2S is 100 ppmv; a few inhalations of 581 ppmv H2S
could be fatal. Large open pans of dangerous liquid chemicals in unventi-
lated darkrooms are an invitation for a toxic gas release incident.

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725 Problems with Solutions 155

This example demonstrates the release of a de novo toxicant, that is, one
that is generated and released by inadvertent mixture of two or more other
chemicals. The generation is usually unforeseen by those not educated and
trained in this hazard recognition and risk management techniques and
practices. Careless mixing of household chemicals has resulted in inhala-
tion fatalities, severe burn injuries, and life-long respiratory disability.
Examples of de novo toxicants are

Chemical Reaction De Novo Gas and/or Mist Toxicant

Water-soluble sulfide salt + acid H2S (hydrogen sulfide)
Water-soluble cyanide salt + acid HCN (hydrogen cyanide)
Water-soluble hypochlorite + acid Cl2 (chlorine), ClO2 (chlorine dioxide)
Water-soluble hypochlorite + ammonia 1–3 chloramines (e.g., NH2Cl)
Chlorinated solvent + high heat COCl2 (phosgene), HCl, Cl2, ClO2
Organic material + low oxygen CO (carbon monoxide)
Adding H2O to concentrated H2SO4 Violent eruption of hot acid + contents

345. A flammable solvent with toxic properties has a molecular weight of 78.
What is its 100% vapor density in relation to air?

molecular weight of vapor or gas 78

vapor density, a ratio = = = 2.69
composite molecular weight of air 29

Answer: This vapor is approximately 2.7 times denser than air. The
“apparent molecular weight” of gases that comprise air is nearly 29. Vapor
density ratios are reported at equilibrium temperature under atmospheric
conditions. Unequal or changing conditions can appreciably change density
of any vapor or gas and their mixtures. As the vapor mixes with air, the
relative density of the mixture approaches that of air itself (1.00, unitless).

346. A standard plumber’s torch contains 1 pound of propane. An explosion

leveled a mobile home after installation of bathroom sink’s plumbing. An
empty torch was found in the rubble. Litigation ensued with one side claim-
ing propane gas was the explosion fuel (resident), and other side (plumber)
alleging vapors from one ounce of fingernail polish remover (acetone) was
the fuel. What appears to be the most plausible cause of explosion? Assume
the ignition source is unknown, explosion originated in a closed unventilated
bathroom (6' × 8' × 8'), and no one was present at the time of the explosion.
Assume worst-case scenarios, starting with propane:

6' × 6' × 8' = 288 ft3 = 8.16 m3

Assume an empty room with cabinets, counter, sink, and toilet not yet
installed.

1 lb propane = 454.6 grams

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156 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (454,600 mg/8.16 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecular weight 44
= 30,957 ppm ≅ 3.1% gas in air

Since the LEL for propane in air is 2.4%, explosion of propane gas is
plausible if almost an entire cylinder was discharged into the air of the
unventilated bathroom.

Molecular weight and density of acetone, respectively = 58.1 and 0.79 g/mL

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45
ppm =
molecular weight
((790 mg/mL)/8.16 m 3 ) × (29.57 mL/ounce) × 24.45
=
58.1
= 1205 ppm ≅ 0.12%

Since the concentration of acetone vapor was far below its LEL of 2.5%, the
fingernail polish remover solvent cannot be the cause of this explosion. We can
speculate on the source of ignition in the unoccupied residence. If we postulate
the pilot light on a remote water heater or kitchen stove, we see the propane
gas concentration is now below its LEL. Ignition sources are many, and, since
there is no dispute that there was an explosion, the ignition source is moot.
Answer: In absence of other information, the most likely cause of explo-
sion was accumulation of propane gas above its LEL and below its UEL in
the presence of an ignition source. Moreover, since Bob, the plumber, said
he could not recall if he closed the torch valve on the fresh cylinder, and
Sally, the mobile home owner, stated in her deposition that she never used
more than 14 ounce of polish remover at a time, explosion fuel, to a reason-
able degree of scientific certainty, was propane gas.

347. An isokinetic stack sample of 98.4 cubic feet of air was collected for sul-
furic acid mist in 100 mL of slightly acidic (nonvolatile acid), unbuffered,
distilled H2O in a Greenburg−Smith impinger. If the pH of the solution
decreased from an initial pH of 4.3 to pH of 2.1 after sampling, how much
sulfuric acid mist was collected? Assume 100% ionization of sulfuric acid
(*see notes on next page).

28.32 L
98.4 ft 3 × = 2786.7 L = 2.787 m 3
ft 3

H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO4=

A solution of pH 2.1 contains 10 −2.1 moles of hydrogen ion per liter.

Similarly, since the initial pH was 4.3, the collection solution hydrogen ion
concentration was 10 −4.3 moles H+ per liter before air sampling began.

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725 Problems with Solutions 157

10−2.1 = 0.00794 mole H+/L

10−4.3 = 0.00005 mole H+/L

Increase in hydrogen ion = (0.00794 − 0.00005) moles/L = 0.00789 mole

H+/L

(0.00789 mole H+/L) × 0.1 L = 0.000789 mole H+

Since 1 mole of H2SO4 produces 2 moles of H+:

(0.000789 mole/2) = 0.0003945 mole H2SO4 was collected.

Molecular weight H2SO4 = 98.07 grams/mole

(98.07 grams/mole) × 0.0003945 mole = 0.03869 gram H2SO4

38.69 mg H 2 SO 4 13.88 mg H 2 SO 4
=
2.787 m 3 m3

*Actually, the result is low since sulfuric acid, as a diprotic acid, ion-
izes in two stages. The first stage: H2SO4 ↔ H+ + HSO4− is essentially 100%
ionization, that of a very strong acid. The second stage: HSO4− ↔ H+ + SO4=
is that of a weak acid where ionization constant is 1.3 × 10 −2. Using qua-
dratic equation and exotic calculations, one can determine precisely what
sulfuric acid mist concentration was. Practically, it would be far easier and
maybe more accurate to use a specific ion electrode for sulfate ion and then
calculate the amount of sulfuric acid by using the ratio of the molecular
weights of sulfate ion to sulfuric acid. Total hydrogen ion concentration at
equilibrium is the sum of the concentrations due to both ionization stages.
For example, for a 0.01 molar solution of sulfuric acid, hydrogen ion is
0.0147 molar (0.01 from the first stage of ionization, and 0.0047 from the
ionization of hydrogen sulfate ion). The pH of this solution would be—log
[H+] = −log (0.01 + 0.0047) = −log 0.0147 = pH 1.83.
If this is unprotected steel or “white metal” stack and pollution control
equipment, severe corrosion is imminent. Perhaps fiberglass-reinforced
PVC stack leading to a high efficiency caustic scrubber should be quickly
considered and installed.

348. A process releases sulfur dioxide gas at a steady rate into an occupied work
area. What is the generation rate of the gas in cubic feet per hour if 88,000
cubic feet of air per minute is needed to dilute the SO2 to 2 ppmv?

88,000 ft 3  generation rate, cfm 

 × 10 , or
6
=
minute  2 ppm 

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158 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

(88,000 cfm) × 2 ppm 60 minutes

generation rate, cfm = ×
106 hour
3
10.56 ft SO2
=
hour

Answer: 10.56 cubic feet of sulfur dioxide gas are released per hour. If
better control of the leak could be achieved, substantial reduction in the
dilution air can be considered. Control at the source is always desirable over
“capturing the horse once she/he’s out of the barn.” Good enclosure and
confinement certainly beats using a lasso. Since gaseous molecules move
around, they are difficult to capture once free. Tempering 88,000 scfm is
pricey in hot and cold climates.

349. A composite mixture of shredded plastic waste contains 9% chlorine pri-

marily from polyvinyl chloride polymers and copolymers. How much
hydrochloric acid gas is released from 100% quantitative, stoichiometric
combustion of this PVC waste?

RH-Cl + O2 → RO2 + H2O + HCl

Correct for conversion of Cl to HCl:

Molecular weight HCl 36.5

= = 1.028
Molecular weight Cl 35.5

Base the calculations on 100 pounds of plastic waste: 100 pounds × 0.09 ×
1.028 = 9.25 pounds of HCl.
Answer: 9.25 pounds of HCl gas are released from 100% combustion
of every 100  pounds of composite plastic waste assuming stoichiometric
pyrolysis.

350. The vapor pressure of the very highly volatile diethyl ether is 401 mm Hg at
18°C. What is its vapor pressure at 32°C?
The molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) of a chemical is defined as the energy
(in kilojoules, normally) required to vaporize 1 mole of liquid phase of the
chemical. For diethyl ether (“ether”), ΔHvap = 26.0 kJ/mole = 26,000 Joules/
mole. A solution requires rearrangement of the Clausius−Clapeyron equation:

∆H vap
ln P = + C , where C isa constant
RT

P1 ∆H vap T1 − T2
ln = ×
P2 R T1 × T2

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725 Problems with Solutions 159

P1 = 401 mm Hg
P2 = ?
T1 = 18°C = 291 K
T2 = 32°C = 305 K

401mm Hg 26,000 Joules/mole  291K − 305K 

ln = ×
P2 8.314 Joules/K-mole  (291K) (305K) 

401mm Hg
Taking the antilog of both sides: = 0.6106
P2

P2 = 657 mm Hg

Answer: The vapor pressure of diethyl ether at 32°C is 657 mm Hg, close
to its boiling point of 94°F at 760 mm Hg (sea-level barometric pressure).

351. The half-life of a chemical in air due to atmospheric oxidation is 4.7 hours.
If the initial air concentration of this chemical was 19.8 mg/m3, how much
is left in the air after 12 half-lives?
We can generalize the fraction of air contaminant left after n half-lives
as [1/2]n.

12
19.8 mg  1  19.8 mg 0.00483mg
×  = × 0.000244 =
m3 2 m3 m3

Answer: 4.83 micrograms per cubic meter after (4.7 hours × 12 =)

56.4 hours.

352. What is the half-life for an unstable air contaminant that decays by fol-
lowing first-order kinetics if the initial gas concentration is 367 ppmv and
the concentration after 39.3 hours is 1.6 ppmv? Assume that there is no fur-
ther gas generation when timing begins, and that the loss is due entirely to
chemical change and not due to loss by dilution ventilation or other means.
This problem is similar to the preceding Problem 351.

367 ppmv, Co → 1.6 ppmv, C, after 39.3 hours

n
1
(367 ppm)   = 1.6 ppm v
2

1.6 ppm v
(0.5)n = = 0.00436
367 ppm v

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160 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

log 0.00436 −2.3605

n= = = 7.84 half-lives
log 0.5 −0.301

39.3 hours 5.01hours

=
7.84 half-lives half-life

Answer: T1/2 = 5.0 hours or, after 1 hour, 184 ppmv contaminant remains.

353. The OSHA PEL for lead (on a mass-to-volume basis) is 50 micrograms of
lead per cubic meter of air. What is the PEL for lead if it was expressed on
a mass to mass basis?
Use the mass of lead to the mass of air at NTP containing the lead aerosol.

50 mcg Pb M3 ft 3 lb g
3
× 3
× × ×
m 35.3ft 0.075 lb 454 g 106 mcg
50 mcg Pb 1mcg Pb 1Pb
= = = = 4.2 × 10 −8
1202 × 106 mcg air 2.4 × 107 mcg air 2.4 × 107 air

Answer: 1 part of lead by weight in approximately 24,000,000 parts of

air by weight. This equals 42 parts of lead per billion parts of air, both by
weight.

354. Determine the internal pressure exerted by 498 grams of sulfur pentafluo-
ride gas at 95°F in a 6.4 L steel pressure vessel. Molecular weight of S2F10 is
254.1 grams per gram-mole. IDLH is 1 ppmv.

498 grams
= 1.96 moles
254.1grams/mole

95°F = 35°C

n RT (1.96 moles) (0.0821L-atm/K-mole) (35 ο C + 273K)

P= =
V 6.4 L
= 7.74 atmospheres

355. Air bags in automobiles are rapidly detonated during a crash from decom-
position of the propellant explosive sodium azide, NaN3, according to the
equation:

NaN 3 (solid) BOOM!

 → 2 Na (solid aerosol) ↑ + 3 N 2 (g) ↑

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725 Problems with Solutions 161

The released nitrogen gas rapidly inflates the “air” bag. Determine the
volume of N2 gas generated at 30°C and 640 mm Hg upon the decomposi-
tion of 70 grams of NaN3 assuming quantitative stoichiometry.

Two moles sodium azide ⇒ three moles nitrogen

30°C + 273 K = 303 K

1mole NaN 3 3mole N 2

Moles N 2 gas = 70 g NaN 3 × ×
65.02 g NaN 3 2 moles NaN 3
= 1.615moles of N 2

n RT (1.615moles) (0.0821 L-atm/K-mole) (303K)

V = = = 47.7 L N 2
P 640 mm Hg/760 mm m Hg

The literature reports 100 g of sodium azide produces 1.64 moles of nitro-
gen gas. Because 70 grams sodium azide theoretically generates 1.615 moles
of nitrogen gas, 100 grams should release 2.31 moles of N2. However, since
1.64 moles of nitrogen are generated, the reaction is about 71% quantitative.
That is, it appears there is about 29% undetonated or partial, nongaseous
explosion reaction products (most likely, NaN3 aerosol + ambient water
vapor ⇒ Na ⇒ NaOH ⇒ Na2CO3 and NaHCO3).

356. In the previous problem, assume the released sodium quickly reacts with
moisture in the air to form a sodium hydroxide aerosol. Assuming disper-
sion into two cubic meters of car’s interior atmosphere, calculate the aver-
age concentration of NaOH in the aerosol phase. Any unreacted sodium
aerosol in contact with moist mucous membranes will also produce caustic,
irritating NaOH powder. In the risk−benefit analysis, balance inhalation
and ocular exposure to this caustic aerosol with main safety benefits of
automobile air bags.
1 mole of sodium azide produces 1 mole of sodium:

70 g NaN 3
= 1.077 mole NaN3 ⇒ 1.077 mole Na
65.02 g NaN 3 /mole

2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2

Therefore, a maximum of 1.077 moles of NaOH are produced.

40 grams NaOH
× 1.077 moles = 43.08 grams of NaOH
mole

43.08 g NaOH 1000 mg 21,540 mg NaOH

× =
2 m3 gram m3

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162 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Answer: 21,540 mg NaOH/m3 is momentarily intensely irritating, but

one’s life might have been saved by deployment of the “air” bag, and the
duration of exposure is very brief. Regardless, Na and NaOH particulate
aerosol in the eyes, especially, and in contact with moist mucous respira-
tory tract membranes could cause significant injuries if not immediately
flushed with water. Those wearing contact lenses are particularly suscep-
tible to corrosive alkaline chemical burns of the conjunctivae, corneas,
and eyelids.

357. Consider the hydrogen gas generated in the previous problem. Could
this, under the worst of circumstances, result in an explosive atmosphere?
Assume that the driver was smoking as the air bag detonated and that his or
her cigarette was not extinguished (or that there were other sources of igni-
tion). Further assume that the released hydrogen gas is mixed with ambient
air into in a 500 L volume.
Each mole of Na produced yields 0.5 mole H2. Regardless, it is unlikely
that sodium aerosol would react completely, in even the most humid atmo-
sphere, to provide a stoichiometric, rapid conversion to NaOH and hydrogen
gas. Assuming the direst:

1.077 mole sodium ⇒ 0.539 mole hydrogen gas

2 grams H 2
× 0.539 mole = 1.078 grams of hydrogen gas
gram-mole

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (1078 mg/0.500 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm v = =
molecular weight 2
= 26,357 ppm v = 2.64% hydrogen

LEL for H2 = 4%. UEL for H2 = 75%. The hydrogen gas concentration,
during one of the worst scenarios, is below the LEL and far below stoi-
chiometric mid-point for producing a maximum explosion blast pressure.
A  hydrogen gas explosion does not appear likely under these conditions.
Note that this calculation is based on a detonation at sea-level barometric
pressure whereas the original problem (355) was based on an atmospheric
pressure of 640 mm Hg. One can easily make any corrections for various
altitudes.

358. A 10,000 gallon airtight carbon steel tank is tightly sealed when the atmo-
spheric pressure is 760 mm Hg. The tank’s interior is not protected by
paint, an oil film, or any other coating. The tank contains only air and
atmospheric moisture. After 10 weeks, the interior pressure of the tank is
630 mm Hg without imploding. Assume the temperature remains constant
at 25°C. What is happening?

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725 Problems with Solutions 163

Atmospheric oxygen is reacting with iron in the steel to form iron oxides.
As O2 is consumed, its partial pressure is reduced, and the overall pressure
in the tank is reduced. Rust forms on the steel surfaces.

3Fe (s) + 2O2 (g) → Fe3O4 (s)

4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3(s)

There is a concurrent percentage increase in inert gases (nitrogen and

argon) in the atmosphere as oxygen is consumed. The amount of rust
formed would not appreciably change the gas volume of this tank and may
be disregarded in the following calculations. We want to know what the
new oxygen concentration is and if it presents an inhalation health hazard if
unprotected workers enter the tank.
The number of moles of oxygen consumed is related to the drop in pres-
sure, or:

Initial tank pressure = (760 mm Hg/760 mm Hg) = 1.000 atmosphere

Final tank pressure = (630 mm Hg/760 mm Hg) = 0.829 atmosphere

1.000 atmosphere − 0.829 atmosphere = 0.171 atmosphere that corre-

sponds to the chemical consumption of O2 (oxidation of iron).

25°C + 273 K = 298 K

10,000 gallons = 37,854 liters

PV (0.171atm) (37,854 L)
n= =
RT (0.0821 L-atm/K-mole) (298 K)
= 264..6 moles of O2 consumed

32 grams O2
264.4 moles of O2 × = 8461 grams of O2 were consumed.
mole

The tank originally contained 10,000 gallons of air at 21% oxygen by

volume. The original molar concentration of oxygen in the tank was

PV (0.21atmosphere) (37,854 L)
n= = = 324.9 moles of O2
RT (0.0821 L-atm/K-mole) (298 K)

The oxygen in the tank was reduced to [1 − (264.4 moles/324.9 moles)] ×

100 = 18.6% of the initial oxygen concentration.

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164 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Answer: The tank atmosphere has become substantially oxygen deficient,

that is, 21% O2 × 0.186 = 3.9% O2 by volume. Inhalation of this atmosphere
would cause immediate collapse and death within minutes if the entrant
was not rescued and given immediate CPR and EMS care. Carefully follow
OSHA confined space entry procedures (29 CFR 1910.146) and respiratory
protection (29 CFR 1910.134).

359. A diver wearing a self-contained under water breathing apparatus (SCUBA)

is 20 feet deep in sea water. If, without breathing, he quickly rose to the
water surface, what would happen to the air in his lungs?
Sea water is denser than fresh water: 1.03 g/mL versus 1.00 g/mL. Therefore,
the pressure exerted by a 33-feet sea water column is equivalent to 1 atmo-
sphere pressure. Since pressure increases with increasing depth, at 66 feet the
pressure of the water is equivalent to 2 atmospheres, 99 feet ≈ 3 atmospheres,
and so on. As ascent started at 20 feet below the surface, the total decrease
in the pressure for this depth is [20 feet/33 feet] × 1 atmosphere = 0.606
atmosphere. When the diver reaches the surface, the air volume trapped in
his lungs would have increased by a factor of (1 + 0.606)atm/1 atm = 1.606
times. This rapid expansion can fatally rupture the lung’s delicate membranes.
Development of air embolism is another serious possibility where expanded
air in lungs is squeezed into the pulmonary capillaries.
Answer: Air in diver’s lungs would expand, without his breathing, 1.6
times with a possible air embolism, pulmonary rupture, coma, and death.

360. A diver will descend to a water depth where the total pressure is equivalent
to 2 atmospheres. What should the oxygen content of his SCUBA air be?
When PT is the total gas pressure, the oxygen partial pressure, PO2, is
given by

nO2
PO2 = X O2 PT = × PT .
nO2 + nN2

nN2 is the partial pressure from inert gases (nitrogen, argon, CO2). However,
since the gas volume is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas
present (at constant temperature and pressure): PO2 = VO2 /(VO2 + VN2 ) × PT .
Thus, composition of air is 21% oxygen gas by volume and 79% inert gases
by volume. When a diver is submerged, composition of air must be changed.
At a depth equivalent to 2.0 atmospheres, the oxygen content of the air should
be reduced to 10.5% by volume to maintain the same partial pressure of 0.21
atmosphere:

VO2
PO2 = 0.21atmosphere = × 2.0 atmospheres, or
VO2 + VN2

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725 Problems with Solutions 165

VO2 0.21 atmosphere

= = 0.105, or 10.5% oxygen gas by volume.
VO2 + VN2 2.0 atmosphere

361. A stainless-steel tank leaks formaldehyde gas at the rate of 0.3 mL/hour
when the internal gas pressure is 3 atmospheres. What would the leakage
effusion rate be if the tank contained vinyl chloride gas?

HCHO leakage rate VC molecular weight 62.49 grams/mole

= =
VC leakage rate HCHO molecular weight 30.03 grams/mole
= 2.0809 = 1.443

HCHO leakage rate 0.30 mL/hour 0.208 mL

VC leakage rate = = =
1.443 1.443 hour

Answer: 0.208 mL of vinyl chloride gas effuses per hour.

362. Dinitrogen pentoxide, N2O5, decomposes according to first-order reaction

kinetics. At 50°C, the rate constant is approximately 0.00054/second. This
linear reaction dissociation of 1 mole of nasty gas into 2 moles of another
evil gas is

2N2O5 → 4NO2 + O2

What is the N2O5 concentration after 17.3 minutes if the initial gas con-
centration was 3.9 ppmv? How long does it require for the initial gas con-
centration to decay to 0.4 ppmv? How long will it take to convert 50% of the
initial gas concentration?

conc initial 3.9 ppm

ln = kt = ln
conc final conc final
 60 seconds 
= (0.00054/second) 17.3 minutes ×
 minute 

3.9 ppm
ln = 0.5605
conc final

3.9 ppm
= e 0.5605 = 1.75
conc final

3.9 ppm
conc final = = 2.23 ppm N 2 O5
1.75

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166 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

3.9 ppm
ln = (0.00054/second) t
0.4 ppm

ln 9.75 = (0.00054/second) t

ln 9.75 2.277
t= = = 4217 seconds = 70.3 minutes
0.00054/second 0.00054/second

1 conc initial 1 1
t = ln = × ln = 1852 seconnds × ln 2
k conc final 0.00054/second 0.5
= 1852 × 0.693 = 1283 seconds = 21.4 minutes

Answers: 2.23 ppm. 70.3 minutes. 21.4 minutes.

363. An industrial hygienist and a safety engineer collaborate to determine the

bursting temperature of a steel gas vessel. If this vessel contains a fixed
mass of gas at 25°C at 3 atmospheres, and it can withstand a pressure of
20 atm, what is the maximum temperature to which this vessel can be
increased before it bursts?
Apply Gay–Lussac’s law: at constant volume, the pressure of a mass of
gas varies directly with the absolute temperature:

Pi P PT (20 atm)(273 K + 25ο C)

= f , or Tf = f i =
Ti Tf Pi 3 atm
(20 atm)(298 K)
= = 1987 K
3atm

Answer: 1987 kevin, well above the melting point of steel at approximately
1380°C (1653 kevin). However, a safety factor is needed: either reduce max-
imum temperature rating and/or increase bursting strength of the gas ves-
sel. Use higher temperature alloy.

364. Some commercial drain cleaners contain aluminum powder and NaOH.
The following reaction occurs when a dry mixture of these two powders is
poured into the water of a greasy, clogged drain:

2NaOH + 2Al + 6H2O → 2NaAl(OH)4 + 3H2 ↑ + Δ

Generated heat aids in melting grease. NaOH saponifies grease and fats.
As the hydrogen is evolved, gas bubbles stir up solids that plug the drain.
If 4 g of aluminum are added to a drain containing excess NaOH, could
sufficient hydrogen gas be evolved in a 1-cubic foot volume above the drain

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725 Problems with Solutions 167

to cause explosion if there was an ignition source? Atomic weight of Al is

26.98 grams/mole. Assume that the temperature above the drain is 25°C.
Disregard any solubility of hydrogen gas into the standing water in the
clogged drain.

1 mole of aluminum ⇒ 1.5 moles of hydrogen gas.

4.0 grams Al
= 0.148 mole of Al
26.98 grams/mole

0.148 mole Al × 1.5 = 0.222 mole of hydrogen gas

2grams hydrogen
0.222 mole × = 0.444 gramH 2
mole

1 ft3 = 28.32 L

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (444 mg/0.02832 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecularweight 2
= 191,663 ppm ≅ 19.2%

Answer: Under this nearly worst-case scenario, an explosion would occur

because LEL of hydrogen gas is 4%. The UEL is 75%. Suppliers of these
drain cleaners recommend immediately placing a container over the drain
after the chemicals are added to contain any eruption of corrosive, hot
alkali into one’s face and eyes. This is good advice; however, chemical
splash goggles and rubber gloves and a face shield must be worn before
chemicals are added. Since an explosion could occur, ignition sources
must be prohibited, and ventilation is necessary to dilute any hydrogen gas
to at least 20% below its LEL. Furthermore, one might not be able to place
a container over the drain quickly enough since the chemicals could react
instantaneously.
Of all chemicals used to clean drains, concentrated sulfuric acid, in the
author’s view, must never be used because of its “wild card” behavior and
incredibly high heat of dilution. Mechanical aids such as a plunger (“plumb-
er’s helper”), a drain snake, boiling water, and compressed air should always
be tried before using corrosive chemicals. Reliance upon plumbers might
be more prudent than using concentrated H2SO4, HCl, NaOH, and KOH.
The average homeowner does not have sufficient chemical sophistication to
use such highly hazardous agents.

365. The ozone gas molecules present in the stratosphere absorb much of the
harmful radiation emitted from the sun. The typical pressure and tempera-
ture of ozone in the stratosphere are 0.001 atm and 250 kevin, respectfully.

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168 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

How many ozone molecules are in each liter of air in these upper atmo-
spheric conditions?

PV = nRT

PV (0.001atm)(1.0L)
n= = = 0.00004877 mole O3
RT (0.0821 L-atm/mole-K)(250K)

6 × 1023 molecules O3
0.0000487 mole O3 × = 2.9 × 1019 molecules O3 /L
mole

Answer: 2.9 × 1019 molecules of ozone gas per liter—a bunch.

366. What is the partial pressure of dioxane (in atm) at 12.0 ppmv vapor in air by
volume if total barometric pressure is 730 mm Hg and temperature is 16°C?

12 1 atm
Pdioxane = X dioxane × Ptotal = 6
× 730 mm Hg ×
10 760 mm Hg
= 1.15 × 10 −5 atm

Answer: 0.0000115 atm partial pressure from dioxane vapor. The air tem-
perature does not enter into these calculations. Refer to Dalton’s law of par-
tial pressures.

367. If an average adult inhales 320 mL of dioxane vapor at concentration in

previous problem with each breath, how many molecules of dioxane are
inhaled?

PV = nRT

PV (1.15 × 10 −5 atm )(0.32 L)

n= = = 1.55 × 10 −7 mole
RT (0.0821L-atm/mole-K)(289 K)

6 × 1023 molecules
1.55 × 10 −7 mole × = 9.3 × 1016 molecules of
mole
dioxane vapor per inhalation

368. A 55-gallon drum is splash filled with a volatile solvent. For each gallon
of solvent added to the drum, 1 gallon of air that is nearly saturated with
solvent vapors will be displaced. To reduce solvent vapor emissions into
the ambient air, a dip pipe extending to within 2 inches of the bottom of the
drum is used for filling. What percent of vapor saturation can be expected
in the displaced air?

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725 Problems with Solutions 169

a. 130–150%—Slower filling produces super-saturation, that is, vapor

plus mist.
b. 100%—There is no difference in vapor emissions over splash filling.
c. 80%
d. 50%
e. 30%
f. 10%
Answer: d. Several empirical studies have demonstrated reductions of
vapor emissions by approximately 50% whenever fill tubes are used in
place of splash filling of volatile solvents.

369. A breathing zone air sample was obtained from welder exposed to fume
of barium fluoride, BaF2, a fluxing agent. Air was sampled at an average
rate of 1.64 L/m for 473 minutes of worker’s 8-hour work shift. Filter con-
tained 593 micrograms of barium. If this worker had no other exposure
to fluoride fume, what were his TWAEs to barium and fluoride that day?
Molecular weights of BaF2 and Ba = 175.33 and 137.33 grams gram-mole−1,
respectively.
473 minutes ≅ 8 hours (98.5% of the full work shift). Reduce exposure
calculation by 1.5% assuming the remainder of the work shift was barium
and fluoride free air.

1.64 liters
× 473minutes = 775.7 liters of air were sampled
minute

593mcgBa 0.764 mgBa

=
775.7 L m3

0.764 mg Ba/m3 × 0.985 = 0.753 mg Ba/m3

mol.wt.BaF2 175.33
= = 1.277
mol.wt.Ba 137.33

593 mcg Ba × 1.277 = 757.3 mcg BaF2

757.3 mcg BaF2 − 593 mcg Ba = 164.3 mcg F

164.3mcgF 0.212 mgF

=
775.7 L m3

0.212 mg F/m3 × 0.985 = 0.209 mg F/m3

Clearly, exposure exceeds the TLV of 0.5 mg/m3 for barium (soluble
compounds). The TLV of 2.5 mg/m3 for soluble fluoride compounds is not

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170 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

exceeded. The toxic effects of both are most likely not additive. Barium
fluoride is sparingly soluble in water (0.12 g/100 cc at 25°C), so whether
there is truly an overexposure would be a tough judgment call. Prudence
would dictate that, since little is known about the chronic toxicity of barium
fluoride, better industrial hygiene is needed to reduce his exposure to well
below 0.5 mg Ba/m3.

370. Use the thermal mass balance calculation method to estimate outdoor air
quantity when the temperature of the HVAC system return air is 76°F, the
temperature of the mixed air is 72°F, and the temperature of the outdoor air
is 42°F.

Treturnair − Tmixedair
Outdoor air (percent) = × 100
Treturnair − Toutdoor air
76 °F − 72 °F
= × 100 = 11.8%
76 °F − 42 °F

371. Use the CO2 measurement calculation method to estimate the outdoor
air quantity when concentrations of CO2 are 440 ppmv in the mixed air,
490 ppmv in the return air, and 325 ppmv in the outdoor air.
CS − CR 440 ppm − 490 ppm
Outside air (percent) = × 100 = × 100
CO − C R 325 ppm − 490 ppm
−50 ppm
= × 100 = 30.3
−165 ppm

Answer: 30.3% outside air.

372. What is the minimum free area for introducing outside air into a combus-
tion device per 2000 BTU input?
a. One square inch
b. Two square inches
c. Five square inches
d. 10 square inches
e. 27 square inches
Answer: a.

373. Painters sometimes, perhaps foolishly, mix a liquid insecticide mixture into
paint that they apply on walls, ceilings, and trim. Presumably, any insects
that later contact the dry paint absorb the pesticide and subsequently die.
Chlorpyrifos has been used for this purpose. The TLV for this organophos-
phate insecticide, that has a “Skin” notation by the ACGIH TLV Committee,
is 0.2 mg/m3. The molecular weight of Chlorpyrifos is 350.57, and its vapor
pressure is 1.87 × 10−5 mm Hg at 25°C. A painter added three liquid ounces
of an 11% mixture (weight/volume) of Chlorpyrifos to 1 gallon of paint

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725 Problems with Solutions 171

and painted the four walls and the ceiling of an infant’s bedroom. The wall
dimensions of the room were 8' × 10'.
If we assume the bedroom had no ventilation after the paint dried, what
could have been maximum saturation concentration of Chlorpyrifos vapor?
Was sufficient Chlorpyrifos in the paint to saturate the air with vapor? If
the painter sprayed this paint, instead of brushing and rolling, and the aver-
age total mist concentration in his breathing zone was 1 mL of paint/m3
for the 1 hour it required to paint the room, what was his 8-hour TWAE to
Chlorpyrifos mist? Assume that the paint was completely used to paint this
bedroom; that is, 1 gallon of paint typically covers about 400 square feet
{in this case: [4 (8' × 10')] + (10' × 10') = 420 ft2}. Assume that during paint
spraying 1 mL of paint existed as a mist aerosol in each cubic meter of his
or her breathing zone air, and the density of the paint was 1.4 g/mL.

1.87 × 10 −5 mmHg
× 106 = 0.0246 ppm Chlorpyrifos vapor at saturation
760 mmHg

ppm × molecular weight 0.0246 ppm × 350.57g/mole

mg/m 3 = =
24.45 L/g-mole 24.45 L/g-mole
= 0.35mg/M3

This concentration of Chlorpyrifos vapor did not exceed the TLV when
calculated as an 8-hour TWAE; however, since the painter was in the room
for only 1 hour, and it is highly unlikely that the Chlorpyrifos would yield a
vapor saturation concentration in this brief time, she/he most probably, was
not excessively exposed to vapor (if she/he had no skin contact).

11g 29.57 mL
× 3ounces ×
100 mL ounce
= 9.76 grams of Chlorpyrifos per gallon of paint

m3
Bedroomvolume = 10' × 10' × 8' × = 22.67 m 3
35.3ft 3

0.35mg
22.67 m 3 × = 7.93mg Chlorpyrifos vapor in the
m3
bedroom atmosphere (at vapor saturation)

The 9.76 grams of Chlorpyrifos in the gallon of paint greatly exceeds

the 0.00793 gram of total vapor in the bedroom’s saturated atmosphere.
Therefore, a vapor saturation concentration was theoretically achievable,
although highly unlikely.

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172 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

9.76 g 1000 mg gallon 2.58 mg

× × =
gallon g 3785mL mL

(2.58 mg/m 3 − hours) 0.32mg

= = 8 hour time-weighted average
8 hours m3
exposure to Chlorpyrifos mist

Since the paint density was 1.4 g/mL, the painter’s 8-hour TWAE to total
mist = 1.4 g/mL × 1.0 mL × 1000 mg/g = 1400 mg total paint mist (includes
Chlorpyrifos):

(1400 mg/m 3 − hour) 175mg

= , clearly a need for a full-face
8hours m3
airline respirator during spraying.

Answer: 0.0246 ppmv Chlorpyrifos vapor at saturation conditions. There

was a sufficient amount of Chlorpyrifos in the paint to achieve vapor satu-
ration in this bedroom. 0.044 mg Chlorpyrifos vapor/m3 was the painter’s
calculated 8-hour TWAE. His/her total mist exposure, as an 8-hour TWAE,
was 175 mg/m3. In author’s opinion, insecticides, including organophos-
phates, should not be used in home interiors especially if infants and those
with compromised health could be in these enclosed rooms for long periods
(e.g., sleeping 8 or more hours, those with cholinesterase enzyme deficien-
cies, handicapped persons perpetually confined to bed, those with neuro-
logical impairments, pregnant women, etc.).

374. Which of the following situations is the most reasonable indication of a

significant indoor air quality issue?
a. Increase in relative humidity from 30% to 55%
b. Decrease in relative humidity from 55% to 30%
c. Hourly fluctuations in dry bulb temperatures from 70 to 55°F back to
70°F
d. Decrease of air flow velocity at work stations from 200 to 100 fpm
e. Absence of thermophilic actinomycetes in exhaust ducts and plenums
f. Steady-state air concentration of radon
g. Increases of CO2 from 300 to 400 ppmv in the morning to >1000 ppmv
by noon
h. A stench of CO gas in the air supply to employee work stations
>1000 ppmv CO2
Answer: g. Greater than 1000 ppmv CO2.

375. The vapor pressure of TDI is close to 0.01 mm of Hg at 77°F. The vapor
pressure of methylene bis-phenyl diisocyanate (MDI) is about 0.001 mm of
Hg at 104°F. Compare the relative volatility of these diisocyanates.

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725 Problems with Solutions 173

Answer: Since the vapor pressure of a chemical approximately doubles

with each 10°C (18°F) increase in temperature, it would be reduced by a
factor of about 2 with each 18°F decrease in temperature. Therefore, as
the temperature of liquid MDI is reduced by 18°F from 104°F to 86°F,
MDI’s vapor pressure drops from 0.001 mm Hg to about 0.0005 mm of
Hg. If MDI’s temperature is further lowered by another 18–68°F, the
vapor pressure of the liquid drops to nearly 0.00025 mm of Hg. So, by
approximate interpolation, the vapor pressure of MDI at 77°F is nearly
0.00038 mm of Hg.
In other words, TDI is about 0.01 mmHg/0.00038 mm Hg = 26.3 times
more volatile than MDI.
This is an oversimplification of relative volatility since other factors
determine the evaporation rate of a chemical besides vapor pressure. Note
that MDI is a solid below 99°F although it still exerts a vapor pressure
in the solid phase. If the MDI covered a surface area approximately 26.3
times greater than the surface area covered by liquid TDI, one could say
that the overall emission rate (flux) of the two diisocyanates would be
nearly equal.

376. The American Industrial Hygiene Association Workplace Environmental

Exposure Level (WEEL) for titanium tetrachloride is 500 mcg per cubic
meter of air. TiCl4 rapidly hydrolyzes in moist air forming titanium dioxide
fume and hydrogen chloride gas. Assuming stoichiometric conversion of
the WEEL concentration to acid gas with an excess of water vapor in the
atmosphere, what is the hydrogen chloride concentration? The molecular
weight of titanium tetrachloride is 189.73.

TiCl4 + 2H2O → TiO2 + 4HCl

500 × 10 −6 g
= 2.64 × 10 −6 mole of TiCl 4
189.73g/mole

Therefore, 4 (2.64 × 10 −6 mole) = 10.56 × 10 −6 mole of HCl is produced.

36.5g
10.56 × 10 −6 mole HCl × = 385.4 × 10 −6 g HCl = 385.4 mcg HCl
mole

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (0.3854 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = = 0.26 ppm HCl
molecular weight 36.5

Answer: 0.26 ppmv HCl gas. This is below the ACGIH TLV (ceiling) of
2 ppmv. HCl gas is highly soluble in water and, therefore, it tends to be more
of an upper respiratory irritant than a deep lung toxicant. However, because
the gas might adsorb on the tiny TiO2 particles, there could be deep lung
penetration because the fume is likely sub-micron in size.

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174 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

377. Many finely divided atmospheric dusts (e.g., flour, sugar, metals, starch,
plastics) that settle and deposit on internal industrial plant structures can be
a significant explosion hazard if a sufficient amount of dust becomes air-
borne and an ignition source of ample temperature is present. The amount of
dust is generally considered to be significant if the settled amount exceeds:
a. Any grossly visible amount removed by a piece of transparent adhesive
tape
b. 1/32 inch
c. 1/16 inch
d. 3/32 inch
e. 1/8 inch
f. 1/4 inch
g. None of the above

Answer: e. The settled dust layer thickness must not exceed 1/8 inch. If
the settled dust approaches this thickness, better process enclosure, exhaust
ventilation, and plant housekeeping are required. “Cleaning” with com-
pressed air wands must never be permitted because the discharged air can
accumulate a static charge sufficiently high (in electron volts) to ignite a
suspended dust cloud at its lower explosion limit.

378. Inert gases are often used to exclude oxygen from systems where combus-
tible and flammable vapors could accumulate to explosive concentrations.
Nitrogen, although not truly chemically inert, is the most common gas used
for this purpose. For organic hydrocarbon vapors and gases (but not inorganic
explosive gases and vapors such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon
disulfide), what is the minimum oxygen concentration for combustion?
a. 21%
b. 15%
c. 10%
d. 5%
e. 3%
f. None of the above

Answer: c. 10%, or slightly less than 0.5 atm. In typical engineering prac-
tice, a safety factor is applied so that the actual oxygen concentration is 6%
or less in carefully controlled atmospheres (such as drying ovens) and 2%
or less in systems where poor mixing of diluent inert gas with combustible
gas, for example, could occur. Besides nitrogen, other “inert” gases used for
such purposes include argon, carbon dioxide, steam, and helium.

379. A test tube containing 3 mL of a culture of L. pneumophillae (720,000

organisms/mL) shatters in a centrifuge. It is estimated that no more
than 0.5 mL of this solution was released as respirable aerosol into a
30' × 40' × 12' laboratory that has, for purposes of estimating the worst-
case respirable dose, no ventilation. What is the average concentration of

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725 Problems with Solutions 175

L. pneumophillae in the air? Assume this laboratory is essentially empty

for these calculation purposes.

720,000 organisms
× 0.5mL = 360,000 organisms
mL

30' × 40' × 12' × = 14,400 ft3 = 407,763 liters

360,000 organisms 0.88 organism

=
407,763 liters L

Answer: 88 L. pneumophillae bacteria per 100 liters of air. It has been

estimated that a single L. pneumophillae bacterium in 50 liters of inhaled
air is an infectious dose in a susceptible human host. A technician stand-
ing near the centrifuge would be at a greater risk since there would have
been a burst of microbial aerosol concentration considerably higher than
0.88 organism/L.

380. What is the density of dry air at 300°F and 760 mm Hg?

 0.075 lb   530 °R  0.052 lb

Air density =     =
  460 °R + 300 °R 
3
 ft ft 3

Answer: 0.052 pound per cubic foot, or 69.3% that of dry air at NTP
(0.075 lb/ft3). That is, as a given volume of air is heated, it expands, the gas-
eous air molecules become farther apart, and therefore, the density decreases.
Mass is conserved, but now in a larger volume.

381. Three pounds of aluminum phosphide (AlP, molecular weight = 57.96 grams/
mole) are used to fumigate a 100,000 cubic foot grain storage building by
the generation of phosphine gas (PH3, molecular weight = 34.00 grams/
mole) from a quantitative reaction of the dry AlP pellets with atmospheric
water vapor:

2AlP + 3H2O → 2PH3 ↑ + Al2O3

What is the final concentration of phosphine gas in the building assum-

ing that the grain net void volume and headspace volume total 20% of the
building volume?

3 pounds AlP = 1361 grams AlP

1361 grams AlP/57.96 grams/mole = 23.48 moles of AlP. Therefore, since

1 mole of aluminum phosphide generates 1 mole of phosphine, 23.48 moles
of PH3 gas are released from the solid aluminum phosphide pellets.

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176 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

23.48 moles × 34.00 grams PH3/mole = 798.3 grams of PH3

20% × 100,000 ft3 = 20,000 ft3 = 566.3 m3

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (798,300 mg/566.3m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = = 1014 ppm
molecularweight 34.00grams/mole

Answer: 1014 ppmv PH3. TLV-TWA = 0.3 ppmv. STEL = 1 ppmv. The
IDLH for PH3 is 200 ppmv. Application of 3 pounds of aluminum phosphide
is excessive, an “overkill,” since the LC50 for rats (4 hours) is 11 ppmv, and
the LCLos for rabbits = 2500 ppmv for 20 minutes, for mice = 273 ppmv for
2 hours, for guinea pigs = 101 ppmv for 4 hours, and 50 ppmv for 2 hours for
cats. The smallest amount of phosphine gas necessary to achieve sufficient
vermin control should be chosen. An EPA-licensed phosphine fumigator
can prescribe the safest effective dose for rodent and insect control. One
should question if there is sufficient water vapor (relative humidity) in the
air space to quantitatively convert AlP into phosphine gas. If not, one must
ensure sufficient mechanical (water nebulizer) humidification of the atmo-
sphere. Careful application of phosphine is required because human deaths
have been associated with its use as a fumigant for insects in sealed railroad
cars and other infested locations.

382. A 4-inch, full-port floating ball valve with self-relieving seats is in an out-
door line transporting dry, liquid chlorine at 500°F and 80 psia. This valve
is inadvertently left closed when the line is drained and purged for main-
tenance. As a result, 1 L of liquid chlorine is trapped in the valve’s body
cavity. Piping on downstream side had been removed for repairs. It is a hot
and sunny day. Before long, the sun heats the valve up to 160°F increas-
ing cavity’s pressure to 300 psig. The valve’s seats are designed to relieve
between 150 and 400 psia, and one seat does at 250 psia. The pressurized
liquid chlorine immediately vaporizes forming a blast of gas. How much
chlorine is released? In what air volume is produced a 1000 ppmv cloud of
chlorine gas at 760 mm Hg? Chlorine’s liquid density at 160°F is 1237 kg/m3
is 1237 g/L. Molecular weight of chlorine is 70.906 grams gram-mole−1.

PV = nRT

160°F = 344 K (kelvin)

760 mm Hg = 1 atmosphere

nRT (1237g/L)/(70.906g/mole)(0.0821L-atm/K-mole)(344 K)
V = =
P 1aatmosphere
= 492.7 L

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725 Problems with Solutions 177

As the pressurized, liquid chlorine rapidly blasts from the valve, perhaps
injuring or killing somebody nearby, 491.7 liters of gas are released. One
liter of 100% Cl2 gas remains in the valve body cavity for some time until it
later slowly diffuses into the surrounding atmosphere.

1000 ppm = 0.1%

491.7 L
× 106 = 1000 ppm Cl 2
491,700 L

491.7 L
= 491,700 L
0.001

3 491,700 L = 3 17,364 ft 3 = 25.9 feet

Answer: 491,700 liters of chlorine gas was released. If confined to a vol-

ume of 26 feet to a side, the cube would contain approximately an average
of 1000 ppmv of gas. The IDLH for chlorine is 30 ppmv. Only a few inhala-
tions of this concentration could be fatal to unprotected persons. If the valve
rupture was closer to the ground (instead of a point-source release of gas),
the spread of gas cloud along the x and y axes would be greater than 26 feet;
accordingly, the escape distance for unprotected workers would be more
than 26 feet. If released in a corner, for example, and under a low-lying roof
or cover, the lateral escape distances become still longer. For example, if
the Cl2 gas was released in a corner under an 8-foot ceiling, the lateral dis-
tances in both of the horizontal dimensions become:

17,364 ft 3
= 2171ft 2 = 46.6 feet making safe evacuation less likely.
8 ft

The Cl2 gas concentration in the corner near the valve would, of course,
be much greater than 1000 ppmv. The blast effects might incapacitate a
worker so greatly that she/he would be unable to evacuate the area.

383. Household chlorine bleach is a common, inexpensive, highly effective

disinfectant often prescribed by industrial hygienists to sanitize and dis-
infect (but not sterilize) inanimate surfaces. Most commercial solutions as
purchased are 5.25% sodium hypochlorite in water (NaOCl). It is thought
that the ClO− ions destroy bacteria by oxidizing life-sustaining compounds
within them. How much stock bleach solution (at 5.25% NaOCl) must be
diluted with water to make 1-gallon of a 3000 ppm disinfecting solution?

Have: 5.25% solution (w/v) = 5.25 g NaOCl/100 mL = 0.0525 g/mL

= 52,250 ppm

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178 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Want: 3000 ppm solution = 3000 mg NaOCl/L = 3 mg/mL = 0.003 g/mL

1 gallon = 3785 mL

3785 mL/gallon × 0.003 g NaOCl/mL = 11.36 g NaOCl/gallon

11.36gNaOCl
= 216.4 mL = 7.3 ounces = 0.92 cup
0.0525g/mLNaOCl

Answer: Dilute almost one cup of household chlorine bleach to 1 gallon

with tap water to make a 3000 ppm disinfecting solution.

384. A gas cylinder contains 1260 grams of hydrogen fluoride at 17.5 atmo-
spheres and 25°C. What mass of HF gas would be released if this cylinder
was heated to 90°C, the valve was opened until the gas pressure dropped to
1 atmosphere, and the temperature was maintained at 90°C?
The HF jet gas volume is determined from the initial physical conditions:

 1mole 
n = (1260 grams)   = 62.97 moles of HF
 20.01grams 

nRT (62.97 moles)(0.0821 L-atm/mole-K)(273 K + 25 K)

V = =
P 17.5atmosppheres
= 88.0 liters

The final number of moles is

PV (1.00 atm)(88.0 liters)

n= = = 2.955 moles of HF
RT (0.0821L-atm/mole-K)(363 K)

 20.01g 
(2.95 moles HF)   = 59.0 grams of HF
 mole 

(1260 grams HF initial) − (59 grams final) = 1201 grams of HF

Answer: 1201 grams of HF gas escaped from the cylinder.

385. Calculate the composition of the vapor phase at 30°C that is in equilibrium
with a solution of benzene (35 mole %) and toluene (65 mole %). The vapor
pressures of these aromatic hydrocarbons at this temperature are 119 and
37 mm Hg, respectively.

Partial total vapor pressure from benzene = (0.35) (119 mm Hg)

= 41.7 mm Hg

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725 Problems with Solutions 179

Partial total vapor pressure from toluene = (0.65) (37 mm Hg)

= 24.1 mm Hg

Total vapor pressure = 41.7 mm Hg + 24.1 mm Hg = 65.8 mm Hg

The percent vapor composition is calculated by applying Dalton’s law of

partial pressures:

VPbenzene 41.7 mm Hg
concentration benzene = = = 0.634 = 63.4% benzene
VPtotal 65.8 mm Hg

VPtoluene 24.1mm Hg
concentration toluene = = = 0.366 = 1.000 − 0.634
VPtotal 65.8 mm Hg
= 36.6% toluene

Answers: The vapor phase at saturation is 63.4% benzene and 36.6% tolu-
ene. Note how the more volatile component (benzene with its higher vapor
pressure) is enriched from 35% in the liquid phase to 63.4% in the vapor
phase. Strictly speaking, the vapor pressure of each aromatic organic chem-
ical must be added to the denominator because as each evaporates, they cre-
ate back pressure in a closed system that hinders evaporation. Regardless,
saturation will be reached as long as walls of the container are not colder
than the interior atmosphere. Partial condensation of vapor-phase organics
will occur, in such case, to the liquid phase.

386. The relative variability of the randomly distributed errors in a normal

distribution is referred to as the CV. In air sampling, there are numerous
opportunities for errors (analysis, sample collection, air flow rate calibra-
tion, etc.). Collectively, there can be a CV for the combined errors. For the
following sampling and analytical procedures, rank their respective CVs:
colorimetric detector tubes, rotameters on personal pumps, charcoal tubes,
asbestos, respirable dust, gross dust.

Answers:
Rotameter on personal pumps (sampling only) 0.05 CV
Gross dust (sampling/analytical) 0.05
Respirable dust, except coal mine dust (sampling/analytical) 0.09
Charcoal tubes (sampling/analytical) 0.10
Colorimetric detector tubes 0.14
Asbestos (sampling/counting) 0.24–0.38

387. An 8.3 L/min (nominal) critical orifice was calibrated in Philadelphia at

8.9 L/min at 72°F. This critical orifice was used to collect a general area air
sample for silica dust at 45°F in a foundry also in Philadelphia. What was
the actual air flow rate through the critical orifice? Assume identical baro-
metric pressures for calibration and air-sampling conditions.

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180 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Tactual
Qactual = Qindicated
Tcalibration

460o + 45o
Qactual = = 8.67 L/min
460o + 72o

Answer: 8.67 liters of air per minute. If the barometric pressures were dif-
ferent between the calibration and sampling conditions, use this standard
formula:

Pcalib × Tactual
Qactual = Qindicated
Pactual × Tcalib

Always ensure that all units are the same and that temperatures are
expressed in degrees absolute. Note that the square root function is always
used with variable orifice fluid flow meters.

388. 700 cubic yards of dry, densely packed cement dust are transferred approxi-
mately every hour during a 3-minute period from the calciner drying kiln
into a storage silo. The procedure requires the operator to turn on a fan for
the mechanical local exhaust system prior to dumping and allowing it to
run as cement dust cascades into the silo. Displaced dusty air exits the silo
through a 3' × 5' hole. An engineer selected a dust ventilation capture veloc-
ity of 300 fpm for the hole face. Is this sufficient to prevent escape of dust
into the surrounding atmosphere? The air void space in the packed cement
dust (say, 10% of the total volume) does not enter into calculations since this
air, along with the cement dust, is expelled from the silo.

700 yd3 × 27 ft3/yd3 = 18,900 ft3

18,900 ft3/3 minutes = 6300 ft3 of dusty air are displaced from the silo per
minute.
Since the cement transfer process occurs in “burps” over the 3 minutes,
allow a ventilation design contingency factor of 5: 6300 ft3/minute × 5 =
31,500 cfm

Q = AV

Q 31,500 cfm
V = = = 2100 ft/minute
A 3ft × 5ft

Answer: A capture velocity of 300 fpm is too low. With this velocity,
6300 cfm of dusty air are being displaced while the fan attempts to exhaust
4500 cfm (15 ft2 × 300 fpm). The silo emits, on average, 1800 ft3 of dusty

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725 Problems with Solutions 181

air per minute if the 300 fpm capture velocity is selected. Choose the fan,
dust collector, and appropriately sized ducts to provide silo exit air capture
velocity of about 2100 feet per minute. Decreasing the exhaust opening size
increases capture velocity, or, alternatively, a smaller fan and exhaust sys-
tem could be used with the 2100 cfm capture velocity.
This approach can also be used when designing and selecting mechani-
cal local exhaust ventilation systems for drum and tank-filling operations.
For example, if it requires 2 minutes to fill a 55-gallon drum with volatile
solvents (27.5 gallons per minute = 3.7 ft3/minute), a marginal ventilation
system would be able to capture the 3.7 ft3 of air saturated with solvent
vapors every minute. In typical, good industrial hygiene practice, a larger
volume is normally chosen such as, in this case, a 20 or so cfm exhaust
“elephant trunk” placed within 4 inches of the bung fill hole.

389. Organic vapor emissions from point sources (VOC, or volatile organic car-
bon) can be determined in a variety of ways depending on the source, the
hydrocarbon, and other fugitive vapor release factors. What formula can be
used to estimate yearly vapor losses (“breathing loss”) from volatile hydro-
carbon storage tanks?

Answer: A good calculation procedure is found in the Environmental

Protection Agency Publication AP-42:
0.68
 P 
LB = 2.26 × 10 −2 M v   D1.73 H 0.51 ∆ T 0.5 Fp C K c
 PA − P 

where
LB = organic vapor breathing loss, lb/year
MV = molecular weight of the vapor, lb/lb-mol
P = true vapor pressure, psia
PA = average atmospheric pressure, psia
D = tank diameter, ft
H = average vapor space height, ft
T = average ambient diurnal temperature (a equals the daily change), °F
FP = tank’s paint factor, dimensionless (e.g., shiny aluminum versus flack
black)
C = adjustment factor for small tanks, dimensionless
KC = product factor, dimensionless

The EPA publication provides data on common hydrocarbons and vari-

ous emission factors and coefficients. EPA-405/4-88-004 and EPA-450/2-
90-001a are other useful publications.
The working loss of a tank is the amount of volatile vapors displaced
during loading and unloading the tank. Assuming that there is no vapor
recovery system, this can be estimated by the equation:

LW = 2.40 × 10−5 Mv PV N KN KC

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182 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

where
LW = working loss, lb/year
V = tank capacity, gallons
N = number of capacity turnovers during the year, dimensionless
KN = turnover factor from AP-42

390. Silane (SiH4, silicon tetrahydride) has a TLV of 5 ppmv. This pyrophoric gas
readily reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere according to the equation:

SiH4 + 2H2O → SiO2 + 4H2

Assume the atmosphere in a 20,000 gallon confined space containing

10,000 ppmv SiH4 vapor (1%). There is sufficient water vapor present to
quantitatively hydrolyze the silane to silicon dioxide aerosol and hydrogen
gas. Is an explosive atmosphere generated (LEL H2 ≅ 4% in air)? Molecular
weight of silane is 32.12 gram/gram-mole. Assume the heat of chemical
reaction is sufficient to ignite hydrogen gas. Silane is a colorless, spontane-
ously flammable, and pyrophoric gas. Most likely, silane vapor reacts with
atmospheric water vapor to form silicic acid (hydrated silica, SiO2 ⋅ n-H2O).
The formation of crystalline silica in an aerosol cloud appears unlikely;
amorphous silica appears to be the most likely reaction product.

mg ppm × molecular weight 10,000 ppm × 32.12 g/mole

= =
m3 24.45 L/gram-mole 24.45 L/g-mole
= 13,137 mg/m 3

20,000 gallons = 75.71 m3

(13,137 mg/m3) × 75.71 m3 = 994,602 mg SiH4

994.6 gramsSiH 4 30.97 moles of SiH 4 are in the

=
32.12 gramsSiH 4 /mole tank’s atmosphere

Since 1 mole of silane generates 4 moles of hydrogen gas, 30.97 moles

will produce 123.88 moles of hydrogen. 123.88 moles × 2.016 grams/
mole = 247.7 grams of hydrogen gas.

(247,700 mg H 2 /75.71m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = 39,679 ppm H 2
2.016 g/mole

Answer: 39,679 ppmv hydrogen gas equals 3.97% or right at the LEL of 4%
hydrogen in air. While one debates if there is quantitative conversion of silane
into hydrogen, since silane has a “built-in match,” this tank and much nearby
shortly will become history. Prevention of silicosis is not a key issue here!

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725 Problems with Solutions 183

391. What is the average vapor concentration after one cup of benzene evaporates
into a building the size of a football field with a 14-foot ceiling? Assume that
there is no dilution, only mixing, ventilation as the benzene evaporates. In
other words, what is the equilibrium vapor concentration within the building
assuming no dilution?

300' × 160' × 14' = 672,000 ft3 = 19,030 m3

one cup = 236.6 mL

236.6 mL × 0.88 g/mL = 208.208 g = 208,208 mg

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (208,208 mg/19,030 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = = 3.4 ppm
molecular weight 78.11

Answer: 3.4 ppmv benzene vapor, or 34 times the NIOSH REL of 0.1 ppmv.
Such calculations of hypothetical examples are helpful to explain low air
contaminant concentrations to workers, supervisors, and to lay persons,
such as jurors, our courts, your spouse and children, and to the neighbors.
Using another familiar example—a standard sewing thimble of 2.2 mL vol-
ume: spill this amount of benzene in 1- 12 car garage (14' × 20' × 8'), and
the resultant vapor concentration becomes 9.5 ppmv—almost 10 times the
OSHA PEL (assuming, of course, the garage is unventilated).

392. What formula can be used to determine the amount of oxygen required for
perfect combustion of any fuel?

Answer: The approximate theoretical volume of oxygen required to burn a

fuel containing carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen is

volume of oxygen C H S O 
= 359 ft 3 or 1710 ft 3  + 2 + − 2
pound of fuel  12 4 32 32 

The coefficient of 359 is the volume (in ft3) of 1 pound-mole of O2 at

32°F and 1 atmosphere of pressure. Use 1710 as the coefficient to obtain the
theoretical volume of air. This formula is used for any dry fuel (e.g., oil,
coal, wood, gasoline, propane, kerosene, etc.). C, H2, S, and O2 are decimal
weights of these elements in 1 pound of fuel (e.g., for a fuel with 81% car-
bon, C = 0.81).

393. Flue gases (containing SO2) at 280°F are fed to a power plant stack through
a 3-feet diameter duct. The centerline Pitot tube measurement is 0.7 inch of
water. The static pressure duct wall manometer reads—0.6 inch of water.
The gas contains 0.45 mole-% SO2. The barometric pressure is 725 mm Hg.
What is the emission rate of SO2 gas from this stack in pounds per hour?

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184 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Assume that the Pitot traverse and static pressure gauge exceed 10 duct
diameters downstream of any gas flow laminarity disturbances.

1ft 62.4 lb 6.76 lb

∆ P = hp = [0.7 inch − (−0.6 inch)] × × =
12 in ft 3 ft 3

1lb − mole 29 lb 492o R 725mm Hg 0.05123 lb

Pair = × × × =
359 ft 3 mole 740o R 760 mm Hg ft 3

v 2 max ∆P
= = hv
2 gc r

∆P (2)(32.2)(6.76)
vmax = 2 gc × =
r 0.05123 lb/ft 3

92.2 ft
vmax =
second

vavg
= 0.81
vmax

vavg = (0. 81)(92.2 ft/second) = 74.7 ft/second

π 74.7 ft 528 ft 3
Q = A vavg = (3ft)2 × =
4 second second

 1 lb-mole 
SO2 gas emission rate = (528)(0.05123)(3600 seconds/hour) 
 29 lb 
 64 lb SO2  967 lb SO2
=  (0.0045) =
 lb mole hour

Answer: 967 pounds of SO2 gas per hour.

394. A gas mixture containing hydrogen chloride and dry air at 22 psia and 22°C
is bubbled through a gas scrubber containing 180 mL of 0.01 N NaOH solu-
tion. The collection efficiency of the gas bubbler is 100%. The remaining
NaOH is back-titrated requiring 15.63 mL of 0.1 N HCl. The dry air mixture
has a wet test meter volume reading of 1.0 L at a pressure of 740 mm Hg
and 25°C. What is the mass fraction and the mole fraction of HCl gas in the
original gas mixture?

NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

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725 Problems with Solutions 185

moles:

NaOH at start = (0.18) (0.01) = 0.0018 mole

NaOH at end = (0.01563) (0.1) = 0.001563 mole

HCl scrubbed = Δ NaOHstart a NaOHend = 0.000237 mole

Assume no water vapor in the air when volume was measured in wet test
meter:

moles of air =
PV
=
[740 mm Hg/760 mm Hg] (1000 mL) = 0.0398 mole
RT (82.06)(298)

Assume water vapor in air:

PH2 O = 0.4594 psia = 23.76 mm Hg

Pair = 740 mm Hg − 23.76 mm Hg = 716.24 mm Hg

Moles of air =
PV
=
[716.24 / 760] (1000 mL) = 0.0385mole
RT (82.06)(298)

Water vapor in air:

0.000237
YHCl = = 0.0061
0.000237 + 0.0385

yHCl [ M HCl /Mair ] (0.0061) [36.5/29]

YHCl = =
1 + yHCl [( M HCl /Mair ) − 1] (1 + 0.0061) [(36.5/29) − 1]
= 0.0295

No water vapor in air:

0.000237
y= = 0.0059
0.000237 + 0.0398

(0.0059) [36.5/29]
y= = 0.0286
(1 + 0.0059) [(36.5/29) − 1]

Answers: 0.0295 and 0.0286 mole fractions of HCl gas, respectively, in

moist and in dry air (0.0295 and 0.0286 mole HCl, respectively/liter of
moist or dry air). Converting, for example, 0.0295 mole of HCl/L into ppmv:

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186 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

0.0295 mole HCl × 36.46 g HCl/mole = 1.076 g HCl = 1,076,000 mcg HCl

(1,076,000 mcg HCl/L) × 24.45 L/g-mole

= 721,563 ppm HCl = 72.16%
36.46 g/g-mole

Such an obviously high concentration of HCl in this gas sample shows

that it is not a workplace air sample. This is the concentration one might
expect in a chemical process stream, say in the product effluent of an HCl-
manufacturing plant: Cl2 + H2 → 2HCl. A 1-liter gas sample from such a
process stream would normally be sufficient.

395. The concentration of iron oxide fume (as Fe2O3) in the breathing zone of
a scarfer of new steel ingots is 4.7 mg/m3. The TLV for iron oxide fume is
5 mg/m3 (as Fe). What is the exposure of this scarfer as Fe?
The molecular weights of Fe2O3 and Fe = 159.69 and 55.847, respectively.

2 Fe 2 × 55.847
= = 0.6994 = 69.94% Fe
Fe 2 O3 159.69

4.7 mg Fe2O3/m3 × 0.6994 = 3.29 mg Fe/m3

396. The static pressure at a fan outlet is 0.5 inch of water. The static pressure at
the fan’s inlet is −6.5 inches of water. The duct velocity pressure is 0.8 inch
of water. What is the fan static pressure?

FSP = SPoutlet − SPinlet − VP = +0.5" − (−6.5") − 0.8" = 6.2 inches of water

397. Carbon dioxide gas measurements can be used to estimate the percent
of outdoor air admitted to a building where, for example, outdoor air is
400 ppmv CO2, return air is 750 ppmv CO2, and mixed air is 650 ppmv CO2.
What is the percent outdoor air supplied under these conditions?

ppm return air − ppm mixed air

%outdoor air = × 100
ppm return air − ppm outdoor air
750 ppm v − 650 ppm v 100 ppm v
= × 100 = × 100
750 ppm v − 400 ppm v 350 ppm v
= 28.6%

Answer: Approximately 29% of the building’s general ventilation air is

supplied from the outside. Therefore, about 71% of the air in the building is
being recirculated.

398. A 13,500 gallon liquid incinerator feed tank is filled and emptied daily with
a PCB-contaminated solution of ethyl acetate (100 ppmm PCBs). The tank is

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725 Problems with Solutions 187

vented to the atmosphere and does not have a vapor recovery system. Does
the incinerator or the tank release more hydrocarbons to the atmosphere?
The vapor pressure of ethyl acetate at NTP is 73 mm Hg. The vapor pres-
sure of PCBs, compared to the vapor pressure of ethyl acetate, is negligible.
The design combustion efficiency of this incinerator is verified at 99.99%.
The specific gravity of ethyl acetate is 0.90 g/mL. The molecular weight of
ethyl acetate is 88.1 grams/gram-mole.

73mm Hg
Partial pressure of ethyl acetate in tank =
760 mm Hg
= 0.096 atmosphere at NTP

PM
Vapor concentration in tank =
RT
(0.096 atm)(88.1lb/lb-mole)
=
0.7302 atm − ft 3 /lb-mole − o R (460 + 75)
= 0.0217 lb/ft 3

The daily emission rate from the tank’s open vent

13,500 gallons 0.134 ft 3 0.0217 lb 39.3 lb

= × × =
day gallon ft 3 day

The daily hydrocarbon emission rate from this incinerator

13,500 gallons 8.34 lb 10.1lb

= × 0.90 × × (1 − 0.9999) =
day gallon day

Answer: The tank’s vent emits almost 4 times the amount of vapors
released from the incinerator’s stack. Engineering controls for the tank
include an inert gas blanket (nitrogen) to reduce explosion hazards. Ethyl
acetate vapors will pass through a regenerative carbon adsorber as the tank
is filled. Do not vent these vapors into the incinerator to prevent flashback
explosive fire! Present combined daily VOC emissions for this system are
39.3 lb plus 10.1 lb = 49.4 pounds. Note that if the incinerator efficiency
drops from 99.99% to 99.95%, incinerator’s contribution of VOC to the
environment exceeds the fugitive VOC emissions from the tank by 50.7 lb/
day − 39.3 lb/day = 11.4 lb/day.

13,500 gallons 8.34 lb 50.7 lb

× 0.90 × × (1 − 0.9995) =
day gallon day

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188 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

399. Leakage of highly and acutely toxic gases (e.g., arsine) from pressurized sys-
tems, especially into confined work spaces with poor ventilation, is problematic
for the chemical safety engineer and workers in those spaces. Dish detergent
solutions and commercial leak detection liquids can be used to determine the
volumetric flow rate of gas leaks. The emission rate can be estimated with a
small ruler scale and a stopwatch. The diameter of an enlarging gas bubble is
measured as a function of time of growth. The assumption is made that the
bubble is a sphere. Calculate leak rate of 12% phosgene gas in nitrogen if a
2-cm diameter bubble is emitted from a gas line fitting in 7.3 seconds.

(1/6) × π × d 3 (1/6) × π × (2 cm)3 0.574 cm 3

V = = =
t 7.3seconds second
0.0344 L 0.0122 ft 3
= =
minute minute

0.0122 ft 3 0.001464 ft 3 COCl2

× 0.12 =
minute minute

where
V = gas leak rate, volume per time
d = diameter of gas bubble at time t, and
t = elapsed time to form the gas bubble with diameter, d

Answer: Approximately 0.001464 ft3 of phosgene gas is emitted per min-

ute. If the leak is not repaired immediately or mechanical local exhaust ven-
tilation is not readily available, then the volume of dilution air required to
reduce COCl2 gas to a safer concentration can be calculated. In general, it is
poor industrial hygiene practice to rely upon dilution ventilation for highly
toxic gases. In this example, the amount and rate of gas emitted appear to
be relatively tiny; however, any leak of a highly toxic gas, such as phosgene,
must be staunched immediately. That is, pronto, stat.

400. Helium, a gas considerably less dense than air (0.0103 lb/ft3; air = 0.075 lb/ft3),
is used, among other purposes, to inflate party balloons. Most of us know that
when one inhales helium gas, our voice becomes “squeaky” due to a lower
density of the helium and air gas mixture passing over vocal cords in our
larynx. Fatalities have resulted when persons have deliberately inhaled helium
released from cylinders of pressurized gas. Deaths have been attributed to
physical asphyxiation from the gas and from increased intrapulmonary pres-
sure. Direct inhalation of helium from a commercial balloon-filling system
can pose a greater hazard than inhaling helium from a party balloon. How can
pressure of the inhaled helium gas dispensed from a commercial system kill
one essentially instantly?
A difference of 30 mm Hg pressure between the surrounding lung
pressure and the intrapulmonary pressure can be fatal if the exposure is

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725 Problems with Solutions 189

prolonged. As the helium (or any inhaled gas) pressure differential increases
to 80−100 mm Hg, death is rapid from rupture of alveoli. Prompt hemor-
rhage results in drowning asphyxiation fatalities.
Commercial helium balloon-filling systems typically deliver gas at 5 cubic
feet per minute (2.36 liters/minute). Lung volumes vary from person to per-
son. Total lung capacity for an average adult man is 5.6 liters, and, for an aver-
age adult woman, it is 4.4 liters. For this evaluation, assume a 10-year-old boy
with a total lung volume of 3 liters directly inhaled helium from a commercial
gas-dispensing system by placing his mouth directly over the gas dispensing
spigot while cracking the valve.

Lung bursting pressure = 80−100 mm Hg = 1.55–1.93 lb/in2 (psi)

As added measure of safety, use the lower limit of 1.55 psi for lung rup-
ture. The questions become: (1) How much gas volume must be added to
the total lung volume to cause a pressure increase of 1.55 psi? and (2) How
quickly could this occur?
Boyle’s gas law applies: P1/P2 = V2/V1 + v, where P1 and P2 = original and
final gas pressures, respectively; and V1 and V2 = the original and final gas
volumes, respectively. v = the additional gas volume to be added to a 3 liter
lung volume to cause a pressure increase of 1.55 psi. Atmospheric pressure
is assumed to be 14.7 psi. Pressure at other altitudes can be substituted for
this sea-level pressure.

14.7 psi 3.0 L

= (3.0 L)(16.25 psi) = (14.7 psi) (3.0 L + v)
14.7 psi + 1.55 psi 3.0 L + v

v = 0.316 L, the additional lung volume required.

The minimum time required to produce this additional lung volume at
the rupture pressure (1.55 psi) is calculated by dividing the additional lung
volume of 0.316 L by the maximum helium gas flow rate, or

0.316 L
= 0.134 second
2.36 L/second

Answer: The increased inhaled gas volume in a person with this lung
capacity is only 0.316 L, and the pressure increase time is no less than
0.134 second. But, since lungs are compliant and are not a rigid struc-
ture, time required to reach this increased pressure may be a tad longer.
Regardless, these calculations show that inhalation of helium gas directly
from portable balloon-filling tanks is extremely hazardous. Since the por-
table tanks have initial pressures above 200 psi, there is ample pressure
to cause fatal injuries in persons who place their mouth directly over the
helium discharge gas valve.

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190 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

401. A chemical reaction is predicted to release 590 cubic meters of process

air that will contain 4390 ppmv of H2S. A combination of sodium hydrox-
ide (NaOH) solution followed by a sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution
oxidation is used to remove the H2S from the process gas stream. The H2S
neutralization and oxidation reactions are

H2S + 2NaOH ↔ Na2S + 2H2O

Na2S + 4NaOCl → Na2SO4 + 4NaCl

The H2S gas will be scrubbed through a column containing 55 gallons of

1% NaOH solution in water. It is assumed that, if there is sufficient NaOH
present, the H2S gas absorption will be 100% efficient if the gas scrub-
bing rate is sufficiently slow. The resultant sodium sulfide solution is then
reacted with the sodium hypochlorite solution for final oxidation. Is there
sufficient NaOH present?

mg ppm × molecular weight 4390 ppm × 34.08 6119 mg H 2 S

= = =
m3 24.45 24.45 m3

6119 mg H 2 S
× 590 m 3 = 3,610,210 mg H 2 S = 3610 grams of H 2 S
m3

3610 g H 2 S
= 105.9 moles of H2 S are to be scrubbed
34.08 g H 2 S/mole

Therefore, 105.9 moles × 2 = 211.8 moles of NaOH are needed for 100%
reaction.

55 gallons = 208.2 L

1% (w/v) solution = 10 grams NaOH/liter

208.2 L × 10 g NaOH/L = 2082 grams of sodium hydroxide

2082 g NaOH
= 52.05moles of NaOH ≪ 211.8 moles
40.00 g NaOH/mole
of NaOH required

Answer: There is insufficient NaOH present in the gas scrubber solution

for the removal of H2S from the process stream. Increase the concentration
to at least 5% to ensure stoichiometric reaction.
A 5% solution contains 260.25 moles of NaOH, or 48.45 moles in excess.
Consideration should be given to scrubbing this gas process stream through
two absorption columns connected in series with the first containing 55

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725 Problems with Solutions 191

gallons of a 4% solution of NaOH, and with the second containing 55 gal-

lons of a 2% solution of NaOH. After the reaction is completed, combined
scrubber solutions are oxidized with sodium hypochlorite.
Using a flare to oxidize the H2S or injection through a high-level stack to
dilute the gas to safer ground-level concentrations is risky, possibly much
more costly, and likely prohibited. Issues of inhalation toxicity and com-
munity odor would remain.
In 1950, in Poza Rica, Mexico, a flare failed to oxidize H 2S to SO2 gas
at a sulfur recovery unit in a refinery, and, during the night, 22 per-
sons in the community died with another 320 hospitalized. H 2S is a
potent chemical asphyxiant with an IDLH of 100 ppmv. CO and HCN,
two other chemical asphyxiant gases, have IDLHs of 1200 and 50 ppmv,
respectively.

402. The concentration of radon-222 in the basement of a newly constructed

house is 1.85 × 10−6 mole per liter. Assuming that basement air remains
static, and there is no further release of Rn-222, what is the concentration
after 2.3 days? The half-life of Rn-222 is 3.8 days.

2.3 days/3.8 days

1
Amount of Rn-222 remaining = (1.85 × 10 −6 mole/L)  
2
0.605
1
= (1.85 × 10 −6 mole/L)  
2
= 1.22 × 10 mole/L
−6

Answer: 1.22 × 10−6 mole per liter, or (1.22 × 10−6 mole/L) × (222 g Rn/
mole) = 270.84 × 10−6 g/L = 271.84 mcg/L.

403. 10.9 liters of ambient, community air at 740 mm Hg and 19.0°C were bub-
bled through lime water [an aqueous suspension of Ca(OH)2]. All carbon
dioxide gas in air sample was precipitated as calcium carbonate. If the pre-
cipitate weighed 0.058 g, what was the percent by volume of CO2 in this
air sample? Molecular weights of carbon dioxide and calcium carbonate
are, respectively, 44.01 and 100.09 grams per gram-mole. Disregard the low
solubility of calcium carbonate in water (0.00153 g/100 cc at 25°C).

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 ↓ + H2O

10.9 L = 0.0109 m3

0.058 g CaCO3
= 0.00058 mole of CaCO3
100.09 g CaCO3 /mole

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192 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Therefore, 0.00058 mole of CO2 was in the 10.9 L air sample.

 44.01g CO2 
0.00058 mole of CO2 × 
mole  = 0.0255g of CO2 = 25.5mg CO2
 

mg 22.4 absol. temp. 760 mm Hg

ppm = 3
× × ×
m molecular weight 273.15K pre ssure,mm Hg
25.5mg CO2 22.4 273.15 C + 19 C 760 mm Hg
o o
= 3
× × ×
0.0109 m 44.01 273.15 740 mm Hg
= 1308 ppm CO2

Answer: 1308 ppmv CO2 = 0.1308%v. This is obviously polluted air because
the typical ambient concentration of CO2 in relatively clean urban air is
below 400 ppmv. In such an atmosphere, there would most likely be sev-
eral other air contaminants, for example, CO, soot, PNAHs, particulates,
HCHO, O3, NOx, SO2, and so on.

404. Inert gases, such as nitrogen, are used to exclude oxygen from systems
where an explosion hazard exists and/or the product or materials are subject
to air oxidation. Ventilation formulae are presented in this book to enable
the engineer to calculate how much nitrogen is needed to dilute an ini-
tial 21% ambient oxygen concentration down to some predetermined level,
say <1% O2. Devise some simple guidelines to enable a chemical process
attendant to do this without resorting to complex first-order ventilation air
contaminant decay equations.

Answer: The concentration of oxygen in the ambient air is 20.95v%, so after

seven inert gas volume exchanges in a system, the oxygen concentration decays
to less than 0.1%. Thus, total nitrogen required for sweep purging would be 7
times the headspace volume. For example, a 10,000 gallon tank containing
2000 gallons of liquid would require 7 × 8000 gallons = 56,000 gallons of
nitrogen with good mixing of the sweep gas with the oxygen-containing air.
Since fans are rated in cubic feet of air per minute, convert gallons to
cubic feet by multiplying by 0.134 (56,000 gallons × 0.134 = 7504 ft3).
Divide rated fan capacity (in cfm) into total headspace volume to obtain fan
operating time, for example, with a 500 cfm fan blowing nitrogen into the
space: 7504 ft3/500 cfm = 15 minutes. Apply a safety factor if there is poor
mixing of the nitrogen with the air. Verify the oxygen concentration by
obtaining representative gas samples.
In closed systems, a mass gas flow meter or a critical flow orifice can mea-
sure the nitrogen delivery. People have died from asphyxiation when they
unknowingly entered confined spaces that contained inert atmospheres.
Such spaces must be clearly posted to warn of the inhalation hazard. All
elements of a confined space entry program must be in place to conserve

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725 Problems with Solutions 193

the health and safety of entrants (see 29 CFR 1910.146). Padlocking inert
atmosphere spaces to impede unauthorized entry is a tremendous idea; haz-
ard warning signs are never enough.

405. An ambient air sample is collected in a partially evacuated 3.2 L glass flask for
gas analysis. The barometric pressure at the time of sampling is 728 mm Hg,
and the air temperature is 25°C. The relative humidity is 45%. The pressure
remaining in the flask after evacuation (but before air sampling) is 480 mm
Hg. What volume of air is sampled? The vapor pressure of water at 25°C
(77°F) is 23.76 mm Hg.
The partial pressure of the air sample due to water vapor = 0.45 × 23.76 mm
Hg = 10.7 mm Hg.

Pbar − PH2 O − Ppartial 273o C

V = Va × ×
760 mm Hg 273 C + 25o C
o

728 mm Hgg − (10.7 mm Hg + 480 mm Hg) 273

= 3.2 L × ×
760 mm Hg 273 + 25
237.3 273
= 3.2 L × × = 0.915 L,
760 298

where
Pbar = barometric pressure
PH2O = partial pressure of water vapor
Ppartial = pressure remaining in the flask after evacuation

Answer: 0.915 liter note that these calculations correct gas-sampling con-
ditions to STP (0°C and 760 mm Hg).

406. Air was sampled for sodium nitrate dust and nitric acid gas at an aver-
age flow rate of 1.73 liters per minute through a membrane filter followed
by an impinger that contained 9.7 mL of a dilute NaOH. Assuming 100%
collection efficiency and an air-sampling duration of 29.5 minutes, how
much dust and gas were present if the filter contained 161 mcg of NO3−, and
the impinger contained 2.7 mcg of NO3− per mL? The respective molecular
weights of NaNO3 and HNO3 are 84.99 and 63.01. The molecular weight of
nitrate anion, NO3−, is 62.01. Assume that this air sample was obtained at
25°C and 760 mm Hg.
It is reasonable to assume HNO3 gas passed through the filter and was
collected by the impinger and that essentially no sodium nitrate dust passed
the filter.

1.73 L/min × 29.5 minutes = 51.035 L

84.99
161mcg NO3− × = 220.7 mcg NaNO3
62.01

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194 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

220.7 mcg NaNO3

= 4.32 mg NaNO3 /m 3
51.035 L

(26.6 mcg HNO3 /51.035 L) × 63.01

ppm = = 1.34 ppm HNO3
24.45 L/g-mole

Answers: 4.33 mg NaNO3 dust/m3 and 1.34 ppmv HNO3 gas—a dusty, irri-
tating atmosphere. The ACGIH TLVs for HNO3 gas, total inhalable particu-
lates (NOC), and respirable particulates are 2 ppmv, 10 mg/m3, and 3 mg/m3,
respectively. If we assume one-third of total airborne dust by mass was respi-
rable, what was the additive mixture exposure?

1.44 mg/m 3 2.89 mg/m 3 1.34 ppm

+ + = 1.44
3 mg/m 3 10 mg/m 3 2 ppm

This clearly is an overexposure if this air sample represented a worker’s

breathing zone and the exposure was prolonged. A short-term air sample,
such as this, is perfectly acceptable to demonstrate the magnitude of expo-
sures and if engineering and work practice controls are clearly required.

407. A worker exposed to a steady-state concentration of an air contaminant is

required to wear an air-purifying respirator with a protection factor of 100.
What is effective protection factor (Peffect) if he removes his respirator for
only a 30-second period in his 8-hour work day?

480 minutes × (60 seconds/minute) = 28,800 seconds

30 seconds
× 100 = 0.104% of the exposure time
28,800 seconds

1 − 0.104 = 99.986 = % of exposure time when protection is provided

100
Peffect = = 90.59
[99.986/100] + 0.104

100 − 90.59 = 9.41

Answer: Removing respirator for only 30 seconds during an 8-hour work

day reduces protection factor by 9.4%.

408. In the preceding example, what is Peffect if his respirator is worn 90% of the
time?

480 minutes × 0.1 = 48 minutes

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725 Problems with Solutions 195

100
Peffect = = 9.2
[ 90 /100 ] + 10
100 − 9.2 = 90.8

Answer: If worker’s respirator is removed for any combinations of time

that total 48 minutes during an 8-hour work day, respirators with protection
factors of 1000 and 100 provide nearly the same level of respiratory protec-
tion. This respirator’s protection factor, in this example, is reduced by an
astounding 91%.

409. A worker’s exposure to an air contaminant released from a point emission

source can be estimated using a dispersion calculation method. If an indus-
trial process, for example, emits 33 milligrams of hydrogen fluoride gas per
second from a point source (such as a leaking valve in a pressurized line) in
a 10 mph horizontal wind flow, what is a worker’s most likely exposure to
this gas if he is 50 feet away from the point emission source (i.e., downwind
of the source)? What would the gas concentration be approximately if he
was 10 feet away?

Q
C = ,
k u xn

where
C = concentration of air contaminant expected in the breathing zone, mg/m3
k = a constant, 0.136
u = wind speed, meters/second (with 0.5 m/sec being a minimum velocity)
x = distance between the worker and the source, meters
n = a constant, 1.84
Q = emission rate, milligrams/second

10 mph = 4.47 meters/second

50 feet = 15.24 meters

33 mg HF/s
C = = 0.36 mg/m 3
(0.136)(4.47 m/s)(15.24 meters)1.84

10 feet = 3.048 meters

33mg HF/s
C = = 6.98 mg HF/m 3
(0.136)(4.47 m/s)(3.048 meters)1.84

Answer: 0.36 mg HF/m3 at 50 feet away. The TLV (ceiling concentration)

for HF is 2.3 mg/m3. At 10 feet, the predicted exposure concentration is 7 mg

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196 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

HF/m3, or 3 × TLV (C). This illustrates a fundamental and primary indus-

trial hygiene control method: reduce exposure by increasing the distance
between the worker and environmental stressors (air contaminant, heat,
noise, radiation, etc.). Move exposed workers away, and repair leak imme-
diately. Arrange medical evaluation for those exposed.

410. Dry air at sea level has a total atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg. Oxygen
comprises 20.95%v (159.22 mm Hg), and 79.05%v (600.78 mm Hg) is com-
prised of nitrogen, argon, other inert gases, and carbon dioxide. If air is
humidified to 70% at 77°F (25°C), what is the change in the partial pressure
of the gases of composition? Vapor pressure of water at 77°F is 23.76 mm Hg.
0.7 × 23.76 mm Hg = 16.63 mm Hg (the partial pressure due to water vapor)

For oxygen: 20.95% × (760 − 16.63) mm Hg = 155.73 mm Hg

For nitrogen, argon, and so on: 79.05% × (760 − 16.63) mm Hg = 587.63 mm Hg

Answer: 155.7 mm Hg for oxygen and 587.6 mm Hg for the remaining gases.

411. The maximum allowable concentration of calcium carbonate dust (limestone)

in a worker’s breathing zone is selected to be 10% of the TLV = 1 mg/m3
(TLV = 10 mg/m3). The total general dilution ventilation through his work-
space is 10,000 cfm with 20% of the air (2000 cfm) recirculated. The ven-
tilation mixing factor, K, is estimated at 3. What is the maximum allowable
concentration of calcium carbonate dust in the discharge air from the dust
collector before mixing with room air to meet the 1 mg/m3 maximum expo-
sure limit?

1 Q 1
CR = (TLV − Co ) × T × ,
2 QR K

where
CR = concentration of contaminant in exit air from the collector before
mixing
Q T = total ventilation through the affected workspace (ft3/minute)
Q R = recirculated air flow (ft3/minute)
K = ventilation mixing factor, usually varying between 3 and 10 with one = excel-
lent conditions, three = good mixing conditions, and 10 = extremely poor
mixing conditions.
TLV = Threshold limit value of the air contaminant. Only relatively non-
toxic airborne contaminants may be recirculated—and then with exqui-
site engineering controls. Recirculation of carcinogens and reproductive
health toxicants must not be permitted.
Co = concentration of contaminant in worker’s breathing zone with local
exhaust discharged outside

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725 Problems with Solutions 197

1 10,000 cfm 1
CR = × (10 mg/m 3 − 1mg/m 3 ) × × = 7.5mg/m 3
2 2000 cfm 3

Answer: Maximum concentration in the discharge air of the collector

may be no more than 7.5 mg/m3 (before mixing with dilution air) to ensure
breathing zone concentrations do not exceed 1 mg/m3. Limestone typically
contains small, but toxicologically significant amounts of crystalline silica.
Such exposures must be quantified.

412. A coal-burning power plant emits 0.2% SO2 by volume at a temperature of

260°F from its stack. The total volume of gases emitted is 5 × 105 cubic feet
per minute. What is the SO2 emission rate in units of mass/time (seconds)?
The atmospheric pressure is 980 millibars (i.e., 0.98 bar).

Molecular weight of SO2 = 64

260°F = 399.8 kelvin

500,000 cfm = 236 m3/second

mass V P M (236 m 3 /second)(0.002)(64)(980)

= × =
time t RT (0.0832)(399.8 K)
= 890 gramsSO2 /second

Answer: 890 grams of SO2 are emitted per second.

413. A boiler maker removing fly ash from an oil-fired furnace air pollution
electrostatic precipitator is exposed to an average total dust concentration of
3 mg/m3 over his 8-hour work shift. He does not use a respirator. Without an
analysis of constituents of this fine dust, is this a potential significant inha-
lation hazard? In other words, should one not implement industrial hygiene
controls because some information is lacking? After all, if this is only a
“nuisance” dust (TLVs: inhalable particulates = 10 mg/m3; respirable par-
ticulates = 3 mg/m3 if NOC), an over exposure does not appear indicated.
The author abhors the term “nuisance dust.”

Typical Fuel Oil Ash Metal Analysis

(As Elemental, but Most Likely Exist as Oxides)
Iron 22.90 weight%
Aluminum 21.90
Vanadium 19.60*
Silicon 16.42
Nickel 11.86*
Magnesium 1.78
Chromium 1.37*
Calcium 1.14

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198 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Sodium 1.00
Cobalt 0.91*
Titanium 0.55
Molybdenum 0.23
Lead 0.17*
Copper 0.05
Silver 0.03
Miscellaneous 0.09
Total 100%

Source: Air Pollution Engineering Manual, U.S. Department of

Health, Education, and Welfare 1967.

Applying the above typical percentages to just the * highlighted higher toxicity
metals:

3 mg/m3 × 0.196 (vanadium) = 0.59 mg V/m3 TLV = 0.05 mg/m3 (as respirable V2O5 dust
or fume)
3 mg/m3 × 0.1186 (nickel) = 0.36 mg Ni/m3 TLV = 0.05 mg/m3 (soluble Ni) and 0.1 mg/
m3 for (insoluble Ni)
3 mg/m3 × 0.0137 (chromium) = 0.04 mg total TLV = various: 0.01−0.5 mg/m3
chromium/m3
3 mg/m3 × 0.0091 (cobalt) = 0.03 mg Co/m3 TLV = 0.02 mg/m3
3 mg/m3 × 0.0017 (lead) = 0.005 mg Pb/m3 PEL = 0.05 mg/m3

Answer: Excessive exposures to several metals appear likely—particu-

larly vanadium and nickel. Control methods are indicated. There might be
crystalline silica (SiO2) in the total silicon analysis. For this type of work,
the author maintains that only an air-supplied full face respirator, or in
some cases, a powered air-purifying mask, be used. Regular medical sur-
veillance for those doing this work is suggested.

414. Inert gas blanketing techniques are often used to help prevent explosions
in closed systems. Nitrogen or steam is often used for this. Vacuum purg-
ing with nitrogen gas is done by evacuating gases and vapors from the
system and then increasing system pressure back to atmospheric pres-
sure with N2. This is done repeatedly until the desired minimum oxy-
gen concentration is achieved. What would the oxygen concentration be
after three purges in a system where attainable vacuum pressure is 0.6
atmosphere?

On = 21Pn,

where
On = oxygen concentration after n purges
P = vacuum pressure, bar absolute

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725 Problems with Solutions 199

0.6 atmosphere = 0.608 bar

On = 21(0.608)3 = 4.72%

To determine the number of purges to achieve a desired oxygen

concentration:

log [On /21]

n= = (from the preceding example),
log P
log [ 4.72%/21%] −0.648
= =3
log 0.608 bar −0.216

Answer: 4.72% oxygen by volume. This assumes inert gas does not
contain any oxygen, and that the initial concentration of oxygen is 21%.
Oxygen concentration should be regularly verified by reliable gas analy-
sis. These are highly oxygen-deficient atmospheres without warning prop-
erties. Such systems must be posted, secured, and treated per OSHA’s
confined space entry procedure. If steam is used, special care must be
exercised because many do not regard water vapor as an inert gas. The
author investigated an asphyxiation fatality from steam because nitrogen
was unavailable to create an inert head space blanket. The tank entrant,
presumably (and the site safety engineer!) assumed that steam contained
sufficient oxygen to support life. The tank atmosphere, tested after the
worker’s body was extracted, contained 2% oxygen by volume. Refer to
Problem 417.

415. Secondary dust explosions can occur in buildings when an initial explosion
from any cause entrains settled dust into the atmosphere, and the dust cloud
is ignited. Assume that a small building 20 meters long, 10 meters wide, and
5 meters high has 2 millimeters of settled explosive dust dispersed evenly
upon the floor. The bulk density of this dust is 450 kg/m3. If a small explo-
sion in this building entrains 50% of the settled dust uniformly into the
building’s air, and there is a sufficiently hot ignition source, will there be a
secondary explosion after the first blast wave?
50% of 2 mm bulk dust layer = 1 mm of settled dust suspended in the air

1 mm = 0.001 meter

Floor area = 20 meters × 10 meters = 200 meters2

Volume of dust suspended in air = 200 meters2 × 0.001 meters = 0.2 m3

Mass of dust suspended in air 0.2 m3 × 450 kg/m3 = 90 kg = 90,000 g

Building volume = 20 m × 10 m × 5 m = 1000 m3

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200 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

90,000 g 90 grams
Concentration of explosive dust in atmosphere = =
1000 m 3 m3

Answer: 90 grams of dust per cubic meter of air. Ranges of LELs for
explosive dusts in air are approximately 10−2000 g/m3. So, depending upon
this particular dust, the blast wave from the initial explosion could entrain
enough dust to result in a normally more substantial secondary dust explo-
sion. For example, some minimum dust concentrations for explosion in air
(grams/m3) are: cornstarch (40), sugar (35), wheat flour (50), liver protein
(45), aluminum stearate (15), coal (50), soap (45), rubber (25), aluminum
(40), iron (250), zinc (480), and magnesium (10). Particle size of the dust
(i.e., total surface area) is a very important variable. Refer to Problem 377.

416. Calculate the vapor/hazard ratio numbers for toluene and ethyl acetate. The
vapor pressure and TLV for toluene are, respectively, 21 mm Hg and
20 ppmv, and for ethyl acetate, respectively, are 73 mm Hg and 400 ppmv.
First, calculate the equilibrium saturation concentrations for each organic
vapor:

21mm Hg
For toluene: × 106 = 27,632 ppm
760 mm Hg

73mm Hg
For ethyl acetate: × 106 = 96,053 ppm
760 mm Hg

Next, divide the equilibrium saturation concentrations for each organic

vapor by its TLV:

27,632 ppm
For toluene: = 1381.6 (dimensionless)
20 ppm

96,053 ppm
For ethyl acetate: = 240 (dimensionless)
400 ppm

Answer: The vapor/hazard ratio for ethyl acetate is 1381.6/240 = 5.76

times below that of toluene indicating that, although it is more volatile than
toluene and reaches higher concentrations more quickly, its lower inhala-
tion toxicity makes it perhaps a better choice in selecting a solvent if fire
issues are effectively controlled. Toluene, unlike ethyl acetate, is skin-
absorbed, greater systemic toxicant, and teratogen. While the vapor/hazard
ratio is a reasonably good approach to consider when selecting solvents,
other industrial hygiene and chemical safety engineering factors must obvi-
ously be considered, for example, flash point, ignition temperature, systemic
versus local toxic effects, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, solvent mixtures,

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725 Problems with Solutions 201

consequences and degrees of exposures, and so on. This approach to risk

management demonstrates that TLVs and PELs, alone, must not be used
solely in arriving at a solvent selection.

417. Instead of vacuum purging to reduce the concentration of oxygen in a flam-

mable atmosphere vessel (see Problem 414), pressure purging can be per-
formed. An inert gas, such as nitrogen, is used to pressurize the vessel. The
pressure is then relieved in a safe area, and the process is repeated until
a desirable minimum oxygen concentration is achieved. What is oxygen
concentration in the head space of a vessel after three pressure purges if
the oxygen concentration of the purge gas is 3%, and the purge pressure is
2.3 bar?

 1 
On = Op + (Oi − Op )  n  ,
P 

where
On = oxygen concentration after n purges
Oi = initial oxygen concentration, normally taken as 21%
Op = oxygen concentration of the purge gas
P = purge pressure, bar absolute, and
n = number of inert gas pressurizations

 1 
On = 3%(21% − 3%)  3  = 4.44%
 2.3 

Answer: 4.44% oxygen by volume. The number of pressure purges neces-

sary to achieve a preselected minimum oxygen concentration can be calcu-
lated by rearranging the above equation:

log (Oi − Op )/(On − Op ) 

n= = (using the example),
log P
log [(21% − 3%)/(4.44% − 3%)] log [18 /1.44 ]
= = 3.03
log 2.3 log 2.3

Pressure purging uses more inert gas than vacuum purging to achieve the
same reduced oxygen concentration. An advantage of pressure purging over
vacuum purging are the briefer cycle times; that is, it generally takes longer
to develop vacuum than it does to pressurize a vessel. Cost and performance
determine the best method that, in some cases, can be a combination of the
two procedures. The vessel must be rated for the maximum pressure and/or
vacuum before either method may be employed, and allow a safety design
factor before proceeding.

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202 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

The volume of inert gas required to reduce the oxygen level from O1 to
O2 is

 O − Oo 
Q t = V ln  1 ,
 O2 − Oo 

where
Q = volumetric flow rate
t = time
V = vessel volume
Oo = inlet oxygen concentration by volume
O1 = initial oxygen concentration by volume in vessel
O2 = final oxygen concentration by volume in vessel

418. Flow-through ventilation, or dilution purging, can be performed to create

an inert (or reduced oxygen) atmosphere in a space with explosive vapors,
gases, or dusts. The inert gas, usually nitrogen, flows longitudinally through
the vessel and sweeps oxygen from the system. Choice of such a procedure
requires careful placement of the inert gas entry point(s) and flow gas exit
point(s). What is the concentration of oxygen in the exit gas after 10 min-
utes if the initial concentration of oxygen in a tank was 21%, the inert gas
flow rate is 2 cubic meters per second, the volume of the tank head space is
700 m3, and the oxygen concentration of the purge gas is 2%?

Of = Op + [(Oi − Op )e[−Qt /V ] ],

where
Of = oxygen concentration after time, t,
Op = oxygen concentration of the inert purge gas,
Oi = initial oxygen concentration (usually taken as 21% O2, or ambient),
Q = purge gas flow rate, and
V = head space volume of vessel.

10 minutes = 600 seconds

3 /second × 600 seconds)/700 m3 ]
Of = 2% + [(21% − 2%) e[( −2 m ] = 5.42% O2

This equation can be rearranged to determine purge time to achieve the

desired minimum oxygen concentration, in this case, 5.42%:

V  Of − Op  700 m 3  5.42% − 2% 
t =− ln  = − ln 
Q  Oi − Op  2 m /second  21% − 2% 
3

3.24
= −(350seconds) ln = 600seconds = 10 minutes
18

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725 Problems with Solutions 203

419. What is the final relative humidity if air at 95°F dry bulb and 40% rela-
tive humidity is cooled to 70°F dry bulb without the addition or removal of
moisture?
This can be determined from a good psychrometric chart or calculated as
follows:
Since a fixed air mass is cooled, its volume becomes smaller according to
Charles’ law: volume of a mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature when the pressure is held constant, or, using 1000 ft3 as the
original volume:

Vi V VT (1000 ft 3 )(294.26 K)
= f , rearranging: Vf = i f = = 954.92 ft 3
Ti Tf Ti 308.15K

At 95°F, the vapor pressure of water is 42.18 mm Hg, and at 70°F, the
vapor pressure of water is approximately 18.68 mm Hg.

42.18 mm Hg
A. ppm H 2 O vapor at 95 o F = 0.4 × × 106 = 22,200 ppm
760 mm Hg

(100% relative humidity would be 55,500 ppmv = 5.55% water vapor.)

The gram molar gas volumes at 760 mm Hg and 70 and 95°F are, respec-
tively, 24.13 and 25.27 L.

mg H 2 O ppm × molecular weight 22,200 × 18 15,813mg

3
= = =
m 25.27 25.27 m3

15,813 mg/m3 = 447.776 mg/ft3 at 95°F = 447,776 mg of water vapor in

1000 ft3 at 70°F: 447,776 mg/954.92 ft3 = 469 mg/ft3 = 16,563 mg/m3

(16,563mg /m 3 ) × 24.13
ppm = = 22,204 ppm
18

Note how ppmv are constant between the two conditions of temperature.
Equation A (above) can be rearranged to solve for the relative humidity at
the new condition:

ppm H 2 O vapor (at elevated DB temperature)

% relative humidity =
[(vapor pressure,mm Hg (at reduced DB temperature) /
760 mm Hg) × 10 4 ]
22,200 ppm
= = 90.3%
(18.68 mm Hg / 760 mm Hg) × 10 4

Answer: 90.3% relative humidity at 70°F—in other words, cooler, moister

air. Significant cooling (air conditioning) can be achieved if much of the

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204 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

moisture is removed from this air before it is supplied to occupied areas.

If using psychometric charts, note that the dew point temperature does not
change between these two conditions.

420. A rectangular ventilation duct is 14" × 20". What is the equivalent diameter
size for a round duct?

 ( A × B)0.625 
Dequiv = (1.3)  0.25 
,
 ( A + B) 

where
Dequiv = equivalent diameter of the round duct size for a rectangular duct,
inches
A = one side of the rectangular duct, inches
B = adjacent size of the rectangular duct, inches

 (14 × 20)0.625   (280)0.625 

Dequiv = (1.3)  0.25 
= (1.3)  0.25 
= 18.2 inches
 (14 + 20)   (34) 

Actually, select an 18-inch diameter duct since this size is essentially an

“off-the-shelf” item. Selection of a smaller diameter increases duct transport
velocity. In general, round ducts are stronger than un-braced rectangular ducts.

421. In a 6-foot diameter duct, a 10-point Pitot tube traverse in each of two direc-
tions gave the following readings (in inches of water) and corresponding
duct velocities calculated as shown below:

0.70" (4180 fpm) 0.62" (3930 fpm) Gas temperature = 300°F

0.79 (4440) 0.65 (4030)
0.83 (4550) 0.67 (4080) Altitude = 100 feet above sea level
0.89 (4710) 0.75 (4330)
0.91 (4760) 0.90 (4740) Dew point of gas = 140°F
0.90 (4740) 0.89 (4730)
0.93 (4820) 0.89 (4730)
0.85 (4620) 0.89 (4730)
0.80 (4470) 0.70 (4180)
0.78 (4420) 0.70 (4180)
Σ = 45,710 Σ = 43,660

What is the actual air flow rate and velocity? What is the standard air
flow rate?

(t + 460)
V = 174 Pv ,
K×d

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725 Problems with Solutions 205

where
V = duct velocity, fpm
Pv = velocity pressure, inches of water
t = air stream temperature, °F
K = relative density for altitude (= 1.0 for altitudes <1000 feet)
d = relative density correction factor for moisture. (Note that increased
amounts of water vapor reduce the gas density since water vapor mol-
ecules weigh less than air molecules: 18 vs. 29.)

The moisture content for 140°F dew point air is 0.17 pound of water/
pound of dry air. From standard psychrometric tables and charts, d is 0.918.
Taking the first velocity pressure reading of 0.70" above:

(300 + 460)
V = 174 (0.70)
(1)(0.918)
= 4180 fpm. Repeat this for thee other 19 readings!

therefore,

45,710 fpm + 43,660 fpm

Vavg = = 4470 fpm
20

π
area of six-foot diameter duct = × (6 ft)2 = 28.3ft 2
4

Air flow rate = 28.3 ft2 × 4470 fpm = 126,500 actual cfm

because the temperature is 300°F, the standard air flow rate is

460 + 70
126,500 cfm × = 88,200 standard cfm
460 + 300

Answer: 126,500 actual cfm. 88,200 standard cfm. 4470 fpm duct veloc-
ity. If the gas was cooled to standard conditions, water condensation will
occur. These calculations are tedious if not daunting. But there is relief for
those who do these often in the form of high-quality computer software.
Contact ASHRAE for a list of suppliers.

422. A ventilation system branch duct with a 10,000 cfm design volume has a
static pressure of −2.1 inches of water at the branch entry. The main, carry-
ing a volume of 50,000 cfm, has a static pressure of −2.40 inches of water
where the branch enters. What volume will be drawn through the branch at
a balanced condition?

Pb
Qb = Qo ,
Po

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206 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

where
Q b = air flow volume required for balance
Qo = design air flow volume
Pb = static pressure required for balance
Po = static pressure originally calculated for balance

2.40
Qb = 10,000 cfm × = 10,700 cfm
2.10

423. An exhaust ventilation hood is required for gas tungsten-arc welding of non-
ferrous metals at an assembly line production operation. The hood face can
be no closer than 9 inches from the arc. A 6-inch flange can be installed on
the 8" × 12" hood face. Because of variable cross-drafts that are difficult to
control, a capture velocity of 300 fpm is desired. What exhaust volume is
required?

Q = K(10x2 + A)Vx,

where
Q = exhaust volume, cfm
X = the distance from the center of the hood face to the farthest point of
welding fume, smoke, and gases release, feet
A = hood face area (not including the flange), ft2
Vx = minimum capture velocity, fpm
K = 1.0 for an unflanged hood; 0.75 for a large-flanged hood

  8 inches × 12 inches  
Q = 0.75 10(0.75ft)2 + 
 144 in 2 /ft 2   300 fpm = 1416 cfm
 

Be cognizant of the generation of ozone gas a considerable distance from the

arc, such as occurs with TIG welding of aluminum or other “white” metals.

424. In preceding problem (423), select a round duct that will provide a mini-
mum duct transport velocity of 3000 fpm.

Q 1416 cfm
A= = = 0.472 ft 2
V 3000 fpm

A 9-inch internal diameter duct has a cross-sectional area of 0.4418 ft2.

Q 1416 cfm
V = = = 3205fpm
A 0.4418 fpm

Answer: Nine-inch ID duct. When selecting a duct to achieve mini-

mum transport velocity, typically one should select the next smaller size

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725 Problems with Solutions 207

so pollutant transport minimum velocity is achieved. For welding fume,

in general, the minimum duct transport velocity is typically 2000 fpm. In
some cases, 3000 fpm would be a better design choice especially if large
airborne particles are generated (e.g., welding slag).

425. Refer to Problem 419. If there was 60% condensation of the water vapor in
70°F and 90.3% relative humidity air, how much water vapor (in gallons)
would be condensed per hour from a single-pass ventilation system deliver-
ing 20,000 cfm?

Vapor pressure of water at 70°F = 18.68 mm Hg

0.903 × 18.68 mm Hg = 16.87 mg Hg
16.87 mm Hg
ppm H 2 O vapor = × 106 = 22,197 ppm
760 mm Hg

mg H 2 O ppm × molecular weight 22,197 ppm × 18

= =
m3 24.13 L /gram -mole 24.13
16,558 mg H 2 O
=
m3

16,558 mg H2O/m3 = 468.9 mg/ft3

468.9 mg 20,000 ft 3 60 minutes 5.63 × 108 mg H 2 O

× × =
ft 3 minute hour hour
1241pounds H 2 O
=
hour

Since 60% of the water vapor condenses: 0.6 (1241 lb/hour) = 744.6 lb/
hour

744.6 lb /hour 89.4 gallons

=
8.33 lb /gallon hour

Answer: 89.4 gallons of water vapor will condense into liquid water every
hour.

426. Community air was sampled for 30 days and 17 hours at 7.3 cfm through
an 8" × 10" high-efficiency particulate filter. A 2 cm × 2 cm section of fil-
ter contained 89 micrograms of lead. What was the average airborne lead
concentration during the sampling period (assuming lead mass was evenly
distributed across the filter face)?

[30 days × (24 hours/day)] + 17 hours = 737 hours = 44,220 minutes

44,220 minutes × 7.3 cfm = 322,806 ft3 = 9140.8 m3

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208 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

4 cm2 = 0.62 in2

(80 in2/0.62 in2) = 129.03 = filter area multiplication factor

89 mcg Pb × 129.03 = 11,484 mcg Pb

11,484 mcg Pb 1.26 mcg Pb

=
9140.8 m 3 m3

Los Angeles, for example, before tetraethyl lead was eliminated from
motor fuels, typically had an arithmetic mean and a geometric mean of 1.7
and 1.08 mcg Pb/m3, respectively.

427. A 120-liter cylinder of nitric oxide at 5.2 atmosphere and 20°C developed
a leak. When the leak was repaired, 2.1 atmosphere of nitric oxide gas
remained in the cylinder that was still at 20°C. How many moles and grams
of NO gas escaped?

Moles of gas escaped = original moles of gas a final moles of gas

(5.2 atm)(120 L) (2.1atm)(120 L)

= − = 25.94 moles − 10.48 moles
(0.0821)(293K) (0.0821)(293K)
= 15.46 moles

15.46 moles NO × 30.01 grams/mole = 463.95 grams of NO

Answer: 15.46 moles and 463.95 grams of NO gas escaped from this gas
cylinder.

428. If, in the preceding problem, NO gas escaped into an empty 30' × 80' × 18'
room without ventilation, what NO gas concentration could be predicted
after thorough mixing?

15.46 moles NO × 30.01 grams/mole = 463.95 grams

30' × 80' × 18' = 43,200 ft3 = 1223.3 m3

(463,950 mg /1223.3m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = 309 ppm NO
30.01

Answer: 309 ppmv NO (TLV is 25 ppmv). NO converts into NO2 at a steady

rate following first-order decay reaction kinetics, so the atmosphere in the
room contains a mixture of noxious gases: 2NO + O2 → 2NO2 ↔ N2O4.
Beware all ye who enter without respiratory protection!

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725 Problems with Solutions 209

429. A chemical operator inadvertently poured 890 grams of potassium iodide

into a 70-gallon vat of sulfuric acid. There was excess sulfuric acid to oxi-
dize the reducing agent (KI) to hydrogen sulfide. What volume of H2S was
produced and released to the atmosphere assuming negligible solubility of
the H2S in the sulfuric acid?

8KI + xs 5H2SO4 → 4K2SO4 + 4I2 ↑ + H2S ↑ + 4H2O

Eight moles of KI generate 1 mol of H2S, or

 1mole KI   1mole H 2 S   24.45 L at NTP 

(890 g KI)    
 166 g KI   8 moles KI   mole H 2 S 
= 16.39 liters of H 2 S.

16,390,000 liters of air would be necessary to dilute this rotten egg odor
gas to 1 ppm. Iodine vapor would also be generated. Arguably, iodine, as a
weak oxidizing vapor, could react with H2S, a weak reducing agent, in the
atmosphere to produce elemental sulfur and hydriodic acid:

I 2 + H 2 S 
→ 2 HI + So

The iodine is dissolved in a dilute solution of potassium iodide. When

the purple of I2 disappears, the H2S has been oxidized, and one can then
calculate the amount of H2S that was present in the “titrated” air sample.
The rate of such reaction would depend, in part, on the intermolecular
collisions of the molecules. That is, higher concentrations, temperature, and
pressure will drive a faster rate of reaction. See Problem 703.

430. Calculate LCL and UCL for a time-weighted air-sampling result of 28 ppmv
for a worker. The PEL/TLV for this organic vapor is 25 ppmv. The com-
bined analytical, sampling, and other cumulative errors are ±19.5% (sam-
pling analytical error, SAE; see Problem 5 for the procedure to calculate
SAE).

EC EC
LCL = − SAE and UCL = + SAE,
PEL or TLV PEL or TLV

where
LCL and UCL = lower and upper confidence limits, respectively. The UCL
is rarely used in normal industrial hygiene compliance determinations.
EC = exposure concentration (ppm, f/cc, or mg/m3)
PEL or TLV = permissible exposure limit or threshold limit value
SAE = sampling and analytical error as a decimal (absolute—disregard
algebraic signs)

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210 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

LCL = (28/25) − 0.195 = 0.925

UCL = (28/25) + 0.195 = 1.315

Answer: LCL is 0.925. UCL is 1.315. Since the LCL is less than 1, and
assuming a normal distribution for exposure levels, a violation of the PEL and
TLV has not occurred. However, since the exposure is well above the action
level, industrial hygiene controls are warranted. The level of confidence in
this statistical parameter is 95% which means that, to a 95% degree of cer-
tainty, the true value lies between 92.5% and 131.5% of the reported value, or
25.9−36.8 ppmv.

431. Automobiles are multicoat spray painted with an average of 1.1 gallons
of high-solids paint (43% solids) per vehicle. The paint solvents are pri-
marily a mixture of aromatic hydrocarbons, ketones, alcohols, and naph-
tha. The automobile bodies are baked to dryness in an oven at 350°F for
13 minutes. An air pollution control engineer wants to know what the sol-
vent evaporation rates are in pints per vehicle and the total solvent vapor
emissions if this assembly plant produces 42 vehicles per hour. Can you
help him?
Essentially 57% of the paint mass evaporates in the baking oven
(100−43%). A small amount evaporates in the booth vestibules and spray
booths leading to oven. Regardless, all solvent sources contribute to volatile
organic carbon atmospheric emissions (VOCs).

(0.57) (1.1 gallons/vehicle) (8 pints/gallon) = 5 pints/vehicle

5 pints/vehicle × 42 vehicles/hour = 210 pints/hour = 3.5 pints/minute

5 pints/vehicle. 3.5 pints/minute. 210 pints/hour. Emissions in baking ovens

lend themselves to engineering controls, whereas vapors released outside of
the ovens are fugitive emissions that are more difficult to control.

432. How much water vapor is in a building 15 meters × 30 meters × 5 meters

if relative humidity is 40%, and dry bulb temperature is 86°F (30°C)? The
vapor pressure of water at this temperature is 31.82 Torr (31.82 mm Hg).
Assume an empty building.

15 m × 30 m × 5 m = 2250 m3 = 2,250,000 L

P = (0.40) (Pvapor) = (0.40) (31.82 Torr) = 12.73 Torr (partial pressure due to
water vapor)

PV [(12.73 / 760)atm](2,250,000 L)
n= =
RT (0.0821L -atm / mole-K)(303.15K)
= 1514.2 moles of water vapor

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725 Problems with Solutions 211

 18.0 g   1kg 
(1514.2 moles)    3  = 27.26 kg of water vapor
 mole   10 g 

Answer: 27.26 kilograms of water vapor (60.1 pounds).

433. Confined, occupied spaces without outside fresh air ventilation (e.g., sub-
marines, space capsules, diving bells) can accumulate significant levels of
carbon dioxide gas from human respiration. Lithium oxide, Li2O, is the
most efficient CO2 gas scavenger. What is the CO2 absorption efficiency of
Li2O in liters of CO2 (at STP) per kilogram?

Li2O + CO2 → Li2CO3 (lithium carbonate)

 1000 g   1mole Li 2 O   22.4 L at STP   1mol CO2 

(1kg Li 2 O)     
 kg   29.88 g Li 2 O   mole of CO2   1mol Li 2 O 
= 749.7 liters

Answer: Each kilogram of lithium oxide theoretically absorbs 749.7 liters

of carbon dioxide gas at STP. Knowing the maximum CO2 gas generation
rate for a number of people present (body mass, metabolic rates, etc.), the
amount of lithium oxide required for an air-cleansing system can be calcu-
lated. At STP, CO2 weighs 1977 g/m3 = 1.977 grams per liter. Exhaled air
contains up to 5.6% CO2 by volume.

434. A brine-ammonia refrigeration plant loses an average of 35 ft3 of ammonia

every day from leaking valves and process equipment as determined from
the purchase records. What is the dilution ventilation air volume necessary
to control to no more than 10% of the TLV of 25 ppm for NH3?

35ft 3 /day 1.458 ft 3 hour

= × = 0.0243ft 3 / minute
24 hours /day hour 60 minutes

25 ppmv × 0.1 = 2.5 ppmv

0.0243ft 3 /minute
× 106 = 9720 cfm
2.5 ppm

Answer: 9720 cubic feet of fresh dilution air per minute assuming good
mixing. Repair the leaking equipment first with local exhaust ventilation
placed at the source during the repairs; then consider increasing the dilution
ventilation only if needed.

435. An elderly, senile man, in an attempt to cool his top-floor, nonair condi-
tioned and nonventilated room, placed a 50-lb block of dry ice next to his

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212 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

bed. When his body was recovered from the 12' × 16' × 8' room, the dry ice
block weighed about 22 pounds. What was the most likely average oxygen
concentration in the air in the room just before the man’s body was discov-
ered? What was the most likely average CO2 gas concentration?
Assume a worst-case scenario in which there was no ventilation or air
exchange in the room.

50 lb CO2 − 22 lb CO2 28 lb 0.0182 lb CO2

= =
12 ft × 16 ft × 8 ft 1536 ft 3 ft 3

0.0182 lb 35.315ft 3 kg 1000 g 1000 mg

× × × ×
ft 3 m3 2.205 lb kg g
291,489 mg CO2
=
m3

(291, 489 mg /m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = 161,938 ppm CO2 = 16.19% CO2
44.01

100% air − 16.19% CO2 = 83.81% air remaining

83.81% air × 0.2095 = 17.55% oxygen

Answer: About 17.6% oxygen and 16.2% CO2. OSHA regards an atmo-
sphere containing less than 19.5% oxygen as oxygen-deficient. The NIOSH
IDLH for CO2 is 40,000 ppm (4%). Protracted exposure of healthy adults to
air containing 17.5% oxygen, while physiologically taxing, would probably
not cause significant adverse effects. In this case, however, CO2 contributes
toxic effects as a respiratory and cardiac stimulant, prolonged CO2 inhala-
tion can produce metabolic acidosis, the gentleman was old (with, possibly,
poor cardiovascular status), and heat strain was, most likely, an added myo-
cardial stressor. Moreover, since the block of dry ice was located next to the
bed where his body was located, pockets of carbon dioxide gas (e.g., say,
50%?) could have surrounded his head for times sufficiently long to produce
anoxia, asphyxiation, and a heart attack.

436. The carbon dioxide gas exhaled by laboratory rats into the test chambers
used in experimental toxicology will be absorbed so that the chamber atmo-
sphere can be recirculated. How much carbon dioxide gas can be absorbed
into a solution that contains 900 grams of potassium hydroxide? Assume
100% CO2 gas absorption. The molecular weights of potassium hydroxide
and carbon dioxide are 56.11 and 44.01, respectively.

CO2 + 2KOH → K2CO3 + H2O

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725 Problems with Solutions 213

K2CO3, by the way, is also known as potash and was originally obtained
from the potassium-rich ashes of wood fires. Potash and lard, or animal fat,
were mixed to produce the original soap.
Therefore, 2 moles of KOH (or NaOH) will absorb 1 mole of CO2 gas.

900 g KOH
= 16.04 moles of KOH
56.11 g / mole

16.04 moles of KOH will absorb 8.02 moles of CO2 gas.

44.01grams
8.02 moles CO2 × = 352.96 grams of CO2
mole

Refer to Problem 433 and see how lithium oxide generally is more effi-
cient (kilogram per kilogram) as a CO2 gas scavenger. The higher cost of
lithium oxide, however, might argue for the purchase of the less expensive
KOH or NaOH.

437. What is the density of a mixture of 500 ppm methyl alcohol vapor in air?
The “apparent” molecular weight of dry air (based on the vol-
ume% composition of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, CO2, etc.) is nearly 29
(exactly = 28.941 grams/gram-mole of air). The density of dry air is 1.2 mg/
mL at 25°C and 760 mm Hg. The density of air is defined as 1.00 (no units,
a relative number). Since methanol has a molecular weight of 32.01 grams/
gram-mole, the density of 100% MeOH vapor (i.e., 106 ppm MeOH) com-
pared to air is (since a mole of MeOH has greater mass than a “mole” of air):

32.01
= 1.106
28.941

500 ppmv MeOH = 0.05 vol%

For MeOH vapor: 0.0005 × 1.106 = 0.00055

For air: 0.9995 × 1.00 = 0.9995
Total 1.0000 1.00005

Answer: 1.00005 (no units) is essentially the same as air since (1) MeOH
has a molecular weight near air, and (2) 500 ppmv MeOH is relatively dilute
concentration of vapor, that is, 500/1,000,000.

438. The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission established in their

document NUREG-1391 (Chemical Toxicity of Uranium Hexafluoride
Compared to the Acute Effects of Radiation) the values for uranium and
hydrogen fluoride gas that should be used for accident analysis purposes
at facilities that process large quantities of UF6. UF6 reacts exothermically

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214 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

with moisture in air to form uranyl fluoride (UO2F2) and hydrogen fluoride
gas (HF):

UF6 + 2H2O → UO2F2 + 4HF + heat

The human inhalation exposure value for hydrogen fluoride gas is

 25mg  30 minutes
HF concentration =  3 
,
 m  t

where t is the time in minutes of the duration of exposure. If the exposure

duration is 15 minutes, what is the maximum acceptable HF gas concentra-
tion in ppmv using these NRC criteria?

 25mg  30 minutes 35.4 mg

HF concentration =  3  15minutes
=
 m  m3

(mg /m 3 ) × 24.45 (35.4 mg /m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecular weight of HF 20.01
= 43.3 ppm HF

This exceeds the ACGIH “ceiling” TLV of 3 ppmv. AIHA Emergency

Response Planning Guideline for HF gas for up to 1-hour exposure is 2 ppmv
(with most “not experiencing other than mild transient adverse health
effects or perceiving a clearly defined objectionable odor”); for an ERPG-2
(“Nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to one hour without expe-
riencing or developing irreversible or serious health effects or symptoms
that could impair abilities to take protective action.”), the value for HF is
20 ppmv; for an ERPG-3 (“nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to
one hour without having life-threatening health effects”), the value for HF
gas is 50 ppmv.

439. If the air temperature (dry bulb) is 86°F, and the dew point is 68°F, what is
relative humidity? The pressure of saturated water vapor at 86°F is 31.82 mm
Hg. At 68°F, the pressure of saturated water vapor is 17.54 mm Hg.

saturated pressure of water vapor in air at dew point

Relative humidity =
pressure of water vapor in saturated air at 86o F
17.54 mm Hg
= × 100 = 55.1%
31.822 mm Hg

The dew point is the temperature at which the atmosphere would be satu-
rated with contained water vapor. We observe dew point phenomena on a

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725 Problems with Solutions 215

humid summer day with a glass of ice tea. The dew point is the tempera-
ture of the cold glass upon which condensation of atmospheric moisture
accumulates.

440. Fifty pounds of sodium hydroxide pellets are rapidly dumped into an open
top steel tank containing 40 gallons of water. The solution becomes very hot,
and there is evolution of an irritating caustic mist aerosol. After returning to
room temperature, 42.9 gallons of solution remain in the tank. Correcting
for blank sodium content, the solution contained 80,070 mg Na/L. If the
building in which the NaOH aerosol was released was 35' × 120' × 18', how
much sodium hydroxide was released into the air? What was the average
mist concentration if the room did not have ventilation?
Molecular weights of Na and NaOH, respectively, are 23 and 40.

80.07 g Na 1L 40 1lb
42.9 gallons × × × ×
L 0.264 gallon 23 453.59 g
= 49.88 lb NaOH

(50 lb NaOH − 49.88 lb NaOH) 0.12 lb NaOH

=
35ft × 120 ft × 18 ft 75,600 ft 3

0.12 lb NaOH 35.314 ft 3 459.59 g 1000 mg 25.8 mg NaOH

× × × =
75,600 ft 3 m3 lb g m3

Answer: 0.12 lb of NaOH was released into the air. Average concentration
of NaOH mist in the air was 25.8 mg/m3 (ACGIH ceiling TLV = 2 mg/m3).
The mist concentration near the tank, obviously, initially would have been
much higher.

441. A grave explosion hazard presents in the molten materials industry when
materials above 100°C are charged in vessels that contain liquid water.
Huge explosions resulting in fatalities, injuries, and substantial property
damages have occurred when, for example, molten metal is poured into
receiving vessels, or onto a floor where water—even a tiny amount—
accumulated. The higher the molten material temperature, the greater the
amount of water, and the higher the rate of addition all contributively add to
explosion’s magnitude. Calculate volume of steam produced when 1 ton of
molten iron is carelessly added to a 4-feet internal diameter pouring ladle
containing water 3-inches deep. Atmospheric pressure is 720 mm Hg.
Water volume = π r 2 h = π (2 ft)2 × 0.25 ft = 3.1416 ft3 = 88,960 mL of liquid
water
Density of water = 1.00 g/mL

PV = nRT, the universal gas law

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216 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

88,960 g H 2 O
= 4942 moles of water
18.0 g /mole

T = 100°C + 273 K = 373 K

n RT (4942 moles)(0.0821atm -liter/mole-K)(373K)

V = = = 159,810 L
P (720 mm Hg/7660 mm Hg) = 0.947atmosphere

Answer: The liquid volume of 88.96 liters of water explosively expands

into a 159,810 liter steam cloud. For this reason, torches or other means are
applied to keep the interiors of receiving vessels bone dry before addition
of molten metals, glass, oil, plastics, and so on. Besides the plume of steam,
the molten metal spews from the ladle with dire consequences if workers
are nearby.

442. A reasonable, reliable microscopic quantification of fibers on air filters

using phase-contrast microscopy (PCM) is 10 fibers per 100 fields. What
are the equivalent, reliable PCM quantifications for sampling volumes of
3000, 5000, and 7500 L of air?
855 mm2 is the collection area of a 37 mm diameter air filter. Obviously,
a smaller diameter filter (e.g., 25 mm) could improve detection limits.
0.003 mm2 is the size of a typical field of view for a PC microscope that
varies between 0.003 and 0.006 mm2 for different microscopes. Larger
fields of view will improve (decrease) the limit of reliable quantification.

10 fibers/100 fields 855mm 2 1liter

Quantification limit = × 2
×
3000 liters 0.003mm 1000 cc
0.01fiber
=
cc

0.01f/cc 5000 L 0.01f/cc 7500 L

= x = 0.006 f/cc = x = 0.004 f/cc
x f/cc 3000 L x f/cc 3000 L

Answers: 0.01 f/cc, 0.006 f/cc, and 0.004 f/cc, respectively for air-sam-
pling volumes of 3000 L, 5000 L, and 7500 L. NIOSH PCM Method 740
will improve the reliable limit of quantification for the same air-sampling
volumes.

443. Johnny yanks the thermometer from his mouth and throws it against the
wall. The thermometer smashes releasing 0.5 mL of mercury that spills on
the carpet of his bedroom. Johnny lives in a 1500 square feet bungalow
without a basement. The ceilings are 8-feet high. Assuming absolutely no

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725 Problems with Solutions 217

ventilation of his house, what maximum average mercury vapor concentra-

tion can be, in time, achieved within this house? Assume no adsorption on
surfaces.
This problem can be approached in no less than three ways: collect
air samples until the equilibrium Hg vapor concentrations are reached;
perform calculations assuming all mercury evaporates into the house
atmosphere; and calculate the maximum vapor concentration based upon
mercury’s vapor pressure. Mercury’s molecular weight, density, and vapor
pressure at normal temperature are 200.6, 13.6 g/mL, and 0.0012 mm Hg,
respectively.

Mass/volume method:

0.5 mL × 13.6 g/mL = 6.8 g = 6800 mg of mercury evaporate

1500 ft2 × 8 ft = 12,000 ft3 = 339.8 m3

6800 mg
= 20.01mg/m 3
339.8 m 3

Vapor pressure method:

0.0012 mm Hg
× 106 = 1.579 ppm Hg vapor at saturation
760 mm Hg

ppm × mol. wt. 1.579 ppm × 200.6

mg Hg/m 3 = = = 12.95 mg/m 3
24.45 L/g-mole 24.45

Answer: Note large variance between calculated concentrations. Because

air cannot contain more than saturated concentrations, the correct answer is
12.95 mg/m3. This is considerably greater than ACGIH’s TLV for mercury
of 0.025 mg/m3 for workplaces that, in turn, is greater than what should
be present inside a residence. Without recovery of the spilled mercury,
encapsulation, or chemical binding of the mercury, and/or good ventilation,
Johnny risks mercury poisoning. In summary, there is a sufficient amount
of liquid mercury in a standard household thermometer to saturate air in
1500 square feet house with poisonous vapors.

444. Estimate the volumetric air flow rate above a slab of recently rolled steel
that is 30-feet long and 8-feet wide. Estimated rate of heat loss from the
10-inch thick slab is an average of 5,500,000 BTU/hour for the first 4
hours out of the rolling mill. Assume the slab is surrounded on four sides
by 40-feet high aluminum sheet radiation panels so that most of the radi-
ant portion of heat loss is converted into sensible heat and hot air convec-
tion currents. The height of the steel rolling mill is 100 feet above the
floor.

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218 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

The air motion may be estimated by: Qz = 1.9 Z 3 q

1.5

where
Qz = air flow rate at effective height Z (in feet), in cfm. The Z factor accounts
for an envelope of air that expands as it rises from the hot body.
q = convection heat loss from the hot body, BTU/hour

Z=Y+2B

Y = actual height above hot body, feet (in this case, at the top of the heat shields)
B = largest horizontal dimension of hot body, feet (Note how the shorter
dimension of width does not enter into the calculations.)
Z = 40 ft + (2 × 30 ft) = 100 feet (coincident with the height of the steel roll-
ing mill)

Qz = (1.9)(100)1.5  3 5,500,000  = 335,000 cfm

445. Assume a branch in an exhaust ventilation system has a design volume of

10,000 cfm with a calculated static pressure, Ps, of 2.10 inches water gauge.
The main exhaust duct, carrying an exhaust volume of 50,000 cfm, has a Ps
of 2.40 inches water gauge where the branch enters. What volume of air will
be drawn through the branch at balanced conditions?

2.40 inches
Qb = 10,000 cfm = 10,700 cubic feet of air per minute
2.10 inches

446. What is the worst-case peak blood methyl alcohol level in a 70-kg man
exposed for 8 hours to the ACGIH TLV of 200 ppmv for methanol vapor?
“Standard 70-kg man” has a 60% water content and inhales 10 cubic
meters of air during an 8-hour workday.

mg ppm × molecular weight 200 × 32.04

3
= = = 262 mg/m 3
m 24.45 24.45

262 mg/m3 × 10 m3 = 2620 mg MeOH

70 kg × 0.6 = 42 kg H2O = 42 L H2O

Peak blood level of MeOH = 2620 mg/42 L = 62 mg/L = 6.2 mg/dL.

This is close to 5% of the dose reported to cause acute irreversible toxic

effects. Furthermore, since the blood half-life of methanol is 3 hours, the
body burden would be negligible when the worker returns to his job the next
day. It appears unlikely that this dose would cause ocular toxicity. However,
MeOH is absorbed through intact healthy skin, and industrial hygienists,

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725 Problems with Solutions 219

workers, and the workers’ supervisors must be mindful of this potential

route of exposure. The preceding calculations assume most MeOH distrib-
utes equally in aqueous compartments of the body; a very little dissolves in
lipid compartments as well (fatty tissues, CNS, PNS, marrow). The calcu-
lations are “worst case” and do not consider the on-going metabolism and
excretion of MeOH throughout the work day.

447. How many tons of air are exhausted yearly from a laboratory exhaust hood
with full open face dimensions of 24" × 48"? The face capture velocities are
130, 140, 120, 120, 140, 130, 110, 120, and 110 cfm/ft2. The hood operates
8 hours per day, 5 days a week, for 50 weeks a year.

 130 + 140 + 120 + 120 + 140 + 130 + 110 + 120 + 110  2

 9  cfm/ft
 
= 124.4 cfm/ft 2

24" × 48" = 2' × 4' = 8 ft2

8 ft2 × 124.4 cfm/ft2 = 995.2 cfm

995.2 ft 3 60 minutes 8 hours 5days 50 weeks 0.075 lb

× × × × ×
minute hour day week year ft 3
ton
× = 4478.4 tons/year
2000 lb

448. What is the solvent vapor emission rate from an open surface tank that
is 2.5' × 4' containing TCE at room temperature? The molecular weight
and the vapor pressure of TCE are 131.4 grams/gram-mole and 58 mm Hg,
respectively. The barometric pressure is 748 mm Hg. The air velocity pass-
ing over the surface of the tank is 200 feet per minute. The air temperature
is 78°F.
The following EPA formula can be used to estimate the emission rate,
q, in grams per second:

0.25
8.24 × 10 −8 × M 0.835 × P [(1/29) + (1/M)] × U 0.5 × A
q=
T 0.05 × L0.5 × Pt 0.5

M is the molecular weight. P is the vapor pressure, mm Hg. U is the air

velocity, fpm. A is the surface area, cm2. T is the air temperature, kelvin. L
is the length of the liquid surface, cm. Pt is the total pressure, atmospheres.

A = 2.5' × 4' = 10.0 ft2 = 9290.3 cm2

T = 78°F = 298.7 K

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220 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

L = 4' = 121.9 cm

Pt = (748 mm Hg/760 mm Hg) = 0.984 atm

0.25
8.24 × 10 −8 × 131.40.835 × 58 [(1/29) + (1/131.4)] × 2000.5 × 9290.3
q=
298.70.05 × 121.90.5 × 0.9840.5
= 1.15g/sec

Answer: 1.15 grams of TCE evaporates every second. Refer to

Problem 449.

449. Referring to Problem 448, the depth of the TCE in the tank was 23- 34 " on
Monday at 8:00 am. On Friday, at 4:00 pm, the solvent depth was 21- 12 ". If
the system was not used for de-greasing (i.e., there was no physical carry-
out of the liquid solvent, and there were no additions), what was the vapor
emission rate assuming system values identical to those specified in Problem
448? Assume that the exhaust ventilation system for the tank operated 8 h/
day. The specific gravity of TCE is 1.46 g/mL.

23.75" − 21.5" = 2.25" evaporative loss

2.5' = 30"

4' = 48"

2.25" × 30" × 48" = 3240 in3 = 3234.7 cm3

117,987 mL × 1.46 g/mL = 172,261 g

8 hours/day × 5 days × 60 minutes/hour × 60 seconds/minute

= 144,000 seconds

172,261 g/144,000 seconds = 1.20 g/sec

Answer: 1.20 grams of TCE evaporated every second. This semi-empirical

approach used in this problem provides a result essentially identical to calcu-
lated theoretical amount applying the equation in Problem 448 (1.15 g/second).

450. Pure helium gas passes through a rotameter at an indicated flow rate of
1.7 L/min. The rotameter was calibrated using air at 29.9 inches of water
and 70°F. Helium has a specific gravity of 0.138 at 70°F and 29.9 inches
of water (air = 1.00). If the helium temperature is 100°F, and its pressure is
33 inches of water, what is the actual helium gas flow rate, k?

460 + 100 29.9 1.00

k = × × = 2.63
460 + 70 33 0.138

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725 Problems with Solutions 221

1.7 L/m × 2.63 = 4.47 L/m

Answer: 4.47 liters of helium per minute, or 2.63 times greater than the
rate indicated on the rotameter.

451. Workplace air contains 7.89 mg of total particulates per cubic meter. What
is the airborne dust concentration on a mass/mass basis expressed in ppmm?
Disregard water vapor content of air; that is, assume dry air (0% relative
humidity). Assume NTP (760 mm Hg and 25°C).

1 m3 = 35.3 ft3

35.3 ft3 × 0.075 lb/ft3 = 2.6475 lb of air per cubic meter

1 lb = 454,000 mg

2.6475 lb × (454,000 mg/lb) = 1,201,965 mg per cubic meter

(7.89 mg/1,201,965 mg) × 106 = 6.56 ppmm

It is unusual to express airborne dust concentrations on this mass-to-

mass basis. However, mechanical and chemical engineers often do so in
selecting fans for air pollution control devices, that is, “How many pounds
of dust plus pounds of air must this fan handle per minute?” This, in part,
determines the fan brake horsepower requirements. System flow resistance
pressures plus pressure loss across the collector are also needed to select the
proper type and to determine the fan size and fan rpm.

452. Carbon dioxide gas accumulation in our atmosphere is a major contribu-

tor to the global warming of our planet. An ambient air sample detects
452 ppmv CO2 in the mid-Pacific Ocean remote from anthropogenic and
geologic sources. Convert this to mg/m3 to determine how much pure car-
bon must be stoichiometrically burned (oxidized) to achieve this amount of
CO2 in 1 m3.

ppm v × molecular weight 452 × 44

mg /m 3 = = = 813.4 mg CO2 /m 3
24.45 L/gram-mole 24.45

C + O 2 
→ CO2

That is, 1 mole of carbon produces 1 mole of CO2.

moleculare weight C 12
× 100 = % C = × 100 = 27.27%
molecular weight CO2 44

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222 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

813.4 mg CO2 × 0.2727 = 221.8 mg C

Answer: 221.8 mg of carbon stoichiometrically oxidizes to 813.4 mg of

carbon dioxide. 591.6 milligrams of oxygen are required.
Note: 221.8 mg C + 591.6 mg O2 produces 813.4 mg CO2.

453. Air pollutant concentrations expressed as mass per unit volume of atmo-
spheric air (e.g., mg/m3, μg/m3, lb/SCF, grains/SCF) at sea level decrease
with an increase in altitude according to the equation Ca = (C)(0.9877a),
where a = altitude, in 100s of meters; C = concentration at sea level, in mass
per unit volume; and Ca = concentration at altitude a, in mass/volume. It is
very easy to overlook this correction. For example, consider Albuquerque
where an average altitude = 1779 meters, and the sea-level concentration of
TSP = 0.027 mg/m3. What is the corrected concentration?

Ca = (0.027)(0.988717.79) = 0.022 mg/m3

454. There are situations when air sampling is obviously not required. The fol-
lowing are examples of some. Assume you were just hired as the industrial
hygienist for a multiple product, mid-size chemical manufacturing plant in
Houston. You report to work, meet your coworkers, find the coffee pot, stow
your books and other materials, pick up your PPE, adjust your chair, and
boot your computer. You spend the rest of the morning studying your com-
pany’s organization chart. After lunch, you conduct a brief walk-through
inspection of several nearby plants and processes to learn your way around
the complex. You encounter the following situations. What would you do?
Rank and justify your risk management plans.
a. A worker without a respirator is enveloped in clouds of silica flour
dust as she slits 17 bags and dumps the powder into a slurry mixing
tank.
b. A pipe fitter is exposed to cough-producing concentrations of chlorine
gas while making adjustments and repairs to a chemical plant process
line.
c. Refrigeration plant process workers are exposed to ammonia gas that
regularly causes throat irritation and lacrimation.
d. Employees are periodically exposed to offensive odors intruding from
a nearby meat scrap rendering plant. It smells offal.
e. Extensive green mold is amplifying on the ceiling of the plant man-
ager’s office.
f. An unprotected worker is about to enter a process tank to help another
worker who collapsed from unknown causes.

Answer: f > b > c > a > d > e Obvious problems require prompt interven-
tion—not air sampling! Focus on immediate, unknown conditions in this
confined space and the immediate, acute toxicants (Cl2, NH3, and chlora-
mines if the ammonia and chlorine leaks are nearby). Next, control silica

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725 Problems with Solutions 223

dust exposures (prompt respiratory protection while you design a mechani-

cal local exhaust ventilation system). Later prevail on management of
the meat rendering plant to control their air emissions. In one sense, this
approach follows “Pareto’s Principle”: concentrate on important few first
and, for the moment, disregard the relatively unimportant many. A former
student—with tongue in cheek—suggested control of the mold first by
cozying up to the plant manager for political bargaining purposes later!

455. A side-draft bench hood has three slots on 12-inch centers each 2" × 3'−4"
and all with slot velocities of 2000 fpm. How deep must the exhaust plenum
be to ensure uniform capture velocity across the booth’s hood face?

3 (2" × 40")/144 in2/ft2 = 1.667 ft2

2.667 ft2 × 2000 fpm = 3334 cfm

Q = AV

A = Q/V = 3334 cfm/1000 fpm = 3.334 ft2

The maximum plenum velocity must not exceed 12 the slot velocity to
ensure equal air distribution across all three slots (in this case, 1000 fpm).
As a precaution, the plenum could be, say, 20%, deeper to provide added
assurance. Let us apply 800 fpm as the maximum plenum velocity. Thus,
the plenum’s cross sectional area is

3334 cfm/800 fpm = 4.168 ft2

Plenum area, A = L × W

W = A/L = 4.168 ft2/3.333 ft = 1.25 ft deep = 1'−3"

Narrow plenums do not provide uniform air distribution across all slots.
With such, more air will crowd its way into slots closest to the fan while
those farther from the fan will be starved for air. Deep plenums promote
even exhaust distribution for all slots.

456. Many toxic chemicals can be dissolved or suspended in water or solvents and
then dispersed and dispensed as a spray, fog, or mist aerosol. Concentration
might be low as dispensed, but the carrier phase quickly evaporates into
the surrounding air (assuming <100% relative humidity) producing smaller
particles enriched with the toxicants. The particles assume spherical shape.
Consider 10-μm diameter particles with 0.05% (vol/vol) concentration qua-
ternary ammonium chloride disinfectant. What particle diameters develop
after the aqueous phase evaporates?

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224 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Volume of sphere, V = (4/3) πr 3

4
π (5 µ )3 = V = 523.6 µ 3
3

0.05% of 523.6 μ3 = 0.0005 × 523.6 μ3 = 0.2618 μ3.

That is, 99.95% of particle was water, and, after evaporation, 0.2618 μ3
active, toxic ingredient remains solely as 100% quaternary ammonium
chloride.
Rearrange the sphere volume equation to calculate diameter of new
particles:

V 0.2618 µ 3
r3 = = = 0.0625 µ 3
(4 / 3) π 1.333 π

r = 0.06250.333
μ = 0.397 μ
2r = Ø = 0.794 μ

10 micron particles became 0.794 micron in Ø. Concentration increased

from 0.05% to 100%. Particles are more respirable into bronchioles and
alveoli of the respiratory tract, whereas the 10-micron particles were non-
respirable. This is toxicologically profound. Be mindful of this concept if
one, for example, asserts, “Chemical is present in trace amounts. These
particles are too big to inhale. You need not worry.” Worry. Moreover,
even if inhaled at 0.05%, it is virtually 100%, because respiratory tract is
coated with water on the mucociliary escalator and the nasopharyngeal
areas. A good industrial hygiene control method would be the barring of
any dispensing of toxicants as mists, sprays, fogs, or nebulized aerosols.
Alternatively, dispense with a brush, roller, tube, wipe pads, or dauber.
Refer to Problems 482 and 487.

457. An atmosphere’s oxygen concentration increased from 21 vol.% to 70 vol.%,

say from a leaking oxygen cylinder in a gas bottle storage room. One lights
a cigarette in the now oxygen-enriched atmosphere. Will an explosion and
ensuing fire occur?
An explosion will not occur. However, the cigarette will burn much more
rapidly. You might recall oxygen, by itself, is not flammable, combustible,
or explosive. It simply is an oxidant, and with more present, flammability
and explosibility of any oxidizable materials are promoted. Oxygen adheres
to many materials including hair and clothing creating a fire trap for those
so contaminated. Yes, oxygen gas can be an atmospheric contaminant.
The author investigated a major fire where one worker sustained significant
facial burn injuries. The man worked in an oxygen gas bottling plant where

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725 Problems with Solutions 225

smoking and other ignition sources were prohibited at the gas charging rack.
He left the work area on a break, lit his cigarette, and his bushy beard almost
instantaneously burst into flames. This led to a law suit naming cigarette
lighter manufacturer defendant of a faulty product. Indeed, the lighter was
not flawed whatsoever as expert engineers demonstrated to the Court. The
employer failed to require its bottling employees to “de-oxygenate” in a fresh
air curtain or an air booth before engaging in smoking. Such a booth is easily
engineered. Residence time in the air booth and quantity of fresh air flow can
be determined to design such a booth to strip and flush adherent oxygen gas
from a worker’s hair and clothing before she/he exits to a safe haven.

458. 350 grams of polonium-210 are securely sealed in a properly labeled con-
tainer for shipment to a remote radioactive waste storage facility. 210Po has
a half-life of 138.376 days. The container will reside on a secure shipping
dock for 7 days before an 8-day transfer to the storage site. 210Po decays
almost exclusively into alpha particles with rare decay into a gamma ray
(≈ 1/100,000 disintegrations). How much 210Po remains when this storage
cask arrives at radionuclide storage facility? 210Po decay kinetics is second
order.
This problem can be solved two ways:

Storage and transit time = 7 days + 8 days = 15 days

The radioactive decay rate coefficient is

0.693 0.693
k = = = 0.005008/day.
t1/2 138.376 days

The amount of 210Po remaining after 15 days is

C = Co e − kT = (350 g) e − (0.005008) (15 days) = 324.67 grams

The second method is to calculate the number of half-lives occurring

over 15 days:

Elapsed time/T1/2 = 15 days/138.376 days = 0.1084 half-life elapsed

(0.5)0.1084 (350 grams) = 324.67 grams remain

100% − (324.67 grams/350 grams) = 7.237% decayed over 15 days

There is excellent agreement between both calculation methods.

459. The OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200) stipu-
lates that manufacturers, importers, and others list every hazardous material

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226 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

greater than 1% concentration and carcinogens at greater than 0.1% in their

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). Many, however, do not appear to
understand that hazardous materials below these concentrations must also
be listed if it is foreseeable lower concentrations (e.g., < 0.1%) can present a
health or safety risk to workers. To wit:

“Information must also be included on the MSDS for ingredients of a mixture

present in concentrations less than 1% (or 0.1% for carcinogens) when the haz-
ardous substance may be released in a concentration which exceeds a PEL or
TLV or may present a health risk to exposed employees. An example of the lat-
ter may be TDI [toluene 2, 4 – (or 2, 6 –) diisocyanate] because it is a sensitizer
in very small concentrations, thereby presenting a health risk that must be noted
on MSDSs.” (emphasis added, Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Directives Pertaining to the Hazard Communication Standard, CPL 2-2-38A)

As an example: What is the benzene vapor concentration in the air of an

empty, unventilated garage where an epoxy resin paint was used to cover
the floor? The floor area is 20' × 30'. Ceiling height is 9 feet. Three liters of
solvent (“toluene”) evaporated, and the benzene concentration of mixture is
0.0007 mL/mL (volume/volume) or in%, (0.0007 mL/1 mL) × 100 = 0.07%
(= 700 ppmv).

3 liters = 3000 mL

3000 mL × 0.0007 mL/mL = 2.1 mL of benzene evaporated

2.1 mL × 0.8787 g/mL = 1.845 grams = 1845 mg

20' × 30' × 9' = 5400 ft3 = 152.9 m3

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (1845mg/152.9 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm v = = = 3.78 ppm v
molecular weight 78.11 grams/gram-mole

OSHA’s PEL = 1 ppmv, ACGIH TLV = 0.5 ppmv, and

NIOSH REL = 0.1 ppmv.

The benzene vapor concentration greatly exceeds exposure limits and

guidelines. Moreover, benzene is absorbed through intact, healthy skin,
and, once absorbed into perfusing blood, is distributed systemically to
every organ and tissue including the bone marrow. Benzene is a genotoxic
human carcinogen with no limit below which exposure is “safe.” The ben-
zene concentration of 0.0007 mL/mL must be reported on MSDS. There is
no “safe” level of exposure to benzene vapor. One can only say that lower
levels, all other factors being equal, are “safer.” Work with your product
suppliers to ensure that the benzene concentration of products they manu-
facture are below 1 ppmv (0.0001%) or, better, analytically nondetectable
below 1 ppmv. The cost for the safer solvent blend may be more than offset

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725 Problems with Solutions 227

by the high costs of complying with OSHA’s Benzene Standard (29 CFR
1910.1028) (air sampling and analyses, medical surveillance, biological
monitoring, education and training, engineering, record keeping, and so
on). See Problem 710.

460. In the previous problem (459), one must also consider toluene vapor concen-
tration. What hazards does toluene vapor pose? Think fire, inhalation, skin
absorption, CNS toxicant, and reproductive health hazard.

(3000 mL toluene and benzene) − 2.1 mL benzene = 2997.9 mL toluene

Density of toluene = 0.8669 g/mL

Molecular weight of toluene = 92.14 grams/gram-mole

2997.9 mL × 0.8669 g/mL = 2598.88 g = 2,598,880 g

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (2,598,880 mg/152.9 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecular weight 92.14 grams/mole
= 689,631 ppm v

This toluene vapor concentration greatly exceeds the OSHA PEL of

100 ppmv and ACGIH TLV of 50 ppmv and NIOSH IDLH of 2000 ppmv. It
greatly exceeds UEL of 6.75% (67,500 ppmv). Be wary, however, because
689,631 ppmv concentration is the average vapor concentration throughout
the garage (68.96%v). Although the toluene vapor concentration exceeds its
flammability limit, dilution with fresh air will lower the vapor concentra-
tion so that, when in the LEL−UEL range and a source of sufficient igni-
tion potential is present, there will be a huge explosion. Furthermore, even
though the amount of benzene present is tiny from a flammability perspec-
tive, it adds to toluene’s fire hazard.

461. A dairy cow kicks a bucket containing 2- 12 gallons of gasoline onto the
floor of a metal pole barn. The barn, tightly sealed with no ventilation, has
dimensions of 85' × 44' × 18'. After extended time, does the barn’s atmo-
sphere present a gasoline vapor explosion risk? Average molecular weight
of gasoline is 108 g/g-mole, and its specific gravity is 0.8 g/mL.

Barn’s gross volume = 85' × 44' × 18' = 67,320 ft3 = 1906.3 m3

Subtract 10% of the barn volume (cattle, stalls, bedding, equipment, etc.)
to obtain the approximate net volume:

1906.3 m3 − 190.6 m3 = 1715.7 m3

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228 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

2- 12 gallons = 9463.3 mL

9463.3 mL × 0.8 g/mL = 7570.64 g = 7,570,640 mg

(7,570,640 mg/1715.7 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm v = = 999 ppm v ≅ 0.1%
108 g/g-mole

The average concentration of gasoline vapor is below lower explosive of

1.4%, or 14,000 ppmv. Averages, as are well known, can be very misleading.
Until gasoline vapors diffuse throughout this barn, there is a gasoline vapor
layer hovering just above the floor with pockets of vapor above LEL. With
a sufficiently strong ignition source present long enough to ignite vapors,
there will be a flash fire. Indeed, until mixed with air, there is a vapor layer
exceeding UEL. This layer then dilutes into the dangerous range between
the LEL and the UEL.

462. A 6' × 6' × 6' steel tote bin containing extremely fine aluminum powder is
dumped into a large steel mixing tank. The transfer normally requires about
40 seconds, but after 30 seconds there is a massive explosion with burn inju-
ries, fractures, and lacerations to the operator and his helper. There are
significant building structural damages. What happened?
Aluminum powder is explosive in air in the presence of a strong source
of ignition. The most likely ignition source was a streaming current of
electrons as the powder was dumped. An electrostatic charge accumulates
in tote bin and in the receiving vessel. Bonding by attaching conductive
copper wire and clips between both of the containers and grounding by
attaching conductive copper wire from tote bin and receiving vessel to a
substantial ground dissipates the accumulated electrical charge before it
can reach a spark ignition temperature. Transferring the powder very slowly
helps to hinder charge accumulation. The use of inert gases such as nitro-
gen, argon, or CO2 in the head spaces also helps; however, the best controls
are bonding and grounding coupled with a slow transfer generally exceed
inert gas because pockets of air (O2) might exist in which inert gas can-
not reach. Many other materials (inorganic metals: e.g., zinc, iron, copper;
organic: e.g., flour, rice, plastics) behave similarly. Work with your mate-
rial suppliers and their fire safety product stewards to develop a robust risk
management plan.

463. A surfboard manufacturer employs five people who, on average, make

one board/every hour and 20 minutes. This southern California plant is in
a climate that permits open doors and windows on most days. Boards are
assembled in jigs on open benches. The five workers’ assembly tables are in
an open area 30' × 50'. Toluene is the sole solvent for the resin used to glue
the laminates together. The company owner hires an industrial hygienist to

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725 Problems with Solutions 229

determine the best and least costly vapor control methods. How would you
proceed?
First, meet with the purchasing agent to see how much resin is bought
per month or year—or even by season because surfing might even be sea-
sonal in California, and manufacturing might be by seasonal demand. Next
determine the amount of solvent in resin. It is reasonable to assume toluene
losses are by evaporation into room air because boards are not cured in
ovens. Let us say by calculations, each board evaporates 0.21 pounds of
toluene on average. So, for all workers:

0.21lb one board

× × 5 workers = 0.013125 lb/minute
board 80 minutes

We cannot rely on natural ventilation because it unreliably varies by

direction, time of day, temperature, and velocity. Portable pedestal fans
are out of the question because they could compete with each other, and
one worker will claim it’s too drafty, and another will demand more dilu-
tion air. The net result is that fans will be positioned at whims of the
workers. The inhalation toxicity of toluene is too great so that, in this
situation, entirely dilution ventilation is unacceptable. Let us then con-
sider mechanical dilution ventilation and mechanical local exhaust ven-
tilation. The general dilution ventilation equation is

387 × 106 × W
QD = K ×
MW × TLV

where
Qd = fresh dilution air required, cfm
K = an air mixing factor where 1 = outstanding, and 10 = dismal
W = pounds of solvent (or gas) generated and dispersed per minute
MW = molecular weight of solvent or gas
TLV = fraction of TLV, PEL, or REL that you decide reasonably assures
health protection.

We select K = 1. We have W. MW for toluene = 92.13 g/g-mole.

TLV = 20 ppmv.
We select 0.05 TLV = 1 ppmv because the occupational reproductive
guide is 2.5 ppmv to prevent hearing loss in the developing embryo/fetus.
Moreover, using a low TLV fraction provides additional protection from
benzene. Now, let us plug and chug:

387 × 106 × 0.013125

QD = 1 × = 55,132.7 cfm
92.13 × 0.05 × 20

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230 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

The work area is 30' × 50' = 1500 ft2, 55,132.7 cfm/1500 ft2 = an average
air flow rate of 36.75 fpm. This is low because most workers claim “still
air” when the air flow over their skin is less than 50 fpm. Perhaps the
work benches can be placed closer to each other, say 20' × 30' = 600 ft2,
55,132.7 cfm/600 ft2 = 91.9 fpm. The workers have a work space of
[(20' × 30')/5] = 120 ft2, or an area approximately 11 feet square. This
work area appears adequate for surfboard jig construction table, tools,
and materials.
Now, let us compare this general dilution ventilation with mechanical
local exhaust ventilation. The longest surfboard (a “FunBoard”) made
by this company is 8'-4". Most are about 7 feet. A local exhaust side-draft
bench hood 10-feet wide and 22 inches high (1.83') is satisfactory for work-
ers. A face capture velocity of 100 fpm is satisfactory if cross drafts are
carefully controlled. Therefore, the total exhaust volume for five hoods is

cfm = 5 × [(10' × 1.83') × 100 fpm] = 9150 cfm

There appears to be little question that the far superior local exhaust ven-
tilation prevails over general dilution ventilation. Because of production
demands, one more worker was hired. This permitted construction of three
back-to-back hoods with a team of two at each. As each worker finished one
side of a board, they simultaneously passed it across to their teammate. This
eliminated removing a board while still emitting toluene vapors to turn it
around outside of the booth.
Other elements of the industrial hygiene program included hazard com-
munication training, training in proper work practices, respiratory protec-
tion program for those desiring additional protection, protective gloves and
aprons, hearing conservation, workplace lighting, medical surveillance,
supervisory surveillance, fire protection, ensuring benzene-free solvent
from supplier, and ventilation system preventative maintenance.

464. A petroleum refinery’s tank farm has a 250,000 gallon gasoline storage
tank that is bottom-filled at a steady 16,350 gallons per hour. Naturally,
for each gallon added to this tank, 1 gallon of air rich in gasoline vapor is
displaced to the atmosphere. We wish to prevent community air pollution
by designing and installing an excellent vapor recovery system. Establish
design engineering specifications.

16,350 gallons hour

× = 272.5gallons/minute
hour 60 minutes

272.5gallons 0.1337 ft 3
× = 36.4 cfm
minute gallon

This is such a modest amount of ventilation that one might be tempted

to increase it 10-fold (364 cfm) because of gasoline’s flammability and “just

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725 Problems with Solutions 231

to be safe.” We should be mindful, however, that increasing air flow over

the gasoline will promote its evaporation. Therefore, a moderate increase
to only 50 cfm should suffice. The vapors must pass through an explosion-
proof air-vapor handling system that will include an intrinsically safe explo-
sion proof fan, bonding and grounding, spark arrestors, and introduction of
inert gas (N2) to ensure gasoline is 10% or less of its LEL. The fan must be
sized to include the air + gasoline vapor + N2 gas.

465. In the previous problem, a large organic carbon column adsorber with a
capacity of 930 pounds of gasoline will be used to scavenge the gasoline
vapors. Calculate the column packing change-out time if nitrogen gas is not
injected into the vapor stream. This is also achievable because the gasoline
vapors exceed their UEL. Base calculations on a 50 cfm fan as described in
the previous problem (464).
Vapor pressure of gasoline is 7–11 psi at 0°C. This equals 362–569 mm Hg.
Ethanol-free gasoline has a broad range of vapor pressures because it con-
tains numerous aliphatic, aromatic, and naphthenic hydrocarbons all with
very different volatility and evaporation rates. Moreover, the season of the
year and the climate determine gasoline’s composition. Considering the
above variables, let us select a conservative vapor pressure during warm
weather of 600 mm Hg allowing for a safety factor. This refinery is located
in Houston (i.e., 1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg).

Gasoline vapor concentration in ppmv = (600 mm Hg/760 mm Hg)

× 106 = 789,474 ppmv

Average molecular weight of gasoline = 108 g/gram-mole

789,474 ppm v × 108 g/g-mole

Saturation vapor concentration in mg/m 3 =
24.45 L/g-mole
= 3,487,247 mg/m 3
= 3487.2 grams/m 3

50 cfm = 1.416 m3/minute

1.416 m3/minute × 3487.2 grams/m3 = 4937.9 grams/minute

4937.9 grams/minute = 10.89 pounds/minute

930 lbs/10.89 lbs/minute = 85.4 minutes per change-out time = 1.4 hours

This is highly unreasonable and would be essentially a fulltime job for one or
more refinery employees. Alternate engineering controls must be investigated.
Perhaps three, for example, of these vapor scavengers could be assembled in

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232 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

parallel so that two are being automatically desorbed of gasoline while one
operates. Maybe larger adsorption columns are available. Since headspace
vapors are saturated at almost 79% by volume, perhaps parallel refrigeration
tubes could be located near the top of the tank to provide vapor condensation
surfaces. Combinations of simple engineering controls appear necessary. In
any procedure, robust oversight and engineered redundancy must be in place.

466. A fan was selected to supply 35,530 cfm at 8" SP. The fan operates at
1230 rpm and requires 61.0 bhp. After installation, it is desired to increase
fan output 20%. At what rpm must the fan operate? What SP will develop?
What bhp is required?

cfm varies as rpm: 1230 cfm × 1.20 = 1476 rpm

SP varies as (rpm)2 = (1476 cfm/1230 cfm)2 × 8" = 11.52" SP

bhp varies as (rpm)3 = (1476 cfm/1230 cfm)3 × 61.0 = 105.4 bhp

Note while fan output went up 20%, the brake horsepower requirements
increased a substantial (105.4 bhp/61.0 bhp) = 1.728, or 173%. In these days
of energy = money, very careful system design is necessary. If only a 10%
“safety factor” is added to system volume, the horsepower increase will be
33% per the third fan law. Evaluation should be made weighing necessity of
this “safety factor” against the substantial energy cost penalty incurred.

467. A fan was initially installed to deliver 10,300 cfm at 2- 14 " SP and to operate
at 877 rpm requiring 5.20 bhp. After installation and performance testing,
it was found that the system only delivered 9150 cfm at 2- 12 " SP and used
4.70 BHP. This suggested the original calculations were in error, or the sys-
tem was not installed according to the plan’s specifications. What fan rpm
and bhp would be necessary to develop the required 10,300 cfm? What SP
should have been calculated?

cfm varies as rpm: (10,300 cfm/9150 cfm) (877 rpm) = 987 rpm

SP varies as (rpm)2 = (987/877)2 (2.50") = 3.17" SP

bhp varies as (rpm)3 = (987 rpm/877 rpm)3 × 4.70 = 6.70 bhp

468. An exhaust ventilation system was calculated to require a static pressure

equal to 2" water gauge at an air flow rate of 1000 cfm. Without any physi-
cal changes to the system, what is the required SP if it is desired to increase
the air flow to 1500 cfm?

(1500 cfm/1000 cfm)2 × 2" SP = 4.5" SP

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725 Problems with Solutions 233

469. A train derails. Two tank cars—one containing 7400 gallons anhydrous
NH3, and the other with 8950 gallons of 30% (mass/volume) of HCl con-
nected together—rupture and react chemically and immediately in a large
pool formed in the right-of-way ditch. What is the maximum amount of
ammonium chloride fume that could be formed? What is the reality check?

NH 3 + HCl → NH 4 Cl + heat

That is, 1 mole of ammonia reacts with 1 mole of hydrogen chloride to

yield 1 mole of ammonium chloride. A question then becomes: What is the
limiting chemical reactant? How many moles of NH3 and HCl are available
to react?

Liquid NH3 density = 42.57 pounds per cubic foot @ – 28°F

7400 gallons NH3 × 0.1337 ft3/gallon = 989.38 ft3

989.38 ft3 × 42.57 lb/ft3 = 42,117.9 lb

42,117.9 lb × 453.59 lb/g = 19,356,965.7 g NH3

19,356,965.7 g/17 g/mole = 1,138,645.0 moles of NH3

density of 30% HCl in water is 1.1443 g/mL

8950 gallons × 3785.4 mL/gallon = 33,879,330 mL

33,879,330 mL × 1.1443 g/mL = 38,768,117.3 g HCl

38,768,117.3 g/36.5 g/mole = 1,062,140 moles of HCl

Therefore, because of the limiting amount of 1,062,140 moles of HCl,

the number of moles of NH4Cl can be no larger. That is, the amount of HCl
limits the amount of NH4Cl that can be formed under perfect reaction con-
ditions. Such calculations are essential to emergency responders in develop-
ing a community protection risk management and spill response plan.

Molecular weight NH4Cl = 53.49 g/g-mole

53.49 g/g-mole × 1,062,140 moles NH4Cl = 56,813,868.6 g = 56,813.9 kg.

In reality, however, there will never be a stoichiometric reaction. The

great heat of reaction will volatilize much liquid ammonia and its gas and
hydrogen chloride gas before they react in situ and in the atmosphere.
Perfect reaction conditions would not occur in a railroad ditch. Would it
not be prudent to separate these tank cars in the freight train marshaling

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234 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

yard with, for example, boxcars and hopper cars of wheat, rice, coal, marsh-
mallows, carrots, stoves, and crushed granite—all virtually are nonreactive
with NH3 and HCl and each other?

470. Industrial hygienists are seldom requested to determine combustion air

needs for fuel-fired furnaces, boilers, and other equipment. This is nor-
mally the province of chemical, mechanical, and combustion engineers.
Once in awhile, they are asked to ensure the volume of combustion air is
high enough to hinder CO gas formation. They might be requested, in a
forensic sense, to determine if the amount of combustion air was sufficient
to prevent deaths and poisoning from CO gas inhalation. The following
table is helpful in these calculations:

Combustible Substance Pounds of Air/Pound of Combustible

Carbon 11.5
Hydrogen 34.3
Sulfur 4.3

Consider a fuel oil with 86.1% carbon, 13.8% hydrogen, and 0.1% sulfur.
This fuel oil weighs 6.8 pounds per gallon. It will be burned nearly stoichio-
metrically at the rate of 5 gallons per hour. How much combustion air is
required at NTP with an excess of 10%?

0.861 C × 11.5 × 6.8 = 67.3 lbs of air

0.138 H × 34.3 × 6.8 = 32.2 lbs of air

0.001 S × 4.3 × 6.8 = 0.03 lbs of air

Total = 99.53 lbs of air required for pound of this fuel

99.53 lbs of air × 1.10 excess × 5 gallons/hour = 547.4 lb air/hour

(547.4 lbs/hour)/(60 minutes/hour) = 9.12 lbs of air/minute

At NTP: (9.12 lbs/minute)/(0.075 lbs/ft3) = 121.6 cfm

How much excess air is supplied as a safety factor depends on several

variables: fuel type, combustion efficiency, CO gas alarms, and so forth.
For fuel oils 1–6, excess air ranges between 5% and 20%, for natural gas:
5–15%, for wood: 10–25%, for coal: 10–60%, and for metallurgical coke:
10–30%.

471. A 10-year-old sister finds her 2- 12 -year-old brother dead inside an empty toy
chest. Apparently, the chest’s hinged wood lid was too heavy for him to open.
His death was ruled as physical asphyxiation from oxygen insufficiency;

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725 Problems with Solutions 235

however, the county medical examiner, during forensic evaluations, was

uncertain if this boy’s death was unintentional or homicidal. She requests
services of an industrial hygienist to determine oxygen depletion profile
over time inside the toy chest. The chest was tightly sealed, so there was
no air exchange while the boy was inside. The interior dimensions were
35" × 18" × 15". The boy weighed 34 pounds naked.

Assumptions:
Ambient concentration of oxygen was 20.95% (v/v).
Boy’s body density was 1.07 g/mL.
Oxygen consumption by boy was 0.13 L O2/minute.
Exposure was at, or near, sea level, say <1000 feet.
Nobody opened the lid while the boy was inside.
He had good health with no CO poisoning risk factors.
Toy chest coffin: 35" × 18" × 15" = 9450 in3
9450 in3/1728 in3/ft3 = 5.47 ft3
5.47 ft3 × 28.312 L/ft3 = 154.87 L
34 lbs × 453.592 g/lb = 15,422 g
Boy’s volume = 15,422 g × mL/1.07 g/mL = 14,413 mL = 14.413 L
Net volume of toy chest with boy inside = 154.87 L – 14.413 L = 140.46 L
140.46 L air × 0.2095 = 29.43 L of O2 in toy chest when the boy entered
After 30 minutes: 30 minutes × 0.13 L/minute = 3.9 L O2 consumed
After 60 minutes: 60 minutes × 0.13 L/minute = 7.8 L O2 consumed
After 120 minutes: 120 minutes × 0.13 L/minute = 15.6 L O2 consumed
After 120 minutes: (existing O2 concentration/initial O2 concentra-
tion) × 100 = (15.6 L/29.43 L) 100 = 53.0% O2 remains after 2 hours.
20.95% O2 in ambient air × 0.53 = 11.1% O2 in toy chest after 2 hours.
At near 12% O2, unconsciousness is approaching, and death occurs at
nearly 6% O2 or less.

As we see, this boy’s asphyxiation death was slow—perhaps over 3 hours.

Of course, he’s exhaling CO2 which stimulates the heart’s carotid body CO2
receptor to increase both respiration rate and heart rate. With diminishing
oxygen, he gets weaker, strength goes down, and his ability to continue
screaming for help will decrease. His most likely profound fatigue from
escaping attempts accelerate his oxygen consumption and CO2 generation
into the surrounding “air.” If this boy’s death was ultimately ruled unin-
tentional, this certainly argues for toy chest makers to foresee asphyxiation
fatalities. An opening, say 1" × 12" at the top front under the lid’s edge with
equal area openings at the back side near the bottom will promote natural
ventilation. Body warmth produces a “chimney effect,” air rises and exits at
top front, with make-up air naturally entering through the back bottom area.
Cries for help could be more easily heard with the openings. Of course, man-
ufacturers must install hazard warnings with pictographs similar to what we
see on 5-gallon pails. A lighter lid would have allowed this boy to extricate
himself or at least to open lid partially to scream for help. A police whistle

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236 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

attached by a short chain to the inside, with parental training, could augment
good safety engineering design. Forensically, of course, if the boy could not
open the lid from the inside, could he open it from the outside? Was it open
when he approached the chest? Or, was he in the toy chest while another
closed the lid unintentionally without noticing he was inside, or was there
intentional joking or teasing; or was it deliberate murder?

472. A direct-reading, real-time airborne particle analyzer measured the following

in the air of a newly constructed house during dry wall contractor clean-up:
Particle Diameter (μ) Particle Count/Liter of Air
0.3 47,907
0.5 2153
1 222
2 96
5 17
10 7

Assume all particles are spherical with a density of 1.82 g/cm3. What is
the weight fraction for each particle size group?
The best approach is to determine volume of one particle in each group,
multiply this by number of particles in the group, and then multiply by den-
sity of particles. Add total masses from each group of particles to calculate
the percent weight distribution by mass fraction.

4 3
Sphere volume = V = π r = 1.333 × π (0.15 µ)3 = 0.014137 µ3
3

47,907 particles × 0.014137 μ3/particle = 677.26 μ3

1 cm = 104 μ

1 cm3 = 104 μ × 104 μ × 104 μ = 1012 μ3

677.26 μ3/1 × 1012 μ3/cm3 = 0.00000000067726 cm3

0.00000000067726 cm3 × 1.82 g/cm3 = 0.0000000012326 g

= 0.0000012326 mg = 0.00123 micrograms

That is, 47,907 particles weigh a mere 1.23 nanograms!

4 3
V = π r = 1.333 × π (0.25 µ)3 = 0.06545 µ3
3

2153 particles × 0.06545 μ3/particle = 140.91 μ3

140.91 μ3/1 × 1012 μ3/cm3 = 0.00000000014091 cm3

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725 Problems with Solutions 237

0.00000000014091 cm3 × 1.82 g/cm3 = 0.00000000025646 g

= 0.0000256 μg = 0.0256 nanograms

4 3
V = π r = 1.333 × π (0.5 µ)3 = 0.52359 µ3
3

222 particles × 0.52359 μ3/particle = 116.24 μ3

116.24 μ3/1 × 1012 μ3/cm3 = 0.00000000011624 cm3

0.00000000011624 cm3 × 1.82 g/cm3 = 0.00000000021156 g

= 0.000224 μg = 0.224 nanograms

4 3
V = π r = 1.333 × π (1.0 µ)3 = 4.1887 µ3
3

96 particles × 4.1887 μ3/particle = 402.12 μ3

402.12 μ3/1 × 1012 μ3/cm3 = 0.0000000006402 cm3

0.0000000006402 cm3 × 1.82 g/cm3 = 0.0000000011652 g = 0.001165 μg

= 1.165 nanograms

4 3
V = π r = 1.333 × π (2.5 µ)3 = 65.448 µ3
3

17 particles × 65.448 μ3/particle = 1113 μ3

1112.6 μ3/1 × 1012 μ3/cm3 = 0.000000001113 cm3

0.000000001113 cm3 × 1.82 g/cm3 = 0.0000000020257 g = 0.002026 μg

= 2.026 nanograms
How about all these zeroes!

4 3
V = π r = 1.333 × π (5.0 µ)3 = 523.59 µ3
3

7 particles × 523.59 μ3/particle = 3665.13 μ3

3665.13 μ3/1 × 1012 μ3/cm3 = 0.000000003665 cm3

0.000000003665 cm3 × 1.82 g/cm3 = 0.0000000066703 g = 0.006670 μg

= 6.670 nanograms
Man, what a chore to plug and chug these numbers!

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238 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

473. From data in the preceding problem, create a table listing the average weight
per particle versus particle size. What conclusions can you draw from this?

For 0.3 μ particles: 1.23 nanograms/47,907 particles = 0.000025675

ng/particle
For 0.5 μ particles: 0.0256 nanograms/2153 particles = 0.0000119 ng/
particle
For 1.0 μ particles: 0.224 nanograms/222 particles = 0.001 ng/particle
For 2.0 μ particles: 1.165 nanograms/96 particles = 0.012 ng/particle
For 5.0 μ particles: 2.026 nanograms/17 particles = 0.119 ng/particle
For 10.0 μ particles: 6.670 nanograms/7 particles = 0.953 ng/particle

Particle Diameter (μ) Average Particle Mass (nanograms)

0.3 0.0000257
0.5 0.0000119
1 0.001
2 0.012
5 0.119
10 0.953

It goes without saying that a small particle weighs less than a large par-
ticle of equal density. With every approximate doubling of particle size,
there is nearly a 10-fold increase in particle weight. These data plot very
nicely on semi-logarithmic graph paper. For whatever reasons, the data for
0.5 and 0.3 micron particles are anomalous. These particles appear to have
a bimodal distribution suggesting an internal combustion engine source
might contribute to these smaller particles.

474. From Problem 473, what is the airborne dust concentration in mg/m3?

1.23 ng/L + 0.0256 ng/L + 0.224 ng/L + 1.165 ng/L + 2.026 ng/L

+ 6.67 ng/L = 11.3406 ng/L = 11,340.6 μg/m3 = 11.34 mg/m3

This very dusty air is, most likely, primarily gypsum (CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2O),
sanding dust from spackling compound, wood dust, insulation dust, and
paper dust. Check the spackling compound for asbestos fibers (e.g., chryso-
tile, amosite, and others).

475. From Problem 474, what is the mass percent for the 10-micron particles?

(6.670 ng/11.3406 ng) × 100 = 58.8% (m/v)

476. From Problem 472, what is the count percent for the 10-micron particles?
[7/(47,907 + 2,153 + 222 + 96 + 17 + 7)] × 100 = (7/50,306) × 100 =
0.00139%. Notice 0.00139% of the airborne particles contribute 58.8% of the
total mass of particles. This is an important distinction easily overlooked by

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725 Problems with Solutions 239

those responsible for ensuring high air quality in building interiors. One must
carefully read the specifications and understand the performance ratings for
all filters. Ask if the percent efficiency is by weight percent or count percent.

477. Consider Problems 472 through 476. A favorite watering hole for the author
is Bailey’s Pub and Grille, a sports bar in Dearborn, Michigan where this
sign is posted:

In consideration of your health and comfort, the sophisticated air filtration sys-
tem of Bailey’s provides an air purity factor of 99%. (For scientists among us,
this is accomplished with an air in duct, electronic carbon precip-itator along
with a complete air change eight times an hour – and boy, is it expensive!)

Such air quality engineering outreach is commendable. However, another

cocktail lounge in a different part of town posts a sign that boasts: “Our ven-
tilation system filters 99% of all airborne particles.” This might be to console
the patrons who are nonsmokers. Could this sign be misleading, untrue?
Yes, because if the air system filters are rated in weight-percent effi-
ciency, instead of particle-percent efficiency, the sign’s claim is misleading
because tiny particles are more difficult and pricier to capture. Let us say,
again referring to Problem 472, if only the big 2-, 5-, and 10-micron par-
ticles are filtered, this air system would be:
[(47,907 + 2,153 + 222)/50,306] × 100 = 99.95% inefficient for the more
dangerous tiny particles that comprise tobacco smoke. Perhaps their sign
should state: “Our ventilation system filter is only 0.05% effective against
tobacco smoke. Beware!” Now, however, Michigan has become a “No
Smoking” state for public gathering places.

478. A worker has an 8-hour time-weighted average exposure to benzene vapor

exactly at the NIOSH REL of 0.1 ppmv. He does not have direct skin contact
with solvents containing liquid benzene. His average alveolar ventilation
rate is 7 liters/minute. Assume 50% of inhaled benzene vapor enters the
blood perfusing his lungs. How many benzene molecules enter his body
through his lungs during his work shift? Assume exposure conditions at
NTP. Solving this problem helps one see through the eyes of inhalation
molecular toxicologists.

mg 0.1ppm v × 78.11g/g-mole
= = 0.3195mg/m 3
m3 24.45 L/g-mole

7 L/minute × 60 minutes/hour × 8 hours/workday = 3360 L

= 3.36 m3/workday
0.5 × 0.3195 mg/m3 × 3.36 m3 = 0.5368 mg benzene absorbed into the
worker’s body

0.5368 mg benzene = 0.0005368 g benzene

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240 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

One mole (78.11 g) of benzene contains 6.023 × 1023 molecules of benzene.

6.023 × 1023 molecules/78.11 g/g-mol = 7.71092 × 1021 molecules/g

7.71092 × 1021 molecules/g × 0.0005368 g = 4.1392 × 1018 molecules

The number of cells in an adult human body has been estimated to be between
10 and 100 trillion. Assume an average of 55,000,000,000,000 cells.

4.1392 × 1018 molecules/55 × 1012 = 75,258 benzene molecules/cell.

The result is an average overall cell types. Considering benzene is only

slightly soluble in water and much more soluble in lipids, we see that fatty
portions of the body, such as the bone marrow, become enriched in ben-
zene. This calculation demonstrates how some might claim, “0.1 ppm is
so tiny as to be insignificant.” To inhalation toxicologists, we see how, on
molecular levels, it is not. Benzene is a genotoxic human carcinogen oper-
ative at a molecular level without a threshold of safety. This calculation
was prepared to give a frame of reference, a perspective. Of course, the
benzene entering the body is metabolized and excreted only after entering
the blood and perfusing the liver and kidneys—and after passing through
the bone marrow. A physically fit man has an average of 15.5% fat tis-
sue. One could reasonably argue that, for such a man as our worker, his
fatty tissues would enrich by (100/15.5) × 75,258 molecules/cell to 485,535
benzene molecules/cell. These calculations are somewhat oversimplified
because the assumption is that benzene is only intracellular and not in the
interstitial fluid and mineralized tissues such as teeth and bones. One could
also, as well, calculate the number of benzene molecules per gram of total
body mass assuming that the worker weighed 70 kg (154 lb): 4.1392 × 1018
molecules/70,000 g = 5.913 × 1013 benzene molecules/g (59 trillion).
The human hematopoietic system is a tremendous blood cell production
line. An average adult produces 2,400,000 red blood cells per second. No,
“second” is not a typographical error. Bone marrow, in health, is truly a
biochemical phenomenon.

479. 34 pounds n-hexane evaporates in an empty, small, unventilated tool shed

12' × 18' × 8'. What is the NTP vapor concentration in ppmv?

34 pounds = 15,422.1 grams = 15,422,100 milligrams

12' × 18' × 8' = 1728 ft3 = 48.93 m3

(15,422,100 mg/48.93m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm v = = 83,646 ppm v
92.13grams/gram-mole

83,646 ppmv/(10,000 ppmv/1%) = 8.3646%v

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725 Problems with Solutions 241

The LEL–UEL range for n-hexane is from 1.1–1.25 to 7.0–7.5 vol. %. So,
when one opens the door and introduces air, the vapor concentration dilutes
into the explosive range. Knowing the vapor concentration, one must not
enter. Through a small opening (no sources of ignition such as a hot drill bit
or hot saw blade), slowly introduces an inert gas (e.g., N2, CO2) or air until
concentration is well below 10 ppmv. Remotely test shed’s atmosphere for
oxygen and hexane before allowing entry.

480. Consider a building with the length and width of a standard high
school, college, and NFL football field excluding the end zones (300 feet
long and 160 feet wide). This building has a ceiling height of 10 feet.
Also assume that the building is tightly sealed: no windows, doors, or
mechanical or natural ventilation. The internal volume of this building is
300' × 160' × 10' = 480,000 ft3 = 13,592 m3.
Mary, my wife, has a standard sewing thimble with a volume of 3.4 mil-
liliters. The density of liquid benzene is 0.88 gram/milliliter. So, if the ben-
zene in the thimble spills inside the building and evaporates (perhaps in only
a few minutes), the amount of benzene vapor in the air is 3.4 mL × 0.88 g/
mL = 2.992 grams = 2992 milligrams.
Molecules move about. So, over a period of time, 2992 milligrams of
benzene exists as vapor in a building with a volume of 13,592 m3. This mass
of benzene can be converted to parts of benzene vapor per million parts of
air in the building by the following equation:

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45L/gram-mole (2992/13,592) × 24.45

ppm = =
molecular weight of benzene 78.1
= 0.069 ppm = 69 ppb (v/v)

This is 69% of the recommended exposure level for workers by NIOSH

provided the worker does not have skin contact and does not have preexist-
ing hematopoietic disorder. This REL is the worst acceptable concentration.
Moreover, benzene is a known, recognized human carcinogen. It is genotoxic.
Therefore, there is no safe level of exposure. There is no threshold for mutation.

481. Natural gas contains 87–96% methane, CH4, the simplest organic mole-
cule and hydrocarbon. Methane is highly combustible (LEL = 4.4–5% by
volume, UEL = 15–17% by volume) with the right conditions: sufficient
methane gas present, sufficient oxygen, and an ignition source. The ignition
source must have sufficient energy to cause ignition (0.21 mJ at 8.5% by
volume, near the mid-point between the LEL and UEL), and ignition source
must be present long enough to cause ignition and combustion. When these
conditions are present, chemists can write a combustion equation for this
chemical reaction:

CH 4 + 2O2 ∆
→ 2H 2 O + CO2 + heat

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242 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

That is, one part (a mole, or mol) of methane gas mixed with two parts of
oxygen gas, O2, in the presence of a sufficiently hot ignition source (a) suf-
ficiently long will combust (oxidize) to produce (yield) two parts of water
vapor and one part of carbon dioxide gas. This equation represents a perfect
(stoichiometric) chemical reaction that rarely occurs outside of the labo-
ratory inside a bomb calorimeter. If the high oxygen demand to combust
methane is not met or sustained, incomplete combustion occurs resulting
in additional gaseous by-products such as carbon monoxide, formaldehyde,
acetic acid, and soot. Calculate how much oxygen is needed to perfectly
combust, oxidize 1 kilogram of methane. Calculate mass of carbon dioxide
gas and water vapor produced.
Molecular weights of CH4, O2, H2O, and CO2 are, respectively, 16, 32, 18,
and 44 grams/mole.

1 kg CH4/16 g/mole = 1000 g CH4/16 g/mole = 62.5 moles of CH4

Therefore, 2 × 62.5 moles of O2 are required = 2 × 62.5 moles × 32 g/

mole = 4000 g.
Since mass is conserved, 1000 g CH4 + 4000 g O2 = 5000 g of H2O and
CO2 are produced.
For H2O, 2 moles × 18 g/mole × 62.5 moles = 2250 grams of H2O vapor are
produced.
For CO2, 1 mole × 44 g/mole × 62.5 moles = 2750 grams CO2 are produced.

1 kg CH4 + 4 kg O2 2.25 kg H2O + 2.75 kg CO2 + heat

482. Quaternary ammonium compounds (“quats”) such as benzylkonium chlo-

ride have been used for over 50 years to preserve the sterility of inanimate
objects such as medical and dental surgical instruments and endoscopes
after steam or chemical sterilization and to protect eye drops and nasal
sprays. Hemostats and forceps used in medical clinics, for example, are
immersed in highly diluted solutions until needed. One part “quat” in 40,000
sterile normal saline solution is claimed to be bactericidal. 1/200,000 is
bacteriostatic. During recent years, the use of “quats” has expanded to help
sanitize surfaces such as floors, walls, and hard objects in medical facilities
and nursing homes. Several quats are now commercially available through
retail outlets.
Quats are potent respiratory irritants and, for some, respiratory, dermal,
and ocular allergens and sensitizers. Asthma has been reported in those
inhaling nebulized quat aerosols. Unfortunately, over past several years,
some have indiscriminately dispersed aerosols of quats in occupied areas
with a misguided notion of sterilizing air or hard surfaces. Careless dis-
pensing as fogs, mists, aerosols, and nebulized solutions have been done
in commercial/public buildings including schools, food processing plants
such as dairies, residences, health care facilities, poultry farms, and offices.

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725 Problems with Solutions 243

Reactive airways disease syndrome (RADS), persistent bronchial asthma,

and hypersensitivity pneumonitis have resulted from these dangerous
practices. Commercial outlets market quats—often combined with “air
fresheners”—to retail customers to spray homes. Organizations that offer
air duct cleaning services wrongly fog quats in ventilation air supply distri-
bution systems to “prevent mold growth.”
Those spraying quats claim that low-pressure foggers cannot gener-
ate respirable particles; that is, they assert, there is no inhalation hazard.
Consider 100-μm diameter airborne quat particles (1/40,000 concentration
benzylkonium chloride) in less than a 100% relative humidity atmosphere.
After the water phase evaporates (fast in low humidity air), particles are
now 100% quat. What is the diameter of these new particles? Small enough
to penetrate terminal airways?

(1/40,000) × 100 = 0.0025% benzylkonium chloride

100% − 0.0025% = 99.9975% H 2 O

volume, V, of spherical aerosol particle = (4/3) π r 3

4 3 4
Particle volume = V = π r = π (50 µ )3 = 523,599 µ 3
3 3

H 2 O volume = 523,599 µ3 × 0.999975 = 523,586 µ3 H 2 O

Toxicant volume = 523,599 µ 3 − 523,586 µ 3

= 13 µ 3 benzylkonium chloride

V 13 13 µ3
r3 = = = = 3.1035 µ3
(4/3) π (4/3) π 4.1888

3
r = 3.1035 µ3 = 1.46 µ

diameter, Ø, = 2 r = 2.92 μ.
100 micron diameter nonrespirable 0.0025% benzylkonium chloride
particles are now 100% concentration particles with respirable diameter of
2.92 microns—much smaller and more toxic to the delicate tissues in the
lower respiratory tract.
The author maintains that spray dispersion of quats in atmospheres must
not be practiced because inhalation health risks far outweigh any dubious
benefits of temporary “sterilization” of air or surfaces. Quats rapidly lose
their activity inside ventilation systems because they degrade in the presence
of organic materials by chemically bonding. Moreover, the dried particles

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244 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

are easily resuspended in air inhaled by those in treated areas. These, in

turn, can act as allergic sensitizers. Refer to Problems 456 and 487.
Those who intend to dispense aerosols of biologically reactive agents into
the air of facilities that people and animals could occupy, or air handling
systems, should:

• Consult a board-certified industrial hygienist, an inhalation toxicolo-

gist, or a physician trained in occupational and environmental medicine.
• Carefully consider safer alternatives, safer application methods, and
apply the principles of integrated pest management.
• Critically review activity of safest aerosol and residual potency over time.
• Discuss potential adverse health effects with building occupants.
Obtain their written permission to proceed.
• Inquire about occupants’ preexisting respiratory health conditions.
The young, elderly, those with history of allergy, the atopic, those with
chronic obstructive (chronic bronchitis, emphysema) and restrictive
lung disease, and cardiovascular impairment are at greatest risk.
• Secure treated areas and post with bold warning signs before, during, and
after application. Use negative pressure isolation, containment practices.
• Bar access during and after application and until robust ventilation,
bake-out, ventilation protocol has been completed.
• Obtain ample air samples inside and outside the facility to ensure air
quality equals or exceeds outdoor air quality before allowing occupancy.
• Establish a rigorous industrial hygiene program to conserve health of
aerosol, fogging applicators including carefully crafted written work
practices, selection and using high-quality personal protection equip-
ment, careful supervisory oversight, and health and safety education
and training per OSHA’s Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR
1910.1200).
• Not utter fraudulent, scientifically unsupported statements (e.g., “This
will prevent mold growth for up to three years,” or “Your air supply ducts
will be sterilized,” and “Your home and your family will be healthier”).

483. A sheet metal worker constructing an exhaust ventilation system to con-

trol the exposures of workers to wood sanding dust has a limited supply of
materials. He connects a 24-feet section of 16-inch diameter sheet metal
duct to duct 12 inches in diameter. The 12-inch diameter duct was engi-
neered to convey wood dust at 3500 feet per minute. What is wood dust
transport velocity in 16-inch diameter section?

12-inch duct cross section area = π r 2 = 3.1416 (6")2 = 113.1 in2 = 0.7854 ft2

0.7854 ft2 × 3500 fpm = 2749 ft3/minute

16-inch duct cross section area = π r 2 = 3.1416 (8")2 = 201.1 in2 = 1.397 ft2

(2749 cfm)/1.397 ft2 = 1968 fpm

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725 Problems with Solutions 245

The wood dust duct transport velocity was reduced from 3500 fpm to a
dangerous 1968 fpm. This sheet metal worker does not realize the hazards
that he created. Lower duct transport velocity permits wood sanding dust
to settle and accumulate in wider diameter duct. This presents explosion
and fire risk. A minimum duct transport velocity for fine wood dust is
3500 fpm, the engineering design velocity. Ventilation system design engi-
neers should field test the systems (“turn key”) so dangerous short-cuts
are prevented by strict adherence to engineering design specifications. A
duct velocity of 1968 fpm is acceptable for gases and vapors, but is far
too low for particulates—especially if they are combustible, toxic, and/or
explosive.

484. One liter of a volatile solvent (vapor pressure = 58 mm Hg; molecular

weight = 79.6 grams/gram-mole) is spilled in a hyperbaric chamber with
operating pressure of 2.6 atmospheres. After the air is saturated with sol-
vent vapor, 845 mL of liquid solvent remains. What is saturation solvent
vapor concentration?

1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg

2.3 atmospheres × 760 mm Hg/atmosphere = 1748 mm Hg

(58 mm Hg/1748 mm Hg) × 106 = 33,181 ppmv = 3.318% by volume

Clearly, the atmosphere in the hyperbaric chamber is toxic and might

present an explosion hazard if 3.318% is above LEL and below the UEL.
Entry must not be permitted until high-pressure atmosphere is safely vented
through an activated charcoal trap or by some other method that does not
expose people to this organic vapor.

485. Referring to Problem 484, what is vapor concentration after cham-

ber’s pressure is reduced to the standard sea-level atmospheric pressure
(760 mm Hg)?

(58 mm Hg/760 mm Hg) × 106 = 76,316 ppmv = 7.6316%

Answer: 76,316 ppmv. Note how higher pressure in the chamber sup-
pressed evaporation of solvent. Not surprisingly, inhalation and explosion
hazards more than doubled as the high pressure was reduced to atmospheric
pressure.

486. Refer to Problem 483. If the liquid solvent has a density of 0.81 g/mL, what
is the net volume of the hyperbaric chamber? Assume NTP.

1000 mL − 845 mL = 155 mL, the liquid volume that evaporated

155 mL × 0.81 g/mL = 125.55 grams of solvent-saturated

chamber atmosphere

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246 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

mg/m3 = (ppm × molecular weight)/24.45 L/g-mole

= (33,181 × 79.6)/24.45 = 108,025 mg/m3

125.55 g = 125,500 mg

125,500 mg/108,025 mg/m3 = 1.162 m3

Note that liquids are virtually incompressible, but gases are not. This
method can be used to approximate the interior volume of any structure
that has an irregularly shaped interior and various shaped objects within.
Of course, a more accurate way—assuming contents are not harmed by
water—is to fill the chamber with water and determine difference in weight
loss or gain, or measure the water volume added or emptied.

487. What factors determine loss of water from tiny airborne particles?
Disregard particles with molecules that are strongly hydrated (e.g.,
2H2O ⋅ CaSO4).
The rate at which water evaporates from airborne particles depends upon
the air temperature, particle temperature, turbulence of particle, atmo-
spheric pressure, relative humidity, particle diameter, vapor pressure of
water, and intermolecular forces between the solute or suspended chemical
and with water (i.e., hydrates).
Small airborne particles rapidly assume air temperature even if emitted
from very hot or cold processes. Normal air currents and Brownian motion
provide the necessary turbulence. Relative humidity, perhaps more than
any other factor, drives the rate of water loss from the aerosol particles—
quickly in low humidity atmospheres and slowly in highly humid air to zero
in 100% relative humidity air. See Problems 456 and 482.

488. Industrial hygienists and toxicologists often explain concepts of toxicants

and toxins to workers, other health professionals, and to our courts. Many
find it difficult to grasp the concepts of “very tiny.” We can do this by com-
paring the familiar with the unfamiliar. Some helpful ways are to deter-
mine the amount of solvent vapor evaporated from a sewing thimble
(3.4 mL) into a building of recognized size, say a football field exclud-
ing the end zones (300' × 165') with ceiling height of a standard house
room (8'). For any airborne particulate (dust, mist, smoke, fume), we can
consider mass (1 gram) inside the little packets of sucrose and artificial
sweeteners we find in restaurants. Let us use the OSHA PEL for inorganic
lead for workers (50 mcg/m3). What building volume, using sugar example
assuming it is finely ground lead powder, would result?

1 gram = 1,000,000 micrograms

1,000,000 micrograms/50 mcg/m3 = 20,000 m3

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725 Problems with Solutions 247

20,000 m3 = 706,293 ft3

706,293 ft3/(165' × 300') = 14.3 feet high ceiling

A picogram is a very tiny unit of mass. That is, 1 pcg = 10 −12 gram, or 1 tril-
lionth of a gram. Toxicologists and analytical chemists can detect numerous
chemicals in about any matrix at picogram level, for example, 3 picograms
of dimethyl awful stuff per deciliter whole blood. These units are virtu-
ally meaningless to most people. For reference, a deciliter = 100 mL = 3.38
ounces = 0.42 cup, or said another way, slightly less than ½ cup.
Let us put this into common sense perspective by calculating how many
picograms are in a single crystal of common table salt, sodium chloride
(NaCl).
The density of table salt is 2.165 grams/milliliter. Table salt crystals
are nearly perfect cubes with a uniform dimension of 0.03 centime-
ter on each  side. The volume of a single table salt crystal is, therefore
0.03 cm3 = 0.000027 cm3 = 0.000027 mL. So, the mass of a single
table salt crystal is 2.165 g/mL × 0.000027 mL = 0.0000585 gram. This
equals 0.0585 mg = 58.5 micrograms = 58,500 nanograms = 58,500,000
picograms.
Now, let us see how many molecules of NaCl are in a single grain of table salt.

Molecular weight of NaCl = 58.43 g/mole

58.43 g NaCl contains 6.022 × 1023 molecules

(6.022 × 1023 molecules/mole) × (mole/58.43 g) = 1.0306 × 1022 molecules/

gram
(1.0306 × 1022 molecules/gram) × 0.0000585 g
= 6.0606 × 1017 molecules of sodium chloride in each grain of table salt.
The Earth’s population is 7 billion in 2012. If each person equals a pico-
gram, how many Earth’s are needed for 1 trillion people? 143 Earths.
31,688 years have 1 trillion seconds. That is, 1 second in 31,688 years is
one part per trillion.

489. An investigator wants to determine particle emission rate in, for example,
milligrams per cubic meter per minute of an automobile’s exhaust system
without a catalytic converter. What factors must she consider in her mea-
surements and research?
Engine revolutions per minute, absolute temperature of exhaust gas, iso-
kinetic sampling, exhaust gas pressure, engine displacement, dynamometer
loading, internal diameter of exhaust pipe, Pitot tube or other measuring
device of exhaust gas velocity, mass of fuel and air injected, volumetric
flow rate of exhaust gas corrected for temperature and pressure, collecting

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248 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

media filtration efficiency, calibration of measuring instruments, and stan-

dard analytical laboratory methods.

490. A 4760 cfm air stream contains 420 ppmv chlorine gas. Local environmen-
tal stack permits no more than 1 ppmv in vented gas streams. A chemist and
a mechanical engineer design a chlorine gas device that will scavenge up to
320 pounds before the device requires changing or regeneration. How long
will the device operate before change-out is required?

4760 ft 3 1 m3
× = 134.79 m 3 /minute
minute 35.315ft 3

mg ppm × molecularweight 420 × 70.91

= = = 1218.1mg/m 3
m3 24.45 L/g-mole 24.45

134.79 m 3 1218.1 mg
× = 164,187.7 mg/minute
minute m3

1 lb 164,187.7mg 0.362 pound

× =
453,592.37mg minute minute

320 pounds
= 884 minutes = 14.7 hours
0.362 pound/minute

Change-out or regeneration is required every 14.7 hours. However, a

safety factor should be considered. For example, consider a change-out
every 12 hours, and evaluate residual functional capacity by laboratory
tests. These tests might reveal design capacity of 14.7 hours is acceptable,
or a briefer change-out is required. Alternatively, consider operating for
16 hours (at start of the work shift), but verify Cl2 gas concentrations down-
stream of collector by stack testing. Double split-stream parallel identical
chlorine gas scavengers require change-out every 29.4 hours. Material costs
will not increase, but labor costs should decrease because change-out crew
makes fewer visits to service air pollution control device. One can also con-
sider scaling the chlorine gas collector larger to operate longer before gas
saturation. This promotes system safety because of the scavenger’s higher
residual capacity before Cl2 gas breakthrough.

491. A fan was selected to supply 35,530 cfm at 8" SP. The fan operates at 1230 rpm
and requires 61.0 bhp. After installation, an un-sophisticated HVAC “engi-
neer” elects to increase fan’s output by 20% for “safety.” At what rpm must
the fan now operate? What SP will develop? What bhp will be required?
cfm varies as rpm: 1230 cfm × 1.20 = 1476 rpm. Do not exceed fan’s
rated tip speed! Blades can shatter hurling shards and projectiles of sharp
metal in every direction.

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725 Problems with Solutions 249

sp varies as (rpm)2 = (1476 cfm/1230 cfm)2 × 8" = 11.5" sp

bhp varies as (rpm)3 = (1476 cfm/1230 cfm)3 × 61.0 = 105.4 bhp

Note that as the fan output increased by 20%, the brake horsepower went
up substantially (105.4 bhp/61.0 bhp = 1.728), or by a whopping 173%. In
these days of energy = money, very careful system designs are required.
If only a 10% “safety factor” is added to the system volume, the horse-
power increase will be 33% per the third fan law. Evaluation should be
made weighing necessity of a “safety factor” against the substantial energy
cost penalty incurred. Good engineering does not rely on expensive “safety
factors.” Design for the reasonably foreseeable, not any more.

492. The air in a tightly sealed empty building 60' × 30' × 18' contains 17 ppmv
HBr. A service door connects this building to another tightly sealed build-
ing 130' × 80' × 18'. After the connecting service door is opened, contami-
nated air mixes with the clean air in the adjacent building. What is the HBr
gas concentration after gas is homogenous throughout both rooms?

ppm v × mol. wt. 17 × 80.92 g/g-mole

mg/m 3 = = = 56.26 mg/m 3
24.45 L/g-mole 24.45

60' × 30' × 18' = 32,400 ft3 = 917. 5 m3

56.26 mg/m3 × 917.5 m3 = 51,618.6 mg HBr is in the air of the smaller

building. Mass is conserved, but now distributes into the larger room until
equilibrium is reached. At such low concentrations, this might require a
long time without the aid of mechanical and/or thermal turbulence forces.

Volume of larger building = 130' × 18' × 80' = 187,200 ft3 = 5301.3 m3

Volume of both buildings = 917.5 m3 + 5310.3 m3 = 6227.8 m3

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (51,618.6 mg/6227.8 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm v = =
mol. wt. 80.92
= 2.50 ppm v

2.5 ppmv HBr. Sometimes, simply allowing the high concentrations of

a toxic gas to dilute over time to a lower concentration is a good first start
to protecting workers required to enter such buildings. Of course, in the
absence of air-sampling data, workers must diligently wear appropriate
respiratory protection. As an aside, hydrogen bromide is reactive acid gas,
and, over time, could be expected to react with surfaces in two buildings
further reducing concentration—again to be verified by robust air sam-
pling. I would select detector tubes for this type of air sampling because

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250 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

results are prompt, pockets of gas can easily be identified, and costs are
negligible when compared to wet chemical laboratory methods.

493. A sawyer’s Monday to Friday 8-hour time-weighted averages to respirable

hard wood dust (oak, beech, maple) were, in mg/m3: 2.3, 0.1, 4.2, 0.9, 1.7.
For the week, what was his cumulative dose to these respirable carcinogens?
The cumulative exposure for T (the selected time interval) is calculated by

n
cumulative (T ) = ∑C t
i =1
i i

In this case, we select days as the time units, where T = total elapsed
time, t = incremental time units as components of T.

cumulative (5 days) = (2.3 × 1) + (0.1 × 1) + (4.2 × 1)

+ (0.9 × 1) + (1.7 × 1) = 9.2 g/m3

Cumulative dose for the week was 9.2 mg/m3-days (or 9.2 mg/m3-5-
day work week). Also note that hard wood dusts are carcinogenic to the
upper airways. Therefore, respirable dust samplers typically select against
the larger particles. The TLVs for carcinogenic wood dusts are expressed
in total wood dust per cubic meter of breathing zone air. To the unwary,
reported test results are lower than the true or actual value for total airborne
wood dust.

494. Refer to previous Problem (493). Calculate the sawyer’s cumulative dose if
his consecutive dust exposures were:

2.3 mg/m3 for 3.3 weeks

0.1 mg/m3 for 0.4 weeks (2 workdays/7 days)
4.2 mg/m3 for 2.2 weeks
0.9 mg/m3 for 1.2 weeks
1.7 mg/m3 for 2.6 weeks

(2.3 × 3.3) + (0.1 × 0.4) + (4.2 × 2.2) + (0.9 × 1.2) + (1.7 × 2.6)
= 22.37 mg/m3-weeks

22.37 mg/m3-weeks. Note how longer exposures to higher dust levels con-
tribute, not surprisingly, largest contributions to his dose. For example, the
2.3 and 4.2 mg/m3 exposures comprise [(7.59 + 9.24)/22.37] × 100 = 75.2%
of his cumulative dose for the week. The other 3 days account for less than
25% of his dose. Again, respirable dust mass concentrations are usually
much lower than total airborne dust concentrations.

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725 Problems with Solutions 251

495. We know that 1 gram-mole of a perfect, ideal gas or vapor occupies 22.414 L
at 0°C and 760 mm Hg sea-level atmospheric pressure. Practical industrial
hygiene conditions assume that gases and vapors behave as if they are
“ideal.” Unless in a strange realm of chemical engineering where pressures
and temperatures can be extreme, we normally do not need to concern our-
selves with nonideal vapors and gases. A few problems in this book cover
some applications of nonideal gas behavior. However, most workers do not
find themselves in 0°C situations, and, for this reason, it was once decided
that 77°F be selected as the reference temperature. Mathematically describe
this standard mg/m3 to ppmv conversion equation using 77°F and 760 mm
Hg pressure.
0°C = 32°F, 25°C = 77°F, and from the universal gas laws, we know that

P1 V1 PV
= 2 2
T1 T2

Rearranging

P  T   760 mm   298ο C 
V2 = V1  1  ×  2  = 22.414 L  ×
 P2   T1   760 mm   273ο C 
= 24.467 L/gram-mole, accurately, or 24.45 liters
when rounding to 22.4 L.

There, now you know. Also, of course, when one obtains air samples at
greatly different temperatures and/or pressures than 298°C and 760 mm
Hg, the above equation must be used for the proper and accurate expres-
sion of results. When sampling high-temperature organic material com-
bustion processes or calcining processes, water vapor typically accounts
for a significant portion of exhaust gas volume. Corrections to dry air
should be made. See Problem 47 for these somewhat more challenging
calculations.

496. Limestone, calcium carbonate (CaCO3), is calcined in a lime kiln. For every
ton of limestone that is calcined to lime, how much carbon dioxide gas is
released to the atmosphere?

CaCO3 CaO (lime) + CO2

Molecular weights: CaCO3 = 100.09 grams/gram-mole

CaO = 56.08 grams/gram-mole 
 100.09 grams
CO2 = 44.01grams/gram-mole 

1 ton = 907,185 grams (or the same number of packets of artificial sweeteners)

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252 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

For CaCO3: 907,185 grams/100.09 grams/gram-mole = 9063.7 moles

Since 1 mole of CaCO3 yields 1 mole of CO2, 9063.7 moles of CaCO3
yields 9063.7 moles of CO2.
9063.7 moles × 44.01 grams/gram-mole = 398,893 grams of CO2 = 879.4
pounds = 0.44 ton of CO2 for every ton of limestone calcined to lime,
or calcite. One can avoid these calculations by studying the balanced
chemical reaction. Since mass is conserved, apply molecular weights
assuming stoichiometric and a quantitative reaction in the lime kiln.
Actually, limestone contains silica and some silicates that, from an
industrial hygiene perspective, assume toxicological significance beyond
the eye, skin, and respiratory tissue irritant properties of lime and lime-
stone dust.

Answer: 0.44 ton CO2. Of interest, it was once suggested milk-of-lime

[Ca(OH)2] be used to scrub CO2 from coal- and fuel oil-fired powerhouses in an
effort to help reduce global warming. Milk-of-lime is made by bubbling water
through powdered lime to make a slurry: CaO + H 2 O → Ca(OH)2 . CO2
released to air from calcining limestone equals CO2 scavenged from fuel
combustion gases. There are no free lunches.
497. Industrial hygienists are often confronted with several requests to promptly
resolve issues ASAP. Handled on a first-in, first-out basis can lead to equat-
ing minimal risks to major risks. Suggest a reasonable method for triage—
that is, worst first approach.

Air contaminant Respiratory irritants with Inhaled and Inhaled and skin-
occupational generally reversible skin-absorbed absorbed toxicants
exposure, dose adverse health effects toxicants with with irreversible
target organ adverse health effects
effects or (carcinogens,
systemically toxic teratogens,
reproductive health
hazards, pulmonary
fibrosis agents,
respiratory allergens)
Nondetectable to Minimum risks Minimum risks for Significant risks for
<10% of TLV, PEL, most healthy, small percentage of
STEL without skin contact unknown workers
workers
10% to action level Moderate risks Significant risks to Significant risks for a
(50% of TLV, PEL, many workers large percentage of
STEL) unknown workers
>Action level Significant risks Significant risks Extreme risks for all
workers

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725 Problems with Solutions 253

Those in bold in the above table should receive priority. One might argue,
“If I don’t know exposures, how can I assign priority? Agreed, but once the
exposures are determined, control methods for multiple overexposed work-
ers can now be given priority. And, seasoned industrial hygienists often
have a sense of their priorities before inception of a risk assessment project,
and as they carefully observe work practices, measure ventilation, deter-
mine exposure durations, and so on.
498. An empty, unventilated room in a building at sea level is
10 feet × 30 feet × 40 feet. Initial relative humidity is very unusual at 0%
(“bone dry”). Dry bulb is 75°F. One gallon of water evaporates into this
room. What is the new relative humidity?

10' × 30' × 40' = 12,000 ft3 = 340 m3

1-gallon H2O = 8.33 pounds = 3778 mL = 3778 g

3778 g/340 m3 = 11.11 g/m3 = 11,110 mg/m3

ppmv H2O vapor = (11,110 mg/m3 × 24.45)/18 = 15,091 ppmv = 1.509%

1% = 10,000 ppmv

At 75°F, vapor pressure of water = 22.3 mm Hg.

(22.3 mm Hg/760 mm Hg) × 106 = 29,342 ppm = 2.934%, saturation
concentration—maximum amount of water vapor this room atmosphere can
hold at 75°F and 760 mm Hg (as long as walls and windows are greater than
dry bulb temperature when condensation would occur—the dew point).

(1.509%/2.934%) × 100 = 51.4% relative humidity

499. A study was performed to determine an acceptable air dilution ventilation

rate for a low inhalation toxicity solvent with a relatively low vapor pressure
and evaporation rate. Several workers separated by several feet dispensed
this solvent. Although local exhaust ventilation for each worker would be
ideal, costs were deemed prohibitive. After completing 13 studies, it was
found that solvent vapor concentrations in ppmv and the air exchange rate in
air changes per hour were linearly correlated as shown in equation:

y = 5174.9 e−0.4263x,

where
x = ppmv solvent vapor, and
y = air changes per hour.

The TLV for the solvent is 500 ppmv. Traditionally, 10% of the exposure
limit is used as the worst acceptable concentration to allow for vagaries in

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254 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

the air movement (uniformity, pedestrian traffic and activities, portable fans,
etc.), or, in this case, 50 ppmv. Recent reports in the medical and toxicological
literature revealed increase in toxicity from inhalation of this solvent vapor
over ingestion. The TLV was outdated, and it was based on ingestion of the
solvent by rats and mice, years ago. So, 25 ppmv was selected as a maximum
8-hour exposure limit. How many air changes per hour are required?

25 ppm v
= e −0.4263 x
5174.9

0.00483 ppmv = e−0.4263x

ln 0.00483 ppmv = –0.4263 x

−5.333 ppmv = –0.4263 x

5.333
x= = 12.5
0.4263

Answer: 12.5 air changes per hour. The energy costs for such a system in
a very cold or hot climate will be high if the work area is large. The collec-
tive work space should be reduced as functionally possible to allow for this
while not compromising the workers’ health. The preventative maintenance
program should include regular air sampling, measuring air flow at work
stations, and servicing fans, filters, belts, and so on.

500. In the previous problem, let us see what the solvent vapor exposures are if
the air exchange rate drops to 10.3 air changes per hour. Assume work prac-
tices have not changed, and solvent consumption and application methods
remain the same.
The solvent vapor concentration is directly proportional to the reduced
air flow.

12.5ach
= 1.2136
10.3ach

25 ppmv × 1.2136 = 30.34 ppmv

Answer: 30.3 ppmv. My first hunch is fan belts are slipping and/or filters are
dirty. Filters, of course, can be visually observed and changed as required.
Measuring the static pressure drop across filters is more accurate. The air
supply fans and the exhaust fans’ revolutions per minute are checked with a
calibrated tachometer.

Nothing is more devastating to an opinion than a good number.

Frank Wabeke, my father

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725 Problems with Solutions 255

501. Again, let us consider Problem 499 if solvent consumption use is reduced
by 37% through improved work practices. What are the solvent vapor expo-
sures now?
This is a no-brainer: 25 ppmv × (1 – 0.37) = 15.75 ppmv.
Or, 25 ppmv × 0.63 = 15.75 ppmv.
Exposures were reduced to less than 16 ppmv. This makes a strong case
that fan speeds can now be reduced by 37%. Savings are remarkable: tem-
pered air needs are down, and solvent consumption is reduced—both “green”
accomplishments. Air sampling in the breathing zones of workers is the best
measure of exposures. Once done carefully, testing the ventilation and study-
ing any changes in the work practices can be applied. Study of solvent pur-
chase records over time is a crude way of estimating increases or decreases
in exposures once a baseline of worker exposures is established by careful air
sampling. In general, the author does not rely on this indirect method of char-
acterizing exposures, however it can be helpful in modeling past exposures.

502. The modeling assumptions for a hypothetical diacetyl vapor-exposed mix-

ing room worker are: a large commercial bakery orders four 1-gallon bottles
of an equal mixture of diacetyl, vanilla, and cinnamon flavors—all liquids
to be mixed and shipped. These are mixed in a small room with no ventila-
tion with dimensions of 12' × 12' × 18'. Room’s contents are 15% of room’s
volume. The bakery will add appropriate amounts of mixed concentrate to
each batch of dough to infuse baked goods with flavors and aromas. Mixing
room worker adds equal volumes of the three flavors by pouring through a
funnel into the 1-gallon shipping containers. What is the average diacetyl
vapor concentration in the mixing room?

gallon = 3785 mL

1/3 gallon = 1262 mL = 1.262 L

Sea-level atmospheric pressure = 760 mm Hg

Floor, walls, ceiling temperatures = 68°F

Containers’ temperature = 68°F

68°F = 293.15 kelvin

Diacetyl vapor pressure at 68°F = 52.2 mm Hg

Diacetyl molecular weight = 86.09 grams/mole

Mixing room volume = 12' × 12' × 18' = 2592 ft3

15% mixing room volume = 2592 ft3 × 0.15 = 389 ft3

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256 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Net volume of mixing room = 2592 ft3 – 389 ft3 = 2203 ft3

Net volume of mixing room = 62.38 m3

Diacetyl vapor saturation concentration at 68°F = (52.2 mm Hg/760 mm

Hg) × 106 = 68,684 ppmv = 6.8684 vol. %

>LEL and <UEL built-in match

converting to mg/m3: (68,684 × 86.09 g/g-mole)/24.04 L/g-mole = 245,965 mg/

m3 = 246 mg/L.
Pouring 1.262 L of diacetyl by splash filling into the 1-gallon container
releases 1.262 L × 246 mg/L = 310.45 mg diacetyl vapor into the mixer’s
breathing zone air.
Average concentration of far-field diacetyl vapor throughout the mixing
room is

[(310.45 mg/62.38 m3) × 24.04/86.06] = 1.39 ppmv

There is a small diacetyl vapor cloud concentration substantially higher

than this enveloping the worker’s near-field breathing zone particularly if
she is short with her breathing zone closer to the work bench than would
be for a taller worker. As the vanilla and cinnamon liquids are added to the
container, more diacetyl vapors are displaced. The three remaining bottles
are filled increasing the diacetyl vapor concentration in the mixing room
and, especially, in the mixer’s breathing zone.
If the ambient and liquid temperatures increase by 10°C (to 86°F), the
far-field average diacetyl vapor concentrations will approximately double
(2.78 ppmv) as well as near-field diacetyl vapor exposures.
Other variables increasing diacetyl vapor exposures include a lower ceil-
ing height, more container filling, heated mixing tanks, workers’ heights,
work practices, spill response, larger containers, larger liquid diacetyl sur-
face areas. Moreover, vanilla and cinnamon vapors must be monitored as
well along with the ethanol, the carrier solvent.

503. The safety engineer at a plant in Kansas calls his corporate industrial
hygienist in California saying, “My velometer is broken, and the MSDS for
TM-768 states ‘Use with adequate ventilation’. What’s ‘adequate’? Can you
help me—now?” Or:

Material Safety Data Sheets, consumer products, and industrial products that
have hazardous components typically have the following phrase in the MSDS
and/or on the package label: “Use with adequate ventilation.” Some prod-
ucts may have the phrase, “Ensure ventilation is adequate to comply with the
TLV® or PEL.” Both are worthless and meaningless because “adequate” is not
described in narrative text, by diagrams that apply to product, and by reference

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725 Problems with Solutions 257

to standard-of-care ventilation engineering books, treatises, or regional consult-

ing industrial hygienists and good ventilation engineers. Moreover, few custom-
ers will have no clues what TLVs® or PELs are. Sure, they can call the supplier
to ask, but few will undertake this extra “cost of compliance.” And, therefore,
they remain at risk of inhalation or fire harm.

Sadly, suppliers of products with volatile flammable and toxic ingredi-

ents will give detailed instructions on applying their product, but often little
or no instructions on how to achieve “adequate” ventilation is offered.
You, as the industrial hygienist for an adhesive manufacturer, deter-
mines 400 fpm (4.5 mph) is needed as the minimum cross-draft ventila-
tion to dilute solvent vapors from your company’s adhesive product to
ensure reasonably safe exposure levels during application and curing.
You want to include a simple safety practice for this with your MSDS to
give guidance to your customers. Describe a simple procedure to help
achieve this.
These are often tough calls. After determining solvent in product has
a relatively low inhalation toxicity, general dilution ventilation is accept-
able because product will be used in a large area for only 1 hour, and less
than a pint will be used. A water-based cleaner will not work. You might
suggest:
Using four sheets of any toilet tissue, wrap one sheet around a long pencil
so that three sheets remain vertically suspended from the pencil. Hold the
pencil at arm’s length perpendicular to direction of air flow. Movement of
the tissue and angle of repose of three tissues are used to determine the
direction and the approximate air flow velocity. Portable pedestal fans can
be used for dilution ventilation.

0 fpm = 0 mph when the

tissue hangs motionless
and vertical at 6:00—no
flow!

400–500 fpm when tissue

strip is steady at 4:30 or
7:30.

or

When the tissue strip is

steady at 3:00 or 9:00,
fpm is equal to, or greater
fpm, 800 fpm (9.1 mph).
or

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258 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

450 feet mile 60 minute

× × = 5.1 mph
minute 5280 feet hour

The direction of air flow, obviously, is the deflection direction of the

tissue paper. This is helpful to adhesive and paint applicators to position
themselves and others upwind of the effusing solvent vapors. Professional
painters should have a high-quality velometer in their toolbox and use it
regularly during and after application.
Original research for this semi-quantitative air velocity measurement
method used 12 brands of toilet paper. The thickest, double-ply paper gave
the above results. Therefore, using thinner sheets gives air velocities at least
at high as those above.
Instruct your safety engineer to place a pedestal fan on either side of this
worker blowing fresh air toward and past the worker as she/he applies the
product. Make measurements at the worker’s head so that a minimum pre-
selected air velocity is used based on the solvent vapor dilution calculations
of the industrial hygienist. This simple instruction can be shared with this
safety engineer who is miles away. Problem solved expeditiously, quickly.

504. Thermoanemometers used to measure air velocity (and, to some extent,

direction) are calibrated to reference conditions of 70°F and 29.98 inches of
mercury. Air density at these conditions is 0.075 lb/ft3. That is, they measure
mass velocity of air. Air velocity = 460 fpm at an air density of 0.062 lb/ft3.
What is the actual velocity?

d 
Va = Vi ×  s  ,
 da 

where
ds = air density at standard calibration conditions of 0.075 lb/ft3
da = actual air density at local temperature and barometric pressure
Va = actual air velocity
Vi = indicated velocity on thermoanemometer

 0.075 lb/ft 3 
Va = 460 fpm ×  3 
= 556 fpm
 0.062 lb/ft 

Thermoanemometer correction factor = 556 fpm/460 fpm = 1.209.

505. Air at a sooty combustion process was sampled for 15.3 min at 1.43 L/m.
The soot collected on the filter was extracted with a mixture of methylene
chloride and n-hexane. This mixed solvent extract contained 17.8 mcg ben-
zene. The charcoal tube located after the filter contained 119.9 mcg ben-
zene. What was the average air concentration of benzene vapor in ppmv?
Assume NTP.

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725 Problems with Solutions 259

15.3 minutes × 1.43 L/m = 21.88 liters

119.9 mcg + 17.8 mcg = 137.7 micrograms benzene total

137.7 mcg/21.88 L = 6.29 mcg benzene per liter of air

(6.29mcg/L) × 24.45L/gram-mole
ppm v = = 1.97 ppm v
78.11g/gram-mole

We should always be mindful that airborne particulates can adsorb and

absorb some gases and vapors. Failure to consider this can significantly
underestimate workers’ exposures. Moreover, if the particles are respirable,
once deposited in the deepest recesses of the lungs, they can act as a reser-
voir for vapor release into blood perfusing the lung, or be phagocytized into
the lymphohematopoietic system—a target organ for benzene. Benzene is a
genotoxic carcinogen for humans with a specific DNA marker. There is no
level of benzene in inhaled air that can be claimed “safe.”

506. Once two sets of air samples are taken in a worker’s breathing zone several
days apart below the action level, we can be assured at a 95% confidence
level that all exposures of that worker will be below the exposure limit (TLV,
PEL, REL, WEEL, etc.) as long as conditions do not change. The advantage
of this powerful statistic is that if we carefully note conditions during the
two sampling periods, we do not have to repeat sampling unless conditions
change. What are the major conditions we must consider to determine if
resampling is required to assess potentially higher (or lower) exposures?

• Increased production rates

• Different work practices, tools, equipment
• Overtime, “moonlighting”
• Decreased ventilation
• Spills; eruptions
• Impaired engineering controls; process upsets
• Increase in concentrations of chemicals (decrease in solvent or
suspendant
• Different chemicals and materials, and amount
• Increases in chemical process temperature, pressure, reaction rates,
addition sequences
• More or fewer production workers; maintenance flaws
• Cofactors (e.g., heat strain, skin absorption, newly acquired health
disorder)
• New supervisor
• Change in management culture
• Shift from preventative maintenance to “repair or replace when broken”
• New job responsibilities
• Day, afternoon, or midnight (“skeleton crew”) shift

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260 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

507. An understanding of the settling velocities of dust particles in air is nec-

essary to select proper air pollution collection devices and to help dispel
myths such as, “Oh, in time, the particles will fall to the floor. The night
janitor will sweep them away.” The following table demonstrates the set-
tling velocities of various particles in still air. For respirable particles
(those less than five microns), it is seen how normal air currents keep
these tiny, invisible particles suspended indefinitely, or until they agglom-
erate and coalesce into larger particles, substantially hydrate by becoming
condensation nuclei for water vapor, or are physically removed from the
air by an air pollution control device (highly efficient filter, electrostatic
precipitator, etc.).

Particle Diameter Settling Velocity Settling Velocity

(microns) (cm/second) (ft/hour)
0.01 0.000007 0.0008
0.1 0.00008 0.009
1 0.004 0.5
5 0.08 9
10 0.3 35
20 1.2 142
50 7.5 886
100 25 2953

508. What factors determine the rate at which an organic solvent evaporates into
open air?

• The temperature of the solvent that, in turn, determines the solvent’s

vapor pressure. As the liquid solvent’s temperature increases, the evap-
oration rate increases. For approximately every 10°C (18°F) increase in
liquid solvent temperature, the vapor pressure doubles.
• As the temperature of air above the liquid solvent increases, evaporation
will increase. Warm air can hold more solvent vapor than cooler air.
• As air flow and turbulence increases over liquid solvent’s surface, evap-
oration increases.
• As surface area of solvent increases, evaporation rate increases. If
sprayed as a mist or fog, surface area increases greatly, and, hence,
evaporation is greatly accelerated.
• Is the solvent in a mixture of other solvents? Other solvents (and solutes)
will dilute the solvent of interest at the liquid and air interface thereby
reducing the number of solvent molecules available for evaporation into
air.
• Raoult’s law, which states that the presence of other solvents can hinder
or accelerate evaporation.
• High atmospheric pressure suppresses the vapor pressure, and, con-
versely, a solvent in a low atmospheric pressure environment evapo-
rates more rapidly.

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725 Problems with Solutions 261

• Henry’s law, which states that the amount of material in solution and in
vapor or gaseous phase is dependent on the atmospheric pressure above
the liquid.
• Does the solvent form an azeotrope with water or other organic solvents?

Regardless of the above variables, every organic solvent will evaporate into
the air over time. Entropy prevails, and the second law of thermodynamics
holds true. Mass is conserved, but, with evaporation, organic solvent distrib-
utes into different phases. Even solids, such as iodine crystals or naphtha-
lene flakes, have vapor pressures and sublime directly from the solid phase
into their vapor phase. Did you know that frozen water evaporates? I learned
while a Navy recruit in Great Lakes, Illinois my freshly washed clothing
dried outside during January to March—albeit it took more than a day.

509. A fossil fuel power plant stack gas sample contained 49.5 ppmv SO2 cor-
rected for temperature. The stack gas was 27.2% water vapor. What is SO2
concentration (dry basis) corrected for the water vapor? Corrections were
made by the chemist to account for SO2 dissolving in water vapor forming
sulfurous acid (H2SO3).

dry gas concentration = (wet basis concentration, w)/(1 – w),

where
w = decimal fraction of stack gas by volume—in this example, 1
– 0.272 = 0.728.

49.5 ppmv/(1 – 0.272) = 70 ppmv SO2

510. An air sample is taken somewhere west of Denver in the Rocky Mountains
where the elevation above the sea level is 2124 meters. What is a concentra-
tion of 319 mg/m3 at this altitude corrected to sea level?
The formula for this calculation is

0.9877a = Ca /C,

where
Ca = concentration at altitude a, in mass per unit volume
C = concentration at sea level, in mass per unit volume
a = altitude in 100 meter increments
0.987721.24 = (319 mg/m3)/C
C = (319 mg/m3)/0.987721.24 = 414.9 mg/m3

511. Poor Peruvian natives extract gold from river sediments by first crushing
riverbed soil and rocks into fine dust. After screening, about 2 cubic feet of
wet sediment are shoveled into steel pails about 2 feet in diameter. 200 grams
liquid mercury is poured into the pails. Barefoot workers wearing cutoff

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262 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

pants step into the pail, and over about the next 10 minutes continuously
stomp and mix wet sediment while the mercury amalgamates with gold and
other precious metals such as silver. The supernatant liquid and soil fines
are decanted back to the flowing river. Chunks of mercury amalgam are
retrieved from the pails. The amalgam is heated outside in open air by a pro-
pane torch evaporating mercury into the surrounding atmosphere. Assuming
no wind, what is the average mercury vapor concentration in an atmosphere
30 feet high with a 500 feet radius from only one extraction pail?

Volume of air cylinder = π r 2 h = π (500')2 × 30'

= 23,562,000 ft3 = 667,252 m3

200 grams Hg = 200,000 mg Hg assuming all added mercury is boiled,

evaporated

200,000 mg Hg/667,252 m3 = 0.3 mg Hg/m3

Persons within this space are at significant risk of mercury poisoning

with chronic exposures. This practice is a major environmental hazard and
must be stopped. Moreover, elemental mercury is directly absorbed through
intact healthy skin and more so through damaged skin. Those using the
propane torches and workers in the pails are at greatest risk because skin of
their feet is expected to be damaged from numerous micro-abrasions from
sharp sand and stone granules.
The addition of mercury and the amalgamation process must be auto-
mated in a tightly sealed enclosure with excellent mechanical exhaust ven-
tilation. Mercury amalgam must then be heated in an enclosed furnace with
an efficient mercury vapor recovery system. The pure condensed mercury
can then be recycled to the amalgamation process. A strict mass balance of
mercuryin = mercuryout must be developed to ensure minimal losses to the
environment. Other elements of the industrial hygiene program must include
education and training of all, personal protective equipment, air sampling
and analysis, biological monitoring, medical surveillance, warning posters,
regular checks of integrity of process enclosures and ventilation equipment
efficiency, and recordkeeping. Environmental testing of the community
atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere must be done to ensure
preservation of health and containment of mercury. Mercury is expensive,
and the recovered mercury will help defray engineering and operating costs.

512. Ajax gold smelter produces 413 gold ingots at greater than 99.99% purity
weekly. Such precious metal must be closely accounted to ensure no losses.
The smelter receives gold alloys, but does not balance goldin = goldout. Mass
is conserved, but if smelter receives alloys with equivalent amount of gold
equal to 413.01 ingots, where does the missing gold go?
An engineering study reveals loss is due to gold volatilizing as fume.
Standard gold bars (ingots) weigh 12.4 kilograms.

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725 Problems with Solutions 263

413.01 goldin × 12.4 kg/ingot × 0.9999 = 5120.811868 kg received based

upon calculations, density, and qualitative and quantitative analysis of the
alloys and materials presented to the smelter

413.00 goldout × 12.4 kg/ingot × 0.9999 = 5120.68788 kg produced

5120.811868 – 5120.68788 = 0.123988 kg

gold at $45,191/kg × 0.123988 kg/week × 52 weeks/year

= $291,363 per year.

This yearly amount results in a return on investment of less than 5 months

for a high-efficiency filtration ventilation system to capture and process
gold fume. Gold does not have a TLV; however, silver, interestingly, does at
0.1 mg/m3 to prevent argyria, a cosmetic disorder wherein skin takes on an
irreversible gray color from chronic deposition of microscopic silver par-
ticles in the subdermal tissues.

513. Assume gold will one day have a TLV of 0.1 mg/m3. A smelter is 85 meters
long, 8.5 meters high, and 40 meters wide. Assume 20% smelter contents,
an average gold fume and dust concentration at 10% TLV (0.01 mg Au/m3),
12.8 air changes per hour, 9 hour operation per day, and 5 days operation per
week. At the current price of $45,191 per kilogram, what is the yearly dollar
loss of gold to the atmosphere?

(85 × 8.5 × 40 m) × 0.80 = 23,120 m3

23,120 m3 × 0.01 mg Au/m3 = 231.2 mg Au in smelter atmosphere

231.2 mg Au/air change × 12.8 ach × 9 hours × 5 days/week × 52 weeks/

year = 6,924,902 mg = 6.924 kg

6.924 kg Au × $45,191/kg = $312,902.48/year—not

exactly chump change

Good process enclosures, excellent local exhaust ventilation, regular pre-

ventive maintenance, and, perhaps, lower smelting temperatures will save
most of this staggering financial loss. Remember the second law of thermo-
dynamics and entropy. Once that gold is spewed into the atmosphere, it will
never be recovered. Sooner or later, as we keep refining gold in smelters, it
will all be out in the ether save what is stored in Fort Knox and we wear as
jewelry and in dental fillings. It has been estimated that all of the gold ever
smelted and refined since antiquity throughout the world would occupy a
cube 60 feet on each side.

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264 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

514. A 10-inch circular free-standing exhaust duct has average duct velocity of
2200 fpm. What is capture velocity 10 inches from the un-flanged duct inlet
assuming there are no disruptive cross drafts?
In this case, the capture velocity is 10% of the duct velocity, or 220 feet/
minute. This is a helpful “rule of thumb” to keep in mind during facility
inspections.

515. In the preceding problem, what is the volumetric flow rate of air inside the
duct?

Area of circle = π r 2 = π (5")2 = 78.54 in2

78.54 in2/144 in2/ft2 = 0.5454 ft2

Q = AV = 0.5454 ft2 × 2200 ft3/minute = 1200 cfm

516. The vapor pressure of an aliphatic hydrocarbon is 43 mm Hg. What is the

vapor saturation concentration inside a closed vessel such as a tank, bin,
pipeline, or silo situated at sea level?

(43 mm Hg/760 mm Hg) × 106 = 56,579 ppmv = 5.6579%.

Such a concentration can occur in an open pit, say 6 feet deep, a few feet
above the liquid surface if there is no air movement. These locations must
be treated like confined spaces before entry is allowed: worker and supervi-
sor education and training, air sampling and analysis, ventilation, buddy
system, self-extraction gear, personal protective equipment, means of com-
munication, and ample lighting are necessary.

517. A worker with a total body surface area of 1.8 m2 fell into an open tank and
was completely immersed in an organic chemical that is absorbed through
intact skin at an average of 0.011 micrograms/square centimeter/second. He
is extracted and decontaminated with a total exposure time of 23 minutes.
What was his dermally absorbed dose? If this man weighed 81 kilograms,
and LD50 in rats is 37 mg/kg, what is his systemic dose?

1.8 m2 × 10,000 cm2/m2 × 0.011 mcg/cm2 × 60 seconds/minute × 23 minutes

= 273,240 micrograms = 273.24 mg.

273.24 mg/81 kg = 3.37 mg/kg. This is slightly less than 10% of the rat
LD50. However, if we do not have the lowest observed adverse effect level
and assume toxicity to man to be the same as the rat, this man should be
admitted to the hospital and observed after consultation with a toxicologist
and pharmacologist.

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725 Problems with Solutions 265

To this must be added that which was absorbed through his gastrointes-
tinal tract and his respiratory tract to obtain his approximate total dose.
If this chemical has an antidote, a medical toxicologist or pharmacist can
adjust prescriptive treatment accordingly.

518. A 181-pound, 28-year-old man, and 5'-11" tall consumed three shots of
80-proof whiskey in rapid succession on an empty stomach. What is his
most likely blood alcohol concentration (BAC) 45 minutes later?
First, determine his body water volume, the so-called volume of distribu-
tion, using the equations of Watson (a) and Hume (b). These equations apply
to men—not to boys, women, or girls. Other Watson and Hume algebraic
equations apply to them.
a. V (liters of H2O) = 2.447 + (0.336 × weight, kg) + (0.107 × height,
cm) – (0.095 × age, years)

181 lb = 82.1 kg

5' = 11" = 71" = 180.34 cm

V = 2.447 + (0.336 × 82.1 kg) + (0.107 × 180.34 cm) – (0.095 × 29 years) =

52.084 liters = 52.084 kilograms

(52.084/82.2 kg) × 100 = 63.44% H2O

b. V (liters of H2O) = −14.013 + (0.297 × weight, kg) + (0.195 × height,

cm)
Plugging and chugging the values into this equation results in 45.537%
body water content. This value appears too low. Besides, the Watson calcu-
lation method accounts for age, whereas the Hume method does not. This
man is relatively young and does not have a high body fat content. Therefore,
with all due respect to Professor Hume, I rely on Watson’s method with a
63.44% body water content.

three “shots” = 4.5 ounces

80 proof = 40% by volume ethyl alcohol

A standard “drink” of alcohol is considered to be 1.5 ounces of 80 proof

alcohol—less than 1 ounce of pure alcohol. 80 proof alcohol = 40% etha-
nol. So, three “shots” = 4.5 ounces of 40% ethanol. 4.5 ounces × 0.4 = 1.8
ounces ethanol.
On an empty stomach, one can assume 100% absorption within 45 minutes.

Density of pure, 100% ethanol = 0.789 g/mL

1.8 ounces = 53.23 mL

(0.789 g/mL) × 53.23 g = 42.0 grams of EtOH

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266 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

BAC are expressed in grams EtOH/100 mL blood.

42.0 grams/63.44 L = 0.662 g/L = 0.062 g/100 mL.

This does not exceed the 0.08 g/100 mL BAC limit throughout the United
States, although this man is clearly under the influence and unfit to operate
machinery.
As a comment, binge drinkers often consume large amounts of alcohol
quickly to get to a rapid state of inebriation. In this example, with consump-
tion at this rate, a very high level of intoxication is achieved in less than
2 hours. Bartender must suspend serving and then call a taxi or turn patron’s
car keys over to a designated driver.
One might wonder why this type of problem is in a book with this title.
Industrial hygienists are called on to determine dose of toxicants by all
routes of exposure.

519. A full 275,000 gallon aviation fuel storage tank develops a leak at the base.
It is a choked flow leak measured at 9.7 gallons per second. A breather
tube to prevent tank explosive rupture during filling or implosion during
emptying is located on the roof of tank. The internal diameter of the tube
is 2 inches. What is the make-up air flow velocity through this tube into the
tank as the oil drains?

9.7 gallons/second × 1 ft3/7.4805 gallon × 60 seconds/minute

= 77.802 ft3/minute

A = π (1")2/144 in2/ft2 = 0.0218 ft2

V = Q/A = 77.802 ft3/minute/0.0218 ft2 = 3569 feet/minute.

This air velocity is rapid enough to prevent condensation of oil vapors

during cold weather tank filling. The tube should be placed at a 30° angle
from perpendicular to prevent intrusion of rain, snow, or sleet.

520. People typically underestimate the time before one collapses in inert atmo-
spheres where the normal concentration of oxygen is 21% by volume (pre-
cisely 20.9476% by volume) has been diluted with gases other than oxygen.
Such gases typically are nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, helium, and steam.
Yes, steam because this is a gas that does not contain oxygen. Inhalation of
water vapor does not support life. A dangerous and common notion is that
if one can hold their breath for 30 seconds or more, their survival in an inert
atmosphere should be as long.
The normal inspiratory period in an adult is approximately 2 seconds, and
the expiratory period is also 2 seconds. A complete cycle of one respira-
tion is, therefore, 4 seconds or, on average 15 breaths per minute. During
anxiety, the total cycle can be reduced to 1 second. So, 15 breaths per minute

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725 Problems with Solutions 267

now become 60 per minute. Doctors call rapid breathing tachypnea or

hyperventilation.
The total lung capacity of an average adult is 5.6 liters. At a breathing
cycle of one inspiration and expiration every 4 seconds, about 0.5 L (500 mil-
liliters) pass in and out of the alveoli and the tracheobronchial tree. Of this
500 mL, 150 mL is in the tracheobronchial tree where oxygen exchange does
not occur. Therefore, only 350 mL of air is exchanged with each inspiration–
expiration cycle. A normal rate of breathing in an adult is about 30 L/minute,
or 500 mL/inhalation + exhalation.
After oxygen exchange in the alveoli, the oxygen gas concentration falls
from 21% by volume to 12% by volume. This mixes with the air in the
tracheobronchial tree so that the net exhaled concentration is nearly 16%.
Although 16% oxygen is less than the normal 21%, it is sufficiently high in
oxygen to support mouth-to-mouth breathing during CPR. The balance of
the exhaled volume is carbon dioxide, CO2.
Assuming a worker anxious about his condition and experiencing
tachpynea is in a 100% nitrogen atmosphere. How long before he collapses
and is unable to effect self-rescue?
Assume the initial gas mixture concentration in his lungs is 16% O2 by
volume. His first breath adds 500 mL of inert N2 to 5.0 liters of air mixture
containing 16% O2.

1st inhalation: (5.0 × 0.16) L/5 L + 0.5 L = 14.5% O2

2nd inhalation: (5.0 × 0.145) L/5.5 L = 13.2% O2

3rd inhalation: (5.0 × 0.132) L/5.5 L = 12.0% O2

4th inhalation: (5.0 × 0.12) L/5.5 L = 10.9% O2

5th inhalation: (5.0 × 0.109) L/5.5 L = 9.9% O2

Continuing the above iterations, after 11 seconds, the oxygen concentra-

tion falls to 5.5%, and breathing stops. He would have collapsed after his
fourth inhalation (4 seconds with tachpnea, 16 seconds with normal breath-
ing). Death follows quickly without prompt emergency intervention.

521. What is the partial pressure of solvent X at 620 ppmv and at atmospheric
pressure of 710 mm Hg and 25°C?

Xpp = (620 × 10−6) × 710 mm Hg = 0.4402 mm Hg

522. The accuracy of an air sample that relies on collecting air contaminant(s)
within a device such as a filter or an adsorbent/absorbent tube depends on
the collection efficiency and subsequent laboratory analysis. These deter-
minants can be called E, where

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%E = (Cmeasured/Cactual) × 100

If the actual concentration in an air sample is 14.76 mg/m3, collection

efficiency of the air-sampling device is 100%, and the measured concentra-
tion is 13.15 mg/m3, what is E as a percent?

(13.15 mg/m3/14.76 mg/m3) × 100 = 89.09%

523. Referring to the previous problem, if the laboratory results are 157.8 micro-
grams of X in a 10.34 liter air sample, what is the adjusted true result?

157.8 mcg X/10.34 L = 15.26 mcg X/L = 15.26 mg X/m3

Correction factor = 1/0.8909 = 1.122

15.26 mg X/m3 × 1.122 = 17.12 mg X/m3

524. Industrial hygienists encounter situations where the amount of a hazardous

agent decreases uniformly over time. Typically, these data can be plotted
linearly on a sheet of semi-logarithmic graph paper. That, is one axis has
uniform spacing, and the other axis is a logarithmic scale—usually the ver-
tical, or ordinate, axis. Some examples of these situations are the linear
first-order decay of a radioisotope over time, the decrease in air contami-
nant concentration in a room with excellent air movement and mixing, and
the detoxification of a material over time. Recall that removal of a toxicant
from the body depends on excretion (urine, feces, exhaled air, bile, hair)
and the metabolic conversion of the toxicant to another, ideally less toxic
material. Write an equation, with some constant k, that describes toxicant
concentration then and now.
These data can be described mathematically with a first-order decay
equation:

E = kPa

Integrating: ln E = ln k + a (ln P).

One normally solves for a: a = (ln E – ln k)/ln P

substituting, let k = 3, P = 4, and a = 2

E = 3 × 42 = 48

verifying

(ln 48 – ln 3)/ln 4 = (3.871 – 1.099)/1.386 = 2

Once data are known, one can use this equation to very helpfully predict
what the amount of the toxicant will be, or once was, in vivo.

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725 Problems with Solutions 269

525. What is the percent concentration and partial pressure of oxygen in air at
sea level and an altitude with a barometric pressure of 682 mm Hg?
Air is 20.9476% oxygen at any altitude. It is a common misunderstanding
that the percentage of oxygen in air decreases with altitude. So,

at sea level: 760 mm Hg × 0.209476 = 159.202 mm Hg

at 682 mm Hg: 682 mm Hg × 0.209476 = 142.863 mm Hg

That is, the oxygen concentration has decreased to (142.863/159.202)

× 100 = 89.737%, or 20.9476% × 0.89737 = 18.80%.
Our respiration rate and heart rate increase substantially due to reduced
oxygen tension in our blood. For the unacclimated, the slightest amount of
work induces great fatigue.
The O2 partial pressure is now 159.202 mm Hg × 0.89737 = 142.863 mm Hg.
This lower amount of oxygen in the ambient air can be a significant risk
factor for those with asthma, emphysema, and chronic obstructive lung dis-
ease and those with angina and ischemia from coronary artery disease.

526. The total pressure in a low-pressure gas system is 1388 mm Hg. If the pres-
sure in the system of nitrogen gas is 982 mm Hg, and the partial pressure of
CO2 is 109 mm Hg, what is the O2 gas pressure?

Ptotal – Pnitrogen – PCO2 = PO2

1388 mm Hg – 982 mm Hg – 109 mm Hg = 297 mm Hg O2 pressure

527. State why helium is used in SCUBA systems.

Atmospheric breathing air is approximately 21% by volume O2 and 79% by
volume nitrogen and argon. At the increased pressures of deep water diving,
nitrogen in the inhaled air is more soluble in body fat than is helium gas. With
an uncontrolled rapid ascent, the nitrogen “boils” out quickly from adipose
tissue increasing the risks of nitrogen bubbles in blood perfusing lungs. This,
in turn, raises risks of a cerebral and/or a cardiac embolism that can be fatal.
Moreover, rapid release of nitrogen from fat can causes the “bends,” a pain-
ful physiological process. Additionally, since brain tissue is rich in fats and
lipids, nitrogen gas accumulates there and can result in nitrogen narcosis with
resultant errors in judgment. Helium behaves more like oxygen, is nontoxic,
and does not present the hazards and the risks of inhaling high-pressure nitro-
gen gas. Moreover, while nitrogen is relatively inert, helium gas is physiologi-
cally totally inert other than its effects on laryngeal vocal cords.

528. The manufacturer of a direct-reading instrument for hydrogen cyanide

gas (HCN) claims a false-positive reading of 10 ppmv HCN if any of the
following gases are present at the indicated concentrations: 10 ppmv chlo-
rine (Cl2), 20 ppmv hydrogen chloride (HCl), and 2 ppmv hydrogen sulfide

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270 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

(H2S). Explain how the industrial hygienist can rightfully claim a reading
of 10 ppmv HCN knowing these interfering gases.
HCN has a ceiling TLV of 10 ppmv, so (1) applying the precautionary prin-
ciple, immediate intervention is necessary because of rapid acute inhalation
toxicity of this gas irrespective of the possibility of the other gases being
present, (2) the probability of HCN being present with the other gases is
remote particularly if the industrial hygienist is knowledgeable of processes
nearby the “HCN” reading, (3) HCl and Cl2 gases at the reported interfering
concentrations are very irritating to the upper respiratory tract, and their
physiological effects would be known to the experienced industrial hygien-
ist, and (4) hydrogen sulfide gas at 2 ppmv is very malodorous to most people
(rotten eggs up to olfactory anesthesia). It would be the better part of valor
to assume the reading is indeed HCN instead of debating possible positive
interferences of these three gases. Action should be imminent. The gravity
of failure to initiate immediate evacuation, sending emergency team with
SCBAs to seal any leaks and to staunch the source, apply dilution ventila-
tion, and to locate antidote kits for symptomatic persons should be apparent.

529. The short-term exposure limit (STEL TLV®) for 1,2-dichloroethane is

15 ppmv (60 mg/m3) for 15 minutes. Assume the laboratory analytical detec-
tion limit for DCE is 2 micrograms. If air is sampled at 82 mL per minute
for 15 minutes, will 50% of the STEL be detected?

50% STEL = 60 mg/m3 × 0.5 = 30 mg/m3 = 30 mcg/L

2 mcg/30 mcg/L = 0.067 L, the minimum air volume required

0.082 L/minute × 15 minutes = 1.23 L

1.23 L/0.067 L = 18.36 times the minimum air volume required

Yes, 50% of the STEL will be detected. However, it would be best to rely
on the results of a direct-reading instrument for STEL exposure determina-
tions because the long delay in obtaining laboratory test results is inappro-
priate for air toxicants with adverse short-term health effects.

530. What is the heating requirement for 64,500 cubic feet of air per minute from
10°F to 76°F at 90% efficiency?

100/90 = 1.111 is the heating inefficiency factor

Btu/hour = 1.111 × 64,500 ft3/hour × 1.08 × (76°F – 10°F)

= 5,107,889 Btu/hour

531. An animal toxicity testing chamber admits a toxicant gas at a rate of 75 mL

every minute. The total air flow through the chamber is 625 L/minute.

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725 Problems with Solutions 271

Assuming good mixing of test toxicant gas with clean air flow, what is the
resultant concentration to which animals inhale?

75 mL = 0.075 L

(0.075 L/625 L) × 106 = 120 ppmv

532. If dimensions of a toxicity testing chamber are 1.5 feet × 3 feet × 6 feet, and
C is the gas concentration in the chamber after some time t, what is the con-
centration after 2 minutes and 10 minutes? Test gas flow rate and the mixing
air flow rates are 75 mL/minute and 625 L per minute, respectively. Refer to
Problem 531.

1.5' × 3' × 6' = 27 ft3 = 764.6 L

a
Use the formula C = (1 − e − (V /X )t ),
V

where
a = flow rate of toxicant
V = flow rate through test chamber
X = volume of chamber

0.075L/minute
C= × (1 − e − (625 Lpm/764.6 L) × 2 ) = 0.00012 (1 − e −1.635 )
625L/minute
= 0.00012 (1 − 0.195) = 0.0000966 = 96.6 ppm v after 2 minutes

0.075 L/minute
C = × (1 − e − (625 Lpm/764.6 L) ×10 ) = 0.00012 (1 − e −8.17 )
625 L/minute
= 0.00012 (1 − 0.000283) = 0.00012 × 0.999717
= 0.000112 = 112 ppm v after 10 minutes.

Recall from the previous problem the maximum concentration is 120 ppmv.
This is close to the desired concentration after 10 minutes. In other
words, if this was an acute toxicity test, animals should not be exposed
until at least 20 minutes have elapsed by which time the maximum concen-
tration of 120 ppmv is reached. The exposure concentration should be peri-
odically verified with a calibrated air-sampling instrument. This increase in
the chamber concentration is asymptotic, and it never actually reaches the
desired concentration—in this case, 120 ppmv—but, for practical purposes
it does after an elapsed time. Moreover, this assumes that the dilution mix-
ing air is free of the gas or vapor toxicant.

533. What is the capture velocity 9 inches on the centerline in front of a

12"-diameter un-flanged exhaust duct moving 8360 cubic feet of air per
minute? What is duct velocity?

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272 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Duct area, A = π (6")2/144 in2/ft2 = 0.7854 ft2

Q 8360 cfm
Velocity,V = =
10x + A 10 (0.75')2 + 0.7854 ft 2
2

= 1304 fpm capture velocity

Duct velocity = Q/A = 8360 cfm/0.7854 ft2 = 10,644 fpm

This duct velocity is extraordinarily high. It can be reduced substan-

tially without greatly affecting the capture velocity 9 inches away. Check
the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienist’s book
Industrial Ventilation to select the appropriate duct velocity for the type of
air contaminant being moved. Controlling cross-drafts at the 9-inch point,
a capture velocity of 100–300 fpm would suffice for most generated air con-
taminants with low momentum. Dust and other particles ejected with high
momentum require enclosure and/or a higher capture velocity. Adding a
wide flange to duct face improves capture and saves energy by reducing
fan speed and horsepower. A flanged hood requires about 75% of the air
volume of an un-flanged hood.

534. A subterranean platinum ore mine has a branch shaft 8 feet wide, 7 feet
high, and with a semi-circular vault above. A 20" Ø exhaust duct is sus-
pended above the miners in the vault and moves air through the duct at
4200 fpm. What is the average velocity of the make-up air passing through
the branch shaft where miners work?

Duct area = π (10")2/144 in2/ft2 = 2.182 ft2

2.182 ft2 × 4200 fpm = 9164 cfm

Area of shaft cross-section = (8' × 7') + (π × 3.52)/2 = 56 ft2 + 19.24 ft2 =

75.24 ft2
Make-up air velocity across mineshaft cross section = 9164 cfm/75.24 ft2 =
121.8 fpm
This is a reasonable air velocity because it is low enough to not stir up
settled dust, and it exceeds 50 fpm, an air velocity most would claim stag-
nant, still air. It is also sufficiently fast to promote evaporative cooling from
sweat on the skin during hot working conditions, and this air velocity is not
so high to chill skin in cold working conditions. With humid conditions at
the mine’s face, the exhaust fan should have sufficient reserve capacity to
increase air flow by up to approximately 20% (150 fpm).

535. Consider an elevator in a tall building that has interior dimensions of a

cube 7 feet on a side. The elevator does not have any mechanical ventila-
tion. Instead, it relies on people coming and going to provide displacement
air ventilation. Also assume that, on average, 230 people enter and leave

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725 Problems with Solutions 273

elevator every hour. What is the air exchange rate of the elevator cabin in
air changes per hour?

(7 feet)3 = 343 ft3

Assume each person is “standard reference man” weighing 70 kg with an

average density of 1.01 kg/L. Therefore, 70 kg/(1.01 kg/L) = 69.307 L.

Entering air displacement: 230/hour × 69.307 L = 15,941 L/hour

= 563 ft3/hour

Exiting air displacement: 230/hour × 69.307 L = 15,941 L/hour

= 563 ft3/hour

Total air displacement/hour = 563 ft3/hour + 563 ft3/hour = 1126 ft3/hour

1126 ft3/hour/343 ft3 = 3.28 air changes per hour

This is low. Check the latest ASHRAE standards for commercial eleva-
tors. This must be supplemented with mechanical air supply and/or exhaust
because people have body odors and wear perfumes and cologne some
might find offensive. Any person with chronic obstructive lung disease
(chronic bronchitis, emphysema) and asthma can be affected and at risk.
Moreover, a building custodian or a package delivery person transferring
toxic and/or odiferous materials might wrongly use the passenger elevator
instead of the freight elevator. Finally, passengers enter and exit in a random
pattern so that the air exchange rates change nonuniformly as the elevator
population changes.

536. Consider the same elevator in preceding problem at 3:00 a.m. when a pas-
senger departs the top floor. He inadvertently drops a bottle that breaks
and spills 50 mL of a highly volatile organic chemical that evaporates at
0.035 grams per second into the elevator’s atmosphere. Nobody enters the
elevator as it descends to the ground floor over a 40 second period. The
molecular weight of the chemical is 78 grams/gram-mole. What vapor con-
centration can an ascending passenger expect when he enters this elevator?
Will he be surprised? Assume no ventilation.

0.035 grams/second × 40 seconds = 1.4 grams = 1400 milligrams

343 ft3 = 9712.7 liters = 9.712 m3

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 L/g-mole (1400/9.712) × 24.45

ppm v = =
molecular weight 78 g/g-mole
= 45.2 ppm v

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274 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Determine if the chemical has a ceiling concentration and compare the

result with this. A more likely reality check is that the passenger might
report a strange odor to the security guard who, knowing nothing about the
solvent, contacts the local emergency response team. The elevator passen-
ger will certainly be surprised if he is not anosmic, and the organic chemi-
cal is malodorous below 45.2 ppmv in air.

537. Of the large variety of air pollution control devices commercially available,
there are five broad categories for airborne particles such as dust, fumes,
mist, chips, and fibers. List them. Identify which are virtually worthless for
respirable particles such as smoke and welding fume.
Fabric collectors, electrostatic precipitators, wet scrubbers, centrifugal
and inertial separators, and gravity chambers. Centrifugal separators such
as cyclones or gravity chambers even connected in series are typically inef-
fective for respirable particles—essentially worthless.

538. An air contaminant collection device is attached to the inlet of a Mariotte

bottle. This bottle contained 68.92 liters of water at the start of air sampling
and 21.67 liters at completion. The duration of sampling was 56 minutes,
40 seconds. What air volume was sampled, and what was the average air-
sampling rate?

68.92 L – 21.67 L = 47.25 L

47.25 L/56.67 minutes = 0.8338 liters per minute = 833.8 mL/minute

539. The velocity pressure in an exhaust duct is 0.86 inches of water at 70°F. This
ventilation system is in Portland, Oregon where the barometric pressure is
1.0 atmosphere. What is the velocity (in feet per minute) in the duct at this
point?

V = 4005 × (0.860.5) = 4005 × 0.8345 = 3714 fpm

540. The concentration of cyclohexane vapor in the air of a laboratory after a

spill is 466 ppmv. The laboratory exhaust hoods are not operating, but the
general ventilation system designed at 3.5 air changer per hour is. What is
the vapor concentration after 90 minutes? Assume excellent mixing of sup-
ply air with the exhausted air.
With excellent air mixing, and no recirculation of the exhaust air into the
makeup air inlet, the first-order concentration decay equation applies:

Ct = Co e−xt,

where
Ct = the concentration in the room at time t (in this case, 90 minutes),
Co = original concentration in the room at time t = 0 (466 ppmv),
e = the base of natural logarithms,

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725 Problems with Solutions 275

x = air changes per hour (3.5), and

t = elapsed time (90 minutes).

The negative sign for exponent indicates there is reduction in vapor con-
centration over the elapsed time and as time progresses.

Elapsed time of 90 minutes = 1.5 hours

3.5 ach × 1.5 hours = 5.25 air changes

Ct = (466 ppmv)e−5.25 = 466 ppmv × 0.00525 = 2.45 ppmv

2.45 ppmv is substantially below the TLV of 100 ppmv. However, for some
this might still be odiferous. Operating the ventilation system for 3 h before
allowing laboratory personnel to reoccupy the laboratory will reduce the
solvent vapor concentration to

Ct = (466 ppmv)e−10.5 = 466 ppmv × 0.0000275 = 0.013 ppmv

541. An 85 cubic feet of air per minute ceiling exhaust fan operates in a bath-
room that does not have a fixed, forced ventilation system from a cen-
tral heating system. Make up enters through a crack at the bottom of the
door that is 7/16" × 28". What is the average air velocity through this
opening?

7/16" = 0.4375 in2

85 cfm/[(0.4375 in2 × 28")/144 in2/ft2] = 999 fpm

542. A Dewar flask tips onto the floor of an empty chemical storage room
releasing 2 liters of liquid nitrogen. The room has no ventilation and is
10' × 14' × 22'. What is the concentration of nitrogen gas after the liquid
nitrogen evaporates eventually producing an homogenous atmosphere? To
simplify the calculation, assume that there is no significant back pressure of
the gas upon the room and on the liquid nitrogen.

10' × 14' × 22' = 3080 ft3

3080 ft3 = 87.216 m3

First, determine the mass of nitrogen in the room before the spill.
Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28.01 grams/gram-mole. Percentage of
nitrogen in normal air is 78.084% by volume = 780,840 ppmv.

ppm v × molecular weight 780,840 ppm v × 28.01

mg/m 3 = =
24.45 24.45
= 894,533mg/m 3

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276 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

894,533 mg/m3 × 87.216 m3 = 78,017,590 mg of nitrogen in room air

before spill.
The density of liquid nitrogen at its boiling point and 1 atmosphere pres-
sure is 50.47 lb/ft3.

50.47 lb = 22,892,807 mg

1 ft3 = 28.317 L

Density of liquid nitrogen = 22,892,807 mg/28.317 L = 808,447 mg/L.

Two liters spilled and evaporated, so: 2 L × 808,447 mg/L = 1,616,894

mg in air.
mg N2 before spill + mg N2 from spill = total mg N2 in room air after spil
l = 78,017,590 mg + 1,616,894 mg = 79,634,484 mg total after spill and total
evaporation

79,634,484 mg/87.216 m3 = 913,072 mg/m3

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 (913,072 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm v = = = 797,023 ppm v
molecular weight 28.01

The concentration of nitrogen gas increased from 78.084% to 79.7023%.

If a larger amount of liquid nitrogen evaporated in a smaller room, the
risk of physical asphyxiation increases proportionately. It is good indus-
trial hygiene practice to install fixed, regularly calibrated oxygen gas sen-
sors and alarms at strategic fixed locations where liquefied gases and gases
stored in pressurized systems are used and stored.

543. Large building fires—conflagrations—present severe asphyxiation haz-

ards to fire fighters, emergency medical personnel, and building occupants.
Briefly describe the four major asphyxiant gases and a physical asphyxia-
tion factor.
The fire itself consumes prodigious amounts of surrounding oxygen gas
that can cause physical asphyxiation. The major combustion gas—carbon
dioxide—is a physical asphyxiant. CO2, moreover, is a strong respiratory
stimulant promoting rapid breathing. Medically termed tachypnea, this
effect hastens collapsing from asphyxiation. Two chemical asphyxiant gases
are generated in fires. The major one is carbon monoxide. Less prevalent, but
rapidly chemically asphyxiating, hydrogen cyanide is another. Burning wool
produces ample amounts of HCN, a potent chemical asphyxiant. Victims of
such fires also inhale copious amounts of soot. These particles physically
clog small airways in the deep tissue airways further hastening asphyxiation.

544. Wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer psychrometric readings demonstrate a
relative humidity reading equivalent to nine grains of moisture per pound
of air in an office building. The design objective is 56 grains/pound of

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725 Problems with Solutions 277

air when outdoor temperature is 0°F, and we want 50% relative humid-
ity at 70°F. Assume one air change every hour. The building volume is
100,000 ft3. How much water vapor must be added to ambient air to achieve
this workplace comfort objective?

56 grains – 9 grains = 47 grains of H2O required

100,000 ft 3 × (1air change/hour) × 47 grains

= 50 lb H 2 O per hour
13.5ft 3 /lb of air × 7000 grains/ft 3

The author recommends humidifying the air by evaporative techniques—

never by misting methods because, especially with hard water, minerals in
water deposit on surfaces creating spots. Moreover, the dissolved and sus-
pended particles in water including bacteria and viruses are inhaled.

545. Throughout this book are examples of how industrial hygienists and toxi-
cologists can make technical data meaningful to lay persons such as work-
ers, jurors, and our courts. The author has used the following with a tad of
levity to help explain what one part per million is:
A man enters his favorite bar with ½ cup of dry vermouth asking the
bartender to use it to make a very dry martini—in fact, a one part per mil-
lion martini. “Think you can you do it?” asks the patron. The bartender
says, “Sure, but, I’ll have to make some calculations first. Would you like a
gin or vodka martini?” “Vodka is fine,” the customer replies. “Well,” says
the bartender, after calculations, “It will be some time before you get your
drink because we need to construct a railroad spur to bring in tank cars of
vodka. I need 31,250 gallons! Two jumbo cars and one huge mixing tank
should do it. And, I’m sorry, but I have to limit you to one drink. Olive or
onion? Stirred it will be. If you want it shaken, go to California for your
drink during an earthquake.”
How about a one part per trillion martini? One milliliter equals approxi-
mately 20 drops. How many parts per trillion is only a single drop of ver-
mouth in a 30,000-gallon railroad tank car of gin or vodka?

1 mL/20 = 0.05 mL/drop

30,000 gallons = 113,562,354 mL

113,562,354 mL × 20 drops/mL = 2,271,247,080 drops

1 × 1012/2,271,247,080 = 440 parts per trillion—a very dry martini

The previous problem “gets third grade” and speaks many volumes. The
ability of today’s analytical chemists and their increasingly sensitive instru-
ments to detect parts per billion and parts per trillion for many analytes
in matrices of all sorts has outstripped the toxicologists’ abilities to make
sense of it all. How about 1 ppb and 1 ppt?

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278 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

The bartender in previous problem could save some real estate and his
customer a huge amount of money if the customer agreed to a less dry mar-
tini. Standard railroad liquid tank cars contain 30,000 gallons. So, instead
of calculated 31,250 gallons of vodka, by using 30,000 gallons, the cus-
tomer’s martini becomes less dry by a factor or 30,000/31,250 = 0.96, or
4.0% “wetter.” It is fair to assume the customer would not notice this after
his first drink or so. “Hey, drinks are on Joe!”
This rail tank car is 59.75 feet long coupler end to coupler end. So, a 1 ppb
martini would require 1000 of these tank cars. And this 1 ppt martini would
require 1,000,000 tank cars. Excluding the locomotives, how long would
this 1 part per trillion martini train be?
59.75' × 106 = 59,750,000 feet × 1 mile/5280 feet = 11,316 miles, a contig-
uous land mass on Earth only met by the distance from the tip of southern
Africa to the most northeasterly tip of Siberia.

546. An empty building has interior dimensions of 37.5' × 28.0' × 18.0'. At NTP,
how many pounds of air are in this room?
(37.5' × 28.0' × 18.0') × 0.075 pounds air/ft3 = 1417.5 lb of air. One can
wonder if small building movers include this mass in their calculations for
weight bearings of their equipment. How about aircraft designers for the
engines’ and the fuselage lift capabilities?

547. The interior of an empty steel building was blasted with dry ice to remove
rust and scale. 550 pounds of dry ice was used. The interior dimensions of
this building are 36' × 36' × 12'. The abrasive blaster wore an abrasive blast-
ing suit with a full face air line respirator operated in continuous flow mode.
The dry ice evaporated into the air from the rubble accumulated on the floor.
As the dry ice evaporated, an increase in atmospheric pressure was relieved
through a tiny pipe in the ceiling. Carbon dioxide, being denser than air, at
first hovered near the floor but eventually mixed with the air after abrasive
blaster left for the day. The room does not have ventilation. (1) Calculate the
relative density of CO2 to air. (2) What is the average concentration of CO2
in the atmosphere? Assume 500 ppmv CO2 at the beginning of blasting.

36' × 36' × 12' = 15,552 ft3 = 440.4 m3

550 pounds = 249,475,804 mg

The relative density of CO2 to air can be calculated by comparing their

molecular weights: The “apparent” molecular weight of dry air is 28.941
(see Problem 58), and CO2 has a molecular weight of 44.01 grams/gram-
mole. That is, CO2 gas is (44.01/28.941) 1.52 times denser than air.
First, calculate the mass of CO2 in the building air before the abrasive
blasting:

mg ppm v × molecular weight 500 × 44.01

= = = 900.0 mg/m 3
m3 24.45grams/gram-mole 24.45

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725 Problems with Solutions 279

900 mg/m3 × 440.4 m3 = 396,360 mg of CO2 in the building’s atmosphere.

Total CO2 gas in this building’s atmosphere is 249,475,804 mg + 396,36
0 mg = 250,121,640 mg.

(250,121,640 mg/440.4 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm v = = 315,523 ppm v CO2
44.01
= 31.55%

This CO2 gas concentration is immediately dangerous to life and health.

All doors to the building must be locked and posted with bold warning
signs. Entry must not be permitted until the air samples demonstrate the
inside CO2 gas concentration is identical to the ambient CO2 gas concentra-
tion. Workers shoveling the rubble into wheelbarrows must be informed
of the CO2 gas inhalation risks to life. Portable pedestal fans should be
strategically placed to dilute and mix CO2 with air as it is safely exhausted
from the building. Because one can reasonably predict the CO2 gas concen-
trations using calculation methods above before the work begins, special
industrial hygiene methods can be invoked to prevent the accumulation of
such a dangerous atmosphere as work proceeds: buddy system and rescue
personnel, a communication system because airborne dust will also be high
decreasing visibility for the standby personnel, and special ventilation.

548. Consider previous Problem 547. If the atmosphere inside this room is now
31.55% carbon dioxide gas, what is oxygen gas concentration by volume?
Normal air is 20.9476% oxygen by volume.

100% air – 31.55% CO2 = 68.45% air remaining

68.45% air × 0.209476 = 14.3386% O2

549. Let us turn Problem 461 into a fire forensics issue. The dairy farmer claims
that the carpenter contractor he hired to repair cattle stalls was negligent by
having excess gasoline in an open container for his electricity generator that
when spilled caused a fire destroying his barn’s interior. He claims feed hay,
straw bedding, and wood stalls burned interior including expensive milking
machines, hoses, valves, pumps. The carpenter denies negligence and hires
a defense lawyer. Is the farmer’s claim plausible? His cow, Elsie, by the way,
escaped from the barn unharmed. She developed a posttraumatic stress dis-
order and an anxiety neurosis never producing milk again. 20 chickens fled
never to return. The farmer’s claim also alleges loss of income from dis-
rupted milk, cheese, and egg production.
Sure, because only a small amount of burning gasoline on dry hay and
straw will cause a rapid conflagration. Let us further say that the farmer
maintains that there was an explosion sufficiently strong to damage the
barn’s interior but weak enough not to cause collapse of the barn walls and
the roof. Is this plausible?

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280 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Let us use calculations from Problem 461 to see:

999 ppm 14,000 ppm

=
2.5gallons x gallons

Solving for x, we see that 35.0 liquid gallons of gasoline would have to evap-
orate and mix evenly throughout the barn’s interior to achieve the LEL for the
gasoline and air mixture. It appears highly unlikely to most reasonable men
that one cow could kick over a drum containing that much gasoline. Therefore,
the defense lawyer files a motion for summary judgment by the Court. Let us
verify the 35.0 gallons of gasoline with calculations as in Problem 461:

35.0 gallons = 132,489.4 mL

132,489.4 mL × 0.8 g/mL = 105,991.52 g = 105,991,520 mg

(105,991,520 mg / 1,715.7 m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm = = 13,985.7 ppm ≅ 1.4%
108 g/g-mole

Again, 1.4 volume percent is the average vapor concentration throughout

the barn. Pockets of explosive gasoline vapor between LEL and UEL are
foreseeable near a gasoline spill. Therefore, prudent judges would see this
as a “battle of the experts” and turn the decision making over to a jury with
the Court’s oversight.

550. Determine dilution ventilation requirements for an indoor work area where
organic solvent-containing adhesive is used at the rate of 3 gallons over an
8-hour workday. The density of the solvent (X) is 0.87 g/mL. The adhesive
contains 40% by volume X. 100% of the solvent evaporates essentially uni-
formly over the 8-hour work period.
The plant manager stipulated that workers must not be exposed over 80%
of the TLV TWAE of 100 ppmv. While this plant manager’s attitude is com-
mendable, he is not an expert in the application of TLVs, to wit: “ACGIH®
states that TLVs® and BEIs® are guidelines to be used by professionals in the
practice of industrial hygiene.” The industrial hygienist brought this to the
plant manager’s attention recommending that the control objective should be
as low as possible and never more than 80% of the action level, or 40 ppmv.
He cited the statistical and foundational basis for this recommendation. The
TLV, in this case, is based on the prevention of headache and eye irritation.
This dilution ventilation air requirement is

Q = K(qc/Ca)

where
Q = the dilution air flow rate

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725 Problems with Solutions 281

K = a dimensionless mixing factor accounting for less than perfect mix-

ing of air contaminant in the room and the contaminant inhalation
toxicity. Usually, K varies between 3 and 10 with 1 being perfect mix-
ing. 7–10 values are used if mixing conditions are poor. Normally,
before assigning higher K factors, attempt to improve mixing by
adjusting damper throw directions and volume and rearranging sup-
ply outlets and exhaust fan locations and whatever else promotes tur-
bulence and good mixing of work place air with fresh, tempered air.
qc = volumetric flow rate of pure contaminant vapor or gas, c
Ca = acceptable air contaminant concentration, volume or mole fraction
(ppmv × 10−6)

Solving

Ca = [0.40 (100 ppmv)] × 10−6 = 40 × 10−6 (volume fraction)

The mass flow rate of X is

 3 gallons   gallons X   (0.87)(8.34 lb) 

mX =  × 0.4 gallons adhesive  ×  1 gallon X  = 1.09lb/hour
 8hours     

 1.09 lb   454 g   1 hour 

 hour  ×  lb  ×  60 minutes  = 8.24 grams X /minute

8.24 grams/minute
= 0.0896 gram-mole/minute
92 grams/gram-mole

The resultant solvent X volumetric flow rate is calculated directly from

the ideal gas law:

(0.0896 g-mole/minute) × [0.08206 atm-L/g-mole-K)] × (293K)

1atmosphere
= 2.15 L/minute

Therefore, the minimum required dilution ventilation flow rate with the
K mixing factor of 5 is

(5)(2.15 L/minute)
Q= = 268,750 liters/minute
40 × 10 −6

 268,750 liters   1ft 3 

 × = 9492 cfm
minute   28.312 L 

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282 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

551. A 3'-6" wide × 28" laboratory exhaust bench hood has the following face
velocity measurements in fpm: 125, 135, 110, 140, 150, 140, 145, 155, and
130. There are two slots in the plenum each 1- 12 inches × 2.5 feet. The ple-
num is 6 inches deep, 2.5 feet high, and 3'-6" wide. Air is exhausted through
a 10-inch diameter duct. What volume of air does this hood move? What are
the average plenum velocity, average slot velocity, and average duct velocity
for this system?

Average hood face velocity = (125 + 135 + 110 + 140 + 150 + 140 + 145
+ 155 + 130)/9 = 136.7 fpm

Hood face area = (42" × 28")/144 in2/ft2 = 8.167 ft2

Hood exhaust volume = 136.7 fpm × 8.167 ft2 = 1116.4 ft3/minute

Total slot area = 2(1.5" × 30")/144 in2/ft2 = 0.625 ft2

Average slot velocity = 1116.4 cfm/0.625 ft2 = 1786.2 fpm

Average plenum velocity = 1116.4 cfm/(6" × 42")/144 in2/ft2 = 637.9 fpm

Because the average plenum velocity is less than ½ of the slot velocity,
there will be uniform air flow through both slots, and if the slots are prop-
erly spaced, there should be fairly uniform air flow across the hood face.
Slight variations in the hood face velocities could be attributable to cross
drafts and/or improper positioning of the velometer. A picture frame air foil
around the hood face offers uniform air flow.

Duct velocity = 1116.4 cfm/(πr 2)/144 in2/ft2

= 1116.4 cfm/(π × 5"2)/144 in2/ft2 = 2046.9 fpm

This duct velocity is acceptable for gases and vapors. It should be

increased to >3000–4000 fpm for most medium density dusts and airborne
particles.

552. An empty room 12' × 20' × 40' with 20% relative humidity is connected
with a single closed door to an adjacent empty room 18' × 20' × 50' with
65% relative humidity. Both rooms are tightly sealed and without ventila-
tion. What is the relative humidity when the door is opened and after the
air in both rooms is completely mixed? Assume the air temperature in both
rooms is identical at 70°F and outside walls are warmer than 70°F.
Calculate mass of water vapor in each room. Add these masses. Then
calculate mass of air in each room. Add the masses. The solution requires
use of humidity tables or a psychrometric chart. Assume 70°F at sea level.

12' × 20' × 40' = 9600 ft3

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725 Problems with Solutions 283

“Standard air” is 70°F at 760 mm Hg and 0% relative humidity. One

cubic foot of standard, dry air weighs 0.075 pound mass (lbm).

9600 ft3 × 0.075 lb/ft3 = 720 pounds of air

18' × 20' × 50' = 18,000 ft3

18,000 ft3 × 0.075 lb/ft3 = 1350 pounds of air

20% relative humidity air at 70°F contains 0.0032 lb water/lb dry air

65% relative humidity air at 70°F contains 0.0103 lb water/lb dry air

720 pounds air × 0.0032 lb/lb = 2.304 pounds of water vapor

in a small room

1350 pounds air × 0.0103 lb/lb = 13.905 pounds of water in a large room

Total pounds water vapor in both rooms = 2.304 lb + 13.905 lb

= 16.209 pounds

Total pounds air in both rooms = 720 lb + 1350 lb = 2070 pounds of air

16.209 lb H2O/2070 lb air = 0.00783 lb H2O/lb air

Using a psychrometric chart, this is equivalent to 50% relative humidity at

70°F. The larger room at 65% relative humidity was at risk of mold growth
amplification. Now, after mixing, both rooms are virtually free of this risk.

553. Three biologist spelunkers plan to study a bat cave in southern Texas. It has
been claimed 20,000,000 bats live in this cave based on previous studies.
Biologists’ inspections will be at midnight after the bats leave to feed on
aerial insects. Prior studies reported 25 ppmv ammonia gas in cave atmo-
sphere during bat occupancy. The ammonia gas emanates from guano bats’
fecal droppings onto the cave floor. This enormous colony of bats departs
en masse in only a few seconds. As they depart, fresh air sweeps in to dilute
ammonia gas. The cave dimensions are 300-feet long, 200'-wide, and nine-
feet high. Average bat volume is 250 mL. What ammonia gas concentration
can the spelunkers expect? The cave temperature is 70°F. The atmospheric
pressure is 760 mm Hg this evening.

Cave volume = 300' × 200' × 9' = 540,000 ft3 = 15,291 m3

Total bat volume = 20,000,000 bats × 0.25 L/bat = 5,000,000 L = 5000 m3

The net cave atmosphere volume during bat occupancy is 15,291 m3 –

5000 m3 = 10,291 m3.

mg ppm v × molecular weight 25 ppm v × 17.03

= = = 17.41 mg/m 3
m3 24.45 L/g-mol 24.45

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284 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

17.41 mg/m3 × 10,291 m3 = 179,166 mg NH3 is in the cave atmosphere dur-

ing bat occupancy. It’s no wonder they leave!
So, almost instantaneously as bats fly out, this 179,166 mg of ammonia
expands into the now empty cave volume, and the NH3 concentration is
reduced to:

ppmv NH3 = (179,166 mg/15,291 m3) × 24.45/17.03 = 16.8 ppmv NH3

Moreover, this 16.8 ppmv ammonia gas is further diluted by the in-rush-
ing volume of 5000 m3 of fresh air.
Without going into the tedious dilution ventilation calculations, the now-
empty cave volume of 15,291 m3 is further diluted with 5000 m3 of fresh air
to about:

15,291 m3/(15,291 m3 + 5000 m3) = 0.7536.

16.8 ppmv NH3 × 0.7536 = 12.7 ± 3 ppmv NH3

Most workers find this ammonia gas concentration irritating. The author
suggests powered air-purifying respirators with fresh cartridges for NH3 and
organic amines or full-face air-purifying respirators with the same cartridge
type. These respirators provide eye protection from ammonia gas and any
materials falling off the ceiling. Disposable full body suits, hard hats, fall
protection, rubber boots and gloves, and scrupulous skin and tool sanitation
hygiene after departing the cave are critical. The biologists must be educated in
hazards of pulmonary and systemic fungal disease by inhaling moist cave air
(e.g., histoplasmosis) and carefully trained in the robust protective measures.

554. What is the density of dry air at 312°F? Use the Rankine temperature scale.
At 70°F, the density of dry air is 0.075 lb/ft3.

(459.7 + 70)o F
Density of hotter air = 0.075 lbm /ft 3 × = 0.05148 lb/ft 3
(459.7 + 312)o F

This simple problem is one of demonstrating that as a fixed mass of gas

is heated in elastic systems (the surrounding air is considered elastic), it
expands as a function of increase in absolute temperature, and accordingly,
its density decreases. That is, there is the same mass in larger volume.

555. Ambient air was sampled at 83.7 L/minute for 137.5 hours through a
large EPA-approved high-efficiency filter. The exposed filter weight was
780.2 mg, and the weight of the blank presampling filter was 702.3 mg.
What was the concentration in micrograms per cubic meter?

137.5 hours = (137.5 hours × 60 minutes/hour) + 30 minutes

= 8280 minutes

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725 Problems with Solutions 285

Air volume sampled = 83.7 Lpm × 8280 minutes = 693,036 liters

= 693.036 m3

Difference in filter weight = 780.2 mg – 702.3 mg = 77.9 mg

77.9 mg/693.036 m3 = 0.1124 mg/m3

Total ambient airborne particulates = 112.4 micrograms per cubic meter.

556. Air was sampled for total calcium in a community downwind from a lime
kiln. The air temperature and atmospheric pressure were steady at 35°F
and 705 mm Hg, respectively. The air-sampling duration was 27 hours and
12 minutes, and the uncorrected sampling rate was 28.3 Lpm. What volume
of air was sampled?

Correct for absolute temperature: 35°F = 274.817 Kelvin

27 hours, 12 minutes = 1632 minutes

28.3 liters/minute × 1632 minutes = 46,185.6 liters

= 46.185.6 m3 (uncorrected)

46.185 m3 × (274.817 kelvin/273.16 kelvin) × (760 mm Hg/730 mm Hg)

= 49.063 m3

557. In Problem 556, 32.7 mg total particulate was collected by the filter. 59.8%
of this was analyzed as calcium. What was the total airborne particulate
concentration? Assuming the calcium was due to lime, what was the lime
dust concentration in the community air?

32.7 mg/49.063 m3 = 0.666 mg TSP/m3

Lime (CaO) is obtained by calcining (roasting) calcium carbonate in a

lime kiln by the reaction:

CaCO3 + intense heat + time → CaO + CO2

Transfer of crushed limestone to the kiln was not observed to be a dusty

process. However, copious amounts of fugitive lime dust emanated from
product transfer points and out of the top of the lime kiln. Therefore, it was
presumed virtually all calcium dust collected on the filter was from calcin-
ing limestone. Moreover, the wind direction throughout sampling period
was virtually constant from the lime kiln to community air-sampling point.

0.666 mg TSP/m3 × 0.598 = 0.398 mg Ca/m3

Molecular weight calcium = 40.08 grams/gram-mole

Molecular weight calcium oxide (lime) = 56.08 grams/gram-mole

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286 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Therefore, the amount of lime dust in the air sample was 0.398 Mg Ca/
m3 × (56.08/40.08) = 0.557 mg CaO/m3

TSP of 0.666 mg/m3 – 0.557 mgCaO/m3 = 0.109 mg/m3 background

airborne dust

Limestone contains various amounts of silica and silicates. The kiln’s cal-
cining temperature, while very hot, is insufficient to convert a-quartz into
cristobalite or tridymite or amorphous silica (glass). All lime dust and lime-
stone dust exposures should include measurements of respirable silica dust.

558. Properly disposing even modest amounts of hazardous waste is pricey and
highly technical. Industrial hygienists are often consulted regarding HW dis-
posal. One, employed by a large chemical company, was asked about disposal
of a solution of potassium permanganate and a separate tank of sulfuric acid.
He remembered a waste storage tank of ferrous sulfate on site. Recalling his
knowledge and training in inorganic chemistry and, specifically, reduction–
oxidation reactions, he writes the chemical equation. What is it?

2 KMnO4 + 10 FeSO 4 + 8 H 2 SO 4 → 5 Fe 2 (SO 4 )3 + K 2 SO 4

+ 2 MnSO 4 + 8 H 2 O

This is a win-win. The relatively innocuous ferrous sulfate is oxidized

to the also innocuous ferric sulfate. Manganese sulfate is also much less
harmful than the potassium permanganate. Importantly, both hazardous
wastes (KMnO4, H2SO4), are destroyed in situ—no off-site transportation
and no treatment, storage, and disposal facility required. The reaction prod-
ucts should be considered for sale as a plant fertilizer additive. Fe, K, and
Mn are essential plant nutrients, and sulfates promote soil acidification.
Each mole of KMnO4 requires 5 mol of ferrous sulfate, H2O, and 4 mol
of sulfuric acid. From this, and his training in chemical engineering, he
stipulates the necessary equipment, piping, mixing motor, feed rates, tem-
perature controls, and industrial hygiene precautions.

559. An air sample filter was chemically digested and diluted to 100 mL with
distilled water. A 10 mL aliquot was analyzed at 12.4 mcg Co/mL. The air
sample volume was 1390 L. The distilled water was analytically free from
cobalt. What was the airborne cobalt concentration?

Total amount of cobalt = (100 mL/10 mL) × 12.4 mcg Co = 124 mcg Co

(C × V ) − B
mcg/M3 = ,
Vcorr × F

where
Vcorr = air volume sampled corrected for atmospheric temperature and pressure
C = concentration of analyte in the aliquot (mcg/mL)

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725 Problems with Solutions 287

V = volume of aliquot (mL)

B = total amount of analyte in the blank (mcg)
F = fraction of total sample in the aliquot used for analysis (dimensionless).

Since the blank was Co-free, and the aliquot correction was made as
above, the above equation is not now necessary:

mcg Co/m3 = 124 mcg/1.390 m3 = 89.2 mcg Co/m3

560. Look at Problem 161 where the approximate density of methyl chloroform
vapor was calculated at 4.55 (dimensionless, and air = 1.00). Can the den-
sity of a pure vapor be calculated more easily than the stated method?
Yes, calculate the ratio of their respective molecular weights. Molecular
weight of methyl chloroform = 133.42 g/gram-mole (precisely), and the
“apparent” molecular weight of air = 28.966. Since the chemical with a
higher molecular weight is more dense (the numerator):

133.42/28.966 = 4.606

Again, to reemphasize, this demonstrates that a pure vapor cannot settle

out of air because it is mixing with air and becoming less dense over time
as the following problem demonstrates.

561. What is the density of a mixture of 500 ppmv methyl chloroform vapor
in air?

500 ppmv = 0.005%v

0.005 × 4.606 = 0.023

0.995 × 1.000 = 0.995

0.023 + 0.995 = 1.0108

That is, the density of this air gases and methyl chloroform vapor mix-
ture is only 1.08% times greater than air alone. This slight difference is
insufficient to exceed thermal air current effects, ventilation motion, and
pedestrian traffic air movement. This mixture will not stratify on the floor.

562. Converse to the previous problem, what is the density of 500 ppmv helium in
air?

The density of helium gas is 0.138 (dimensionless, where air = 1.000).

500 ppmv = 0.005% (i.e., 1,000,000 ppmv = 100%, 10,000 ppmv

= 1%, and so on)

0.005% × 0.138 = 0.00069

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288 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

0.995 × 1.000 = 0.995

0.00069 + 0.995 = 0.99569 (air = 1.000)

A balloon filled with this gas mixture will never ascend, whereas the
balloon filled with 100% helium rapidly ascends by overcoming gravity to
a point and balloon’s mass.

563. Consider even higher concentrations of vapor or gas mixtures in air than
provided in previous problems. What is specific gravity of 100% toluene
vapor at its LEL?
The LEL for toluene vapor is variously reported, but the most conservative
value of 1.27% by volume at NTP air is used for fire risk management purposes.

1.27% toluene × 3.17 specific gravity = 4.026

100% air – 1.27% toluene = 98.73% air in this LEL mixture

98.73% air × 1.00 specific gravity = 98.73

Specific gravity of this mixture = (4.026 + 98.73)/100 = 1.02756.

That is, the density of this mixture is only about 2.8% heavier than air
alone. Also, one must be mindful in shutdown conditions and no ventila-
tion and activities in the area, explosive vapors can accumulate in low spots
where sources of ignition may be present. This explains why it is important
to maintain a modicum of air motion in areas with flammable-explosive
solvents during shutdown and during periods of low activity and low natu-
ral air movement.

564. Capture of airborne dust as dry material falls from one point onto a moving
belt conveyor is typically required to protect health of nearby workers and to
prevent accumulation of fugitive (and maybe explosive and/or expensive) dust
on surfaces. Dry materials cascade 14 inches onto an 18-inch wide belt con-
veyor moving at 300 fpm. What volume of exhaust ventilation air is needed
to capture the airborne dust?
Committee on Industrial Hygiene of the American Iron and Steel Institute
reports an empirical equation to derive exhaust ventilation requirements for
such material transfer processes:

H
Q = S ×W × ,
3

where
Q = required air volume, cfm
S = 350 cfm for belt speeds below 250 feet per minute (fpm)
S = 550 cfm for belt speeds from 250 to 500 fpm
S = 750 cfm for belt speeds exceeding 500 fpm

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725 Problems with Solutions 289

W = conveyor belt width, feet

H = height of material fall, feet

1.17 feet
Q,cfm = 550 cfm × 1.5feet × = 73.7 cfm
3

This exhaust volume appears very low for an open hood. Most likely this
is the exhaust rate for conveyor belt with an enclosing hood and location of
the exhaust duct take-off near the discharge point. Because this is an empiri-
cal equation, the author recommends modest experimentation with the type
of material, distance of drop, and so on. Exhaust fan should have flexibility
to handle various flow volumes. The use of blast gates has been applied by
some to balance flow at multiple take-off points in a long conveyor hood.
Regardless, provide cleanout doors at appropriate locations. Robust ven-
tilation engineering is needed for this type of processing for combustible
dusts. Be mindful for accumulations of explosive dust in conveyor systems.
Control ignition sources among which could be reckless torch cutting of
sheet metal without a hot work permit. The simple drilling of a metal screw
into the exhaust hood might be a sufficient ignition source. Hammer tapping
an exhaust duct with accumulated explosive dust could initiate an explosion.
From an energy conservation standpoint, a shorter drop of material and
narrower conveyor belt helps. The industrial hygienist should work with
plant engineers to see if wet methods of slightly moist dust will hinder dust
transfer to the air. These engineering controls, if successful, will reduce the
size (or even need) for a dust collection system such as a cyclone, wet scrub-
ber, baghouse, and so forth. The author, with certain dusts, has found a
gentle water spray mist at dust generation points typically highly successful
for conveyor belt transfers. Addition of a wetting agent (e.g., a surfactant) to
the wet mister can promote reduction in airborne dust concentrations.

565. Exhaust ventilation air is passing through a 12-inch internal diameter duct
at 2350 feet per minute. There is contraction in the duct to an 8-inch inter-
nal diameter duct. What is the new duct velocity in this narrower section?

Area of circle = πr 2 = π (6"2/144 in2/ft2) = 0.785 ft2

π (4"2/144 in2/ft2) = 0.349 ft2

Q = AV for 12-inch duct = 0.785 ft2 × 2350 fpm = 1844.75 cfm

V = Q/A for 8-inch duct = 1844.75 cfm/0.349 ft2 = 5285.8 fpm

This is an exceptionally high duct velocity. This velocity is rarely needed

for even highly dense dusts. This duct velocity could be a significant gen-
erator of noise. One should consider a lower exhaust volume to achieve the
appropriate transport velocity in the duct for materials of concern. This will
also be a significant savings in energy costs. See the next problem (566).

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290 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

566. Assume in the previous problem that the sheet metal worker had to reduce the
12" diameter duct to an 8" diameter duct because of space limitations. Let us
see if an 8 inch square duct—instead of an 8 inch diameter duct—would also
work.
8" × 8" = 64 in2 = 0.444 ft2
V = Q/A = 1844.75 cfm/0.444 ft2 = 4192.6 fpm

This 1093.2 fpm reduction in duct velocity helps and is acceptable for many
types of airborne dusts, but it is about 2000 fpm excessive for most gases and
vapors in the ppmv to low percentv range. The reader is encouraged to calculate
different duct transport velocities with different duct cross-sectional areas.

567. An industrial hygienist obtains 11 direct-reading instrument values of tolu-

ene vapor in the breathing zone throughout a worker’s 8-h workshift record-
ing them as 17, 21, 22, 23, 15, 19, 29, 30, 13, 19, and 18 ppmv. What is the
average or mean concentration of toluene vapor for this worker on this day?

(17 + 21 + 22 + 23 + 15 + 19 + 29 + 30 + 13 + 19 + 18) ppmv/11

= 226/11 = 20.55 ppmv

This slightly exceeds the TLV for toluene vapor. Implement rigid controls
to lower exposures well below the action level of 10 ppmv.

568. What is the standard deviation of the preceding vapor concentration samples?
The standard deviation provides a statistic of the average variability in a
series of data from a population. Hand-held scientific calculators permit
one to do this very quickly, but it is helpful to occasionally revert to the “old
fashioned” way as follows:
The standard deviation SD x = [1/n − 1] ∑ in=1 ( xi − x )2 . Set up a table as
follows:
x Average x − averagea (x − average)2
17 20.55 3.55 12.60
21 20.55 0.45 0.20
22 20.55 1.45 2.10
23 20.55 2.25 5.06
15 20.55 5.55 30.80
19 20.55 1.55 2.40
29 20.55 8.45 71.40
30 20.55 9.45 89.30
13 20.55 7.55 57.00
19 20.55 1.55 2.40
18 20.55 2.55 −6.50
Σ, total = 279.76
a Since the difference between the value and the average will be
squared, the ± signs may be disregarded. That is, all values
assume a positive number.

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725 Problems with Solutions 291

SD for this data set = (279.76/11 – 1)0.5 = 27.9760.5 = 5.29.

Note the geometric standard deviation is a better descriptor of air contami-

nants than the normal standard deviation. See Problem 315 for an example to
calculate the geometric mean of a population data set. These data also point
out the importance of obtaining several spot-reading samples throughout
exposure period and during the work shift. An excellent way of character-
izing this worker’s exposure would be full-shift sampling with a personal
air-sampling pump along with spot direct-reading measurements of air con-
taminants in the breathing zone. The latter help to characterize peak expo-
sures—particularly helpful for chemicals that have STEL® or C® TLV values.

569. The concentration of toxicant in a person’s blood at 1:42 p.m. is 17.6 micro-
grams per deciliter. Without medical intervention, the concentration at 5:19
p.m. is 11.7 mcg/dL. What is the half-life of this toxicant in this person if
we assume first-order detoxification kinetics?

t2 – t1 = 5:19 – 1:42 = 217 minutes

c1 – c2 = 17.6 mcg/dL – 11.7 mcg/dL = 5.9 mcg/dL decay

 t −t  217minutes
T1/2 = ln  2 1  =
ln
 1 c − ln c2  ln17.6 − ln11.7
217minutes
= = 809.7minutes = 13.5hours
2.868 − 2.60

570. In the previous problem, assuming first-order decay toxicokinetics, when

could one expect this person’s blood concentration to be 8.8 mcg/dL?

17.6 mcg/dL/8.8 = 2.0, or exactly one half-life.

1:42 p.m. + 13.5 hours = 3:17 a.m., the next morning

571. Verify the calculations in the two preceding problems by substituting val-
ues into first-order decay equation.

k (the decay constant) = 0.693/T, where T = elapsed time = 217 minutes

k = 0.693/217 = 0.003194/minute

C = Co × e−kT = 17.6 micrograms/dL × e−0.003194×217 = 17.6 mcg/dL × e−0.693

= 17.6 × 0.500 = 8.8 mcg/dL, the biological half-life concentration for this
person

However, we should be mindful that while two points determine a

straight line, they do not necessarily determine first-order decay. Two more

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292 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

blood samples obtained, say, 5 hours apart from the first would determine if
there is linearity. Toxicants can have second-order decay where, for exam-
ple, there is rapid decay from aqueous or the mineralizing (bones and teeth)
compartments, but a slower decay from lipid and adipose tissues.

572. Assume the clinic’s or hospital’s policy is a patient cannot be discharged

until their blood level for this toxicant is less than 6 micrograms per
deciliter. How long will this take for this person?
This could be plotted on semi-logarithmic graph paper, but the danger for
this is others might apply the graph to everyone. Detoxification and excre-
tion rates vary from one person to another.
From Problem 570, we see that the blood concentration took 13.5 hours to
reduce 50% to 8.8 mcg/dL. After another 13.5 hours, the blood level should
reduce to 4.4 mcg/dL. So, without one resorting to tedious mathematics, the
patient may be released approximately 21 hours after the first blood sample
was drawn if a convenient time for the clinic or hospital. Regardless, do not
discharge until there is a confirmation by the laboratory the blood level of
this toxicant is below 6.0 mcg/dL, and the patient is entirely asymptomatic
and agrees to being discharged.

573. 650 liters of a nonreactive gas with a density of 1.833 kg/m3 are mixed with
350 liters of another nonreactive gas with a density of 0.678 kg/m3. Both gases
are at equal temperature and pressure. What is the density of this gas mixture?

0.650 m3 × 1.833 kg/m3 = 1.191 kg

0.350 m3 × 0.678 kg/m3 = 0.237 kg

1.191 kg + 0.237 kg = 1.428 kg/m3

574. Work begins at 8:00 a.m. for a house painter. Between 11:00 a.m. and 2:00
p.m., he is exposed to a steady concentration of 45 ppmv CO. He does not
take a break for lunch and quits working at 4:00 p.m. He is exposed for
remainder of his work day to 0.6 ppmv CO. Calculate his TWAE to CO gas.

3 hours × 45 ppmv = 135 ppmv-hours

5 hours × 0.6 ppmv = 3 ppmv-hours

(135 ppmv-hours + 3 ppmv-hours)/8 hours = 17.3 ppmv

This exceeds the 12.5 ppmv action level based on the ACGIH TLV of
25 ppmv. Such an exposure peak from 11:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. appears
very strange and warrants investigation to identify source and mitigate.
0.6 ppmv is not atypical for background, ambient CO concentration in some
urban areas or if nearby combustion sources are present (e.g., gasoline fuel
electricity generator, salamander).

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725 Problems with Solutions 293

575. For the previous problem (574), by how much must the CO concentration dur-
ing the 3-hour interval be reduced so that he is exposed to the CO action level?

5 hours × 0.6 ppmv = 3 ppmv-hours

Action level = (8 hours × 25 ppmv)/2 = 100 ppmv-hours

100 ppmv-hours – 3 ppmv-hours = 97 ppmv-hours

97 ppmv-hours/3 hours = 32.3 ppmv CO

576. Verify the calculations for the previous problem (575).

5 hours × 0.6 ppmv = 3 ppmv-hours

3 hours × 32.3 ppmv = 96.9 ppmv-hours

3 ppmv-hours + 96.9 ppmv-hours = 99.9 ppmv-hours

The target organs for CO poisoning are the brain, cranial nerves, heart,
and retina. The investigating industrial hygienist must also consider the
painter’s simultaneous exposures to any organic solvent vapors emanat-
ing from any “oil-based” paints, thinners, stains, lacquers, varnishes, and
enamels because these organic vapors also affect the brain and the heart as
target organs. The TLV additive mixture rule must be applied here.

577. If, as in a previous problem (574), this painter is also exposed to 37.6 ppmv
for the solvent vapor mixture (8-hour TLV = 50 ppmv) including the 32.3
8-hour TWAE to CO, what is his additive mixture TWAE to both CO and
organic solvent vapors?
TWAE1/AL1 + TWAE2/AL2 + … + TWAE n /AL n must be equal to or less
than 1.0 (unitless), equal to or less than 0.5 for action level compliance.
17.3 ppmv/12.5 ppmv + 37.6 ppmv/50 ppmv = 1.38 + 0.75 = 2.13 = 213%
of the action level for toxicologically additive mixture of CO gas and the
organic solvent vapors.
Note that although the organic solvent vapor mixture exposure is below
its action level, the presence of another identical target organ toxicant (CO)
substantially raises the additive exposure of their combined action levels.
Technically, target organ for CO are the erythrocytes and their hemoglobin,
but high oxygen demands upon the brain, myocardium, and retina are, in
a sense, secondary targets. CO, therefore, is a systemic toxicant because
blood perfuses all organs and tissues.

578. Dealing with alcohol-intoxicated employees can be a delicate issue.

Concerns are for their safety and for those they encounter, for whom they
have responsibilities, employer’s liabilities, aggressive behavior, violence,
and impaired decision making. Companies deal with this in different ways.

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294 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Some foolishly send them immediately home. This can breed tremendous
liability for the employer if, for example, they are involved in an automobile
collision resulting in injuries or deaths. Others will call a relative to pick
them up, but this, too, can have liabilities. Still others call for a taxi cab or
request a company security officer to drive the inebriated worker home.
Problems with these approaches have been no one was home to receive
the worker, house keys had been lost, violent behavior upon the driver,
arguments, and jumping from the moving car. Again, such methods can
raise more safety and legal liability issues. As health professionals, we also
have public safety duties. Some employers deflate the tires of an inebri-
ated employee’s car, place nail strips in driver’s path, or block the driver’s
vehicle in the parking lot with a massive truck.
The best approach, in the author’s view, is to detain them until sober.
When this occurs is a question and depends on liver size, BAC, percent
water distribution in the body, and the liver’s blood perfusion rate. If the
employee refuses the BAC test or to remain on company property, detain
him long enough to secretly call police so that a patrol car officer arrests
him the moment he leaves and enters a public street.
One can calculate a safe release time. Let us say an employee’s BAC is
0.21% at 1:00 pm. Under most state’s driving laws, this person is almost
“triple drunk” (DUI ≥ 0.08%). Company policy is to not release their worker
until his BAC is 0.02%, and he remains in custody of the security depart-
ment. He is not paid for time required to “sober up.” If his BAC decreases to
0.17% in one half-hour (1:30 pm), and he stopped drinking at 1:00 pm, when
may he go home? Detoxification of ethanol follows zero-order kinetics, but
for this calculation, assume the catabolism of ethyl alcohol is a first-order
toxicant decay (–), a reasonable approximation. Hard data supersede medi-
cal and or a police officer’s opinions of sobriety.

dC
Integrating, = − kCo
dt

C
at t = 0.5 hour, ln = − kt
Co

C 0.17
=
Co 0.21

ln ( 0.17/0.21)
thus, k = = 0.423 h −1
0.5 hour

C
at other concentrations and times: ln = −0.423 t
0.21

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725 Problems with Solutions 295

ln 2 0.693
half-life, t1/2 = = = 1.64 hours
k 0.423

ln (0.02/0.21)
for C = 0.02%, t = = 5.56 hours
(−0.423) hour −1

Therefore, this worker may leave for home about 6:30 p.m.—not any
sooner. Admonish him! Never again! Inform him his future employment
could be toast.
The employer’s choice to not release until the man’s BAC drops to 0.02%
is wise because above 0.4%, unconsciousness, possible coma, and verging
near death exists; one is stuporous between 0.3% and 0.4%; obvious impair-
ment exists when between 0.1% and 0.3%, definitive impairment exists at
0.08–0.1%; some impairment exists at 0.05–0.08%; and possible impair-
ment exists below 0.05%. Elimination rates and effects of ethanol vary
greatly from person to person, but the average is 0.00028% per minute.

579. Let us see how the solution to Problem 578 agrees with preceding calculations:

5.56 hours × 60 minutes/hour = 333.6 minutes

0.21 × 0.00028%/minute × 333.6 minutes = 0.0196%. This agrees with the

calculated % BAC and shows his/her ethanol detoxification rate is nearly
average. Verify this with a venous BAC analysis before safely releasing this
employee. Regardless, conduct the sobriety tests and carefully question the
employee about his/her driving abilities. Carefully document your calcula-
tions, measurements, and observations.

580. A full circular open surface barrel with internal diameter of 2 feet, 9 inches
contains warm ethyl benzene. Three days, four hours, and 17 minutes later the
surface level of this organic chemical decreased 4 and 3/8 inches. What was
the average evaporation rate in milligrams per square centimeter per minute?

Ø = 2'-9" = 33"

r = 16.5"

volume of evaporated ethyl benzene is a cylinder of πr 2 h

h = 4 inches + 3/8 inches = 4.375"

π (16.5")2 × 4.375" = 3741.9 in3 = 61,318.75 mL

61,318.75 mL × 0.8665 g/mL = 53,132.7 g = 53,132,700 mg

3 days × 24 hours/day × 60 minutes/hour = 4320 minutes

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296 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

4320 minutes + 257 minutes = 4577 minutes

53,132,700 mg/4577 minutes = 11,608.6 mg/minute

Surface area of tank = π (16.5")2 = 855.3 cm2

11,608.6 mg/minute/855.3 cm2 = 13.57 mg/cm2/minute

581. In the previous problem (580), assume evaporation is into the air of a build-
ing 30 feet long and 20 feet wide. A wall-mounted exhaust fan is at one end.
A make-up air louver is at the opposite end. The building was designed for
a ventilation rate of 1.5 cfm/ft2 of floor surface area. What is the average
steady-state concentration of ethyl benzene vapor in this small building?

ER × 24.45 × 106
ppm v = ,
Q × molecular weight

where
ER = evaporation or generation rate in g/minute
Q = ventilation rate in L/minute

Q = 30' × 20' × 1.5 cfm/ft2 = 900 cfm = 25,485 L/minute

Ethyl benzene molecular weight = 106.17 grams/mole

11,608.6 mg/minute/1000 mg/g = 11.6086 grams evaporate per minute

11.6086 × 24.45 × 106

ppm v = = 104.9 ppm v
25,485 × 106.17

The TLV for ethylbenzene at the time of this writing is 100 ppmv as an
8-hour TWAE. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists in their 2010 Notice of Intended Changes proposes to reduce
the TLV to 20 ppmv based on new toxicity information. Moreover, ethyl-
benzene has small, but significant, amounts of benzene in it. Benzene, a
genotoxic human carcinogen, has no “safe” limit of exposure. That is, lower
is safer. Less frequent exposure is safer.
Exposure would be excessive for those occupying this building for pro-
longed time. Industrial hygiene control options include: Place a lid on this
barrel! Reduce the solvent’s temperature. Limit occupancy time in the build-
ing. Provide appropriate respirators. In this simple case, increase the ventila-
tion as a last resort only until mechanical local exhaust ventilation can be
installed. Benzene’s high toxicity does not permit use of dilution ventilation.

582. Compare the arithmetic mean and the geometric mean of the following
values: 3, 5, 6, 6, 7, 10, 12. The arithmetic mean and the geometric means
are measures of central tendency in a group of values.

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725 Problems with Solutions 297

3 + 5 + 6 + 6 + 7 + 10 + 12
Arithmetic mean, AM = =7
7

7 7
Geometric mean,GM = 3 × 5 × 6 × 6 × 7 × 10 × 12 = 453,600

1 1
log GM = (log 453,600) = (5.6567) = 0.808
7 7

GM = 6.43 (Enter 0.808 into calculator. Enter “INV” or “2nd”. Enter “log.”)

The geometric mean of a set of unequal positive values is always less

than the arithmetic mean. The geometric mean is normally a better statistic
and measure for central tendency for a set of air-sample results.
There are other measures of central tendency: the harmonic mean, the
median, mode, weighted arithmetic mean, and root mean square. Each has
advantages and disadvantages depending on the data and the intended pur-
poses of analysis.

583. Industrial hygienists and toxicologists rely on animal model toxicological

testing, and practitioners know that these have limitations and are often the
only way to assess and manage risk. One significant shortcoming is that
the numbers of test animals is often limited, and, therefore, extrapolations
from these data to humans are tenuous. The following table demonstrates
how animal test population size can affect the reliability of test outcomes.

Probability of Toxic Number of Animals Used in Experimentsa

Effects in Man
95% Probability 99% Probability
100% 1 1
80 2 3
60 4 6
50 5 7
40 6 10
20 14 21
10 29 44
5 59 90
2 149 228
1 299 459
0.1 2995 4603
0.01 29,956 46,050

a Number of animals to be included in an experiment in order to find at least one

subject with the toxic effect (assuming identical incidence of toxic effect in
animals and man). G. Zbinden: Progress in Toxicology, New York, Springer,
No. 1, 1973 (T. Marthaler, Biostatistics Centre, University of Zurich).

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298 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

584. Industrial hygienists and toxicologists who serve as expert witnesses are
asked how much did cigarette smoking contribute, for example, in causing
the plaintiff’s primary lung cancer. The following example with supporting
laboratory animal testing statistics helps address this:
Mr Robert Smith smoked two packs of cigarettes daily for 30 years.
According to available epidemiological evidence, this means that he increased
his chances of developing lung cancer (by cigarette smoking alone) by 10×,
that is, from baseline prevalence of about 10 per 100,000 for nonsmokers per
annum to about 100 per 100,000 per annum. Multiplying this by Mr Smith’s
adult life of 35 years, we arrive at a cumulative probability a man with Mr
Smith’s smoking history would develop lung cancer at any time during this
period from smoking alone is 3.5% at most. While this is higher than one’s
chances of developing lung cancer if one did not smoke, it remains a statistical
fact that 96.5% of all men who smoke two packs of cigarettes daily do not die
from lung cancer in a 35-year period. We then arrive at the conclusions that
he might be one of the unlucky 3.5%, or he had exposures to other pulmonary
carcinogens to place him at even higher risk of developing his lung cancer.

Lung Cancer Epidemiology/Biostatistics for Cigarette Smoking in Men:

Nonsmoker: 10/100,000 per annum
One pack/day: 60/100,000 per annum
Two packs/day: 100/100,000 per annum

(100/100,000) × 35 years = 0.035 = 3.5%

585. A flexible container (e.g., a large balloon) contains 17.6 liters of an ideal
gas. The temperature of the gas is 25°C, and the container is attached to
a pole in Miami. The gas is slowly heated to 46°C at constant pressure.
Common sense suggests to most of us that this gas will expand, but to what
volume? Disregard back pressure from the balloon.
This is an application of Charles’ Law.
(46 + 273)
V2 = 17.6 L × = 18.84 L
(25 + 273)

586. An open face floor level air supply register to a bedroom is 6 inches × 12
inches. The ventilation design engineer stipulated 320 cfm. What is the
velocity of the air supply? Later, someone installs a safety grill on the reg-
ister with a grill factor of 0.6. What is the new air supply velocity?

6" × 12"/144 in2/ft2 = 0.5 ft2

V = Q/A = 320 cfm/0.5 ft2 = 640 fpm

The grill reduces the open face area. Therefore, air velocity increases,
although the air volume remains constant. The grill adds to the system’s
total pressure.
640 fpm/0.6 = 1067 fpm

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725 Problems with Solutions 299

587. Standard air supply or air return ducts installed between studs 16 inches on
center are 3 inches × 12 inches. Now and then, space limitations require a
circular duct to replace a rectangular duct. Calculate equivalent diameter of
a circular duct to replace the rectangular duct.

Ø = (4ab/π)0.5, where a and b are the dimensions of the rectangle

(or a square)

Ø = (4 × 3" × 12"/π)0.5 = 6.77 inches

Let us verify the dimension: Area of circle = πr 2 = π (6.77"/2)2 = 35.997

in = (for the rectangular duct) 3" × 12" = 36 in2.
2

This is an odd dimension not available as a stock item. Moreover, it is too

wide for 2" × 4" studs (actually, 1.5" × 3.5"). Perhaps two smaller rectangu-
lar ducts could divide the air volume to two air supply or return registers.
The carpenter and sheet metal worker must collaborate.

588. It is often necessary to calculate horsepower of ventilation system fan

motors. HP is an index of the amount of work a machine can perform over
a time period. One HP equals 33,000 foot-pounds of work per minute. This,
in turn, equals 0.746 kilowatt. Calculate the horsepower of a fan operat-
ing at 1750 rpm with a torque of 16.8 foot-pounds. This calculation is also
required to determine a fan’s electricity requirements.

HP = (torque (ft-lbs) × rpm) 5250 = (16.8 × 1750)/5250 = 5.60 horsepower

5.60 HP × 0.746 kilowatt/HP = 4.18 kilowatts of electricity

are needed (4180 watts).

589. Consider the previous problem (588). Torque is a force that produces, or
attempts to produce, rotation—usually measured in foot-pounds, or inch-
pounds. A force of 1 pound applied to a handle of a crank, the center of
which is 1 foot from the center of the shaft, produces a torque 1 foot-pound
on the shaft if the force that is provided is perpendicular to (not along) the
crank. What is the torque on a shaft of a ventilation exhaust fan with brake
horsepower of 8.4 operating at 1600 rpm?

Torque, in foot-pounds = (HP × 5250)/rpm = (8.4 × 5250)/1600

= 27.56 ft-lbs

Such data are needed to ensure selected fan has sufficient mechanical
strength to operate without shaft fracture failures. Fan catalogues stipulate
these safety data.

590. An industrial combustion device steadily consumes 11.2 gallons of no. 2

fuel oil every hour. Assume this oil is 86.1% carbon, 13.8% hydrogen, 0.1%
sulfur, and with negligible free oxygen. The fuel oil weighs 6.8 pounds per
gallon. Calculate the combustion air (oxygen) requirements.

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300 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

The amount of air required for perfect (stoichiometric) combustion of

hydrocarbon fuels with carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur (pounds of air per
pounds of combustibles) are: carbon (11.5), hydrogen (34.3), and sulfur (4.3).
Consider 1 pound of fuel:
0.861 C × 11.5 × 6.8 = 67.3 pounds of air
0.138 H × 34.3 × 6.8 = 32.2 pounds of air
0.001 S × 4.3 × 6.8 = 0.03 pound of air
67.3 lb + 32.2 lb + 0.03 lb = 99.53 lb of air
99.53 pounds of air × 1.10 (10% excess*) × 11.2 gallons = 1226.2 lbs air/h
1226.2 lbs of air per hour/60 minutes/hour = 20.437 pounds of air/minute
20.437 lbs air/minute/0.075 lbs/ft3 standard air/minute = 272.5 cfm
591. A natural gas water heater has a capacity of 44,000 Btu/hour. Using the
standard method of determining combustion air requirements, calculate
minimum volume of fresh air required for this water heater.
The minimum required volume is 50 cubic feet per 1000 Btu/hour.
For each minute of operating time:

(50 ft3/1000 Btu/hour) × 44,000 Btu/hour = 50 ft3/hour × 44

= 2200 cfh = 36.7 cfm

The author investigated a fully preventable CO asphyxiation fatality in a

residence that resulted from a combination of several factors:

• Death occurred between 12:30 a.m. and about 4:30 a.m. when wind vel-
ocity was nonexistent (steady at 0 mph throughout this 4-hour period).
• The vent stack was located several feet below the upper roof line (a
building code violation).
• The weather cap was only approved for a fan-assisted exhaust stack (a
building code violation). This stack was a gravity vent relying solely on
the “chimney effect” and wind motion. Absent wind motion to create a
Venturi suction on the stack, this weather cap created a CO death trap.
• The water heater (50 gallons, 44,000 Btu/hour) was located in a tightly
sealed wood box with insufficient combustion make-up air and no
make-up air louvers (a serious building code violation). At least two
openings (e.g., 5" × 10") were needed—one located no more than one
foot above floor and the other located no more than one foot from the
top of the water heater cabinet.
• The exhaust stack had two 90° elbows instead of two 45° elbows (a
building code violation).
• The lateral exhaust stack section was sloped downward instead of at
least 14 -inch rise over 12" run (a building code violation).

* If the process and operating engineer can guarantee perfect mixing of supply air with atomized fuel
oil mist, the 10% “safety factor” can be reduced to 5% or less. This will reduce operating costs for our
increasingly “green” society. Two percent is probably the lowest amount of excess air to ensure carbon
monoxide gas does not form and combustion is nearly stoichiometric.

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725 Problems with Solutions 301

• The bedroom where the decedent was found did not have cold air
returns to the furnace (a building code violation).
• There was a high hot water demand shortly before the decedent retired
for the night (laundering clothing and using a large whirlpool tub).
• There was a clear pathway for exhaust gases to ascend from the box
where the water heated was located to the decedent’s bedroom.
• The decedent slept on the floor on an air mattress with her head located
within 3 feet from where exhaust gases entered her bedroom. As the
exhaust gases cooled, they became denser and hovered over her body
because of the lack of air circulation.

The combination of these multiple factors is analogous to the many fac-

tors leading to the foul weather catastrophe portrayed in the movie The
Perfect Storm wherein absent one or more of these weather factors, the
storm would not have occurred.

592. Vapor pressure of a volatile liquid can be determined by slowly bubbling

a known volume of a pure gas through the liquid at a known temperature
and pressure. In an experiment, 4.21 liters of dry air were bubbled through
7.6621 grams of liquid benzene at 24.4°C and atmospheric pressure (760 mm
Hg). Benzene remaining after the experiment weighed 5.5230 grams. Assuming
the air became saturated with benzene vapor and temperature of liquid ben-
zene and air remained constant, what is the vapor pressure of benzene in torr?

Difference in weight = 7.6621 g – 5.5230 g = 2.1391 g = 2139.1 mg

4.21 L = 0.00421 m3

2139.1 mg/0.00421 m3 = 508,099.8 mg/m3

mg 22.4 L/gram-mole absolute temperature

ppm v = × ×
m3 molecular weight 273.16 K
760 mm Hg
×
atmospheric pressure,mm Hg

22.4 L/gram-mole 24.4 + 273.16 K

ppm v = 508,099.8 mg/m 3 × ×
78.11grams/mole 273.16 K
760 mm Hg
× = 158,725
760 mm Hg

(vapor pressure, mm Hg/760 mm Hg) × 106 = saturation concentration, ppmv

(vp, mm Hg/760 mm Hg) × 106 = 158,725 ppmv

Vapor pressure = 120.6 mm Hg = 120.6 torr

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302 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

This does not agree with calculation by the Antoine equation (91.2464 mm
Hg at 24.1°C). Perhaps the bubbling produced small mist particles suggest-
ing a higher vapor pressure because of greater loss of mass into the vapor
phase over time. I would repeat, but would not bubble the air through the
benzene. Simply allow the air to pass very slowly (e.g., 5 mL/minute) over
surface of the benzene to ensure vapor saturation.
593. You find an old 4.5 liter pressure bottle labeled “Stink Damp” at a dump
site near a coal mine. The pressure gauge reads 2750 lbs/in2. The ambient
temperature is 12°C. What is the mass of H2S in this gas bottle?

PV = nRT

n = PV/RT

Molecular weight of H2S = 34.08 grams/gram-mole

R = universal gas constant = 0.0821 L-atm/mole-K

2750 lbs/in2 = 187.126 atmospheres

n = [(187.126 atm)(4.5 L)]/[(0.0821)(285.16 K)] = 35.97 moles

35.97 moles × 34.08 grams H2S/gram-mole = 1225.86 grams of H2S

594. Without wearing a SCBA, you foolishly open the valve (problem 593), but
it breaks while twisting the gas release handle instantly enveloping you
inside an 8-foot diameter hemisphere bubble of H2S gas. What is the aver-
age gas concentration inside this hemisphere? Disregard your body volume.
Assume no wind, 760 mm Hg, and 25°C.

Volume of hemisphere = [(4/3) πr3]/2 = (1.333 × 3.1416 × (4')3]/2 = 134.04 ft3

134.04 ft3 = 3.796 m3

ppmv = [(1,225,860 mg/3.796 m3) × 24.45]/34.08

= 231,683 ppmv5 H2S (>23%!)

You will collapse instantly and die unless you are safely rescued, admin-
istered oxygen, CPR, and antidotes. The antidote kit for H2S poisoning is
available by prescription from Eli Lilly Company. Their kit contains amyl
nitrite, sodium nitrite, sodium thiosulfate, and various needles, syringes,
and a nasogastric tube. You also might have been seriously, maybe fatally,
injured by the ejected gas valve.
595. A worker in Portland (Oregon or Maine) is exposed to 20 ppmv CO gas and
19.8% by volume of oxygen gas throughout his work shift with both gases
at a steady concentration. Is he overexposed?
The TLV for CO is 25 ppmv. The percent by volume of oxygen in stan-
dard air at any elevation is 20.95%. OSHA’s lower limit of oxygen exposure

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725 Problems with Solutions 303

is 19.5% by volume. Therefore, at first blush, it appears that he is not over-

exposed to CO or underexposed to O2.
However, CO competes with O2 for binding sites on hemoglobin, the red
protein in erythrocytes that transfers oxygen from blood perfusing the lungs to
tissue sites throughout the body. This is a fully reversible biochemical reaction:

HgB + O2 HgBO2

However, CO also bonds with hemoglobin. This binding strength is 210–

280 times greater than oxygen. That is, a small amount of CO binds with
hemoglobin thereby hindering oxygen transport from the inhaled air to the
tissues. Carbon monoxide is a chemical asphyxiant that can fatally poison
even though the inhaled air is 20.95% by volume. The biochemical reaction
equation is

HgB + CO COHgB

CO has additive toxicological effects with a diminished oxygen concen-

tration in the inspired air. The toxicological additive mixture rule appears
to apply:
Both Portlands on opposite coasts of the United States are at sea level
(i.e., they are ports), so we may assume an average barometric pressure of
760 mm Hg.

(20 ppmv/25 ppmv) + (19.8%/20.95%) = 0.8 + 0.945 = 1.745

This worker is exposed at 174.5% for the combined gases. Prompt inter-
vention is required. Persons with previous myocardial infarctions, cardiac
ischemia, risk of stroke, hyperthyroidism, diabetes, obesity, and several
other medical risk factors are at greatest risk. Physiological heat strain
is another risk factor that is additive to CO. Other chemical asphyxiants
include H2S, HCN, soluble cyanide salts, aniline, soluble sulfide salts, and
certain aniline derivatives.

596. Air at 20.9476% O2 by volume is what weight percent O2 at 760 mm Hg and

70°F?
Normal, dry air weighs 0.075 lb/ft3 at 760 mm Hg and 70°F. The four
major gases in air are nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide. Standard
air contains 350 ppmv CO2 and smaller amounts of other trace gases. These
and CO2 are omitted in the following table because of their minor weight
percentage contributions:

(0.017384/0.074564) × 100 = 23.31%

Standard air contains 20.9476% oxygen by volume and 23.31% oxygen by

weight. This makes sense because the molecular weight of oxygen exceeds
the apparent molecular weight of air.

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304 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

597. An automated manufacturing process requires the gas-phase oxidation of

certain materials in a small, securely closed process room. Stoichiometrically
equivalent amounts of ozone and chlorine are mixed. Four separate ozone
and chlorine gas alarms are installed side by side at strategic locations out-
side this room to protect workers nearby. A significant breach occurred in
the door gaskets to the room that subsequently released large amounts of
both gases. The alarms failed to provide audio-visual signaling. Several
workers developed severe chemical pneumonitis. Why did these alarms fail?
Perhaps alarms failed to detect gas-phase reaction product of ozone with
chlorine. Ozone, being a stronger oxidant than the weaker oxidant chlorine,
could arguably oxidize chlorine gas to chlorine dioxide. Moreover, there
are 33% more ozone molecules than chlorine molecules which tend to shift
reaction to chlorine dioxide:

4O3 + 3Cl2 → 6ClO2

The gas-phase reaction product, chlorine dioxide, in this hypothetical

example has a TWAE TLV of 0.1 ppmv and a STEL of 0.3 ppmv to pre-
vent lower respiratory tract irritation and bronchitis. Assuming these fixed
locations of gas monitors were recently calibrated with certified span gases,
and they did not lose power, there might be other reasons why the alarms
failed, but it appears that they may not be responsive to chlorine dioxide.
Regardless, this example points out importance of calibrating gas alarms
under foreseeable conditions to help rule out false-positive, false-negative,
and zero response gas readings. In other words, with the example, one could
conclude both chlorine and ozone gases did not reach their alarm signal trig-
gers while excessive amounts of chlorine dioxide migrated into breathing
zones of workers. Consult with your gas alarm manufacturers and suppliers
so that they test reasonable interaction scenarios with gases of your concern.
Request their calibration data curves for various gas mixture scenarios.

Density (lb/ft3) at 70°F

Gas and 760 mm Hg Volume %/100 Weight (lb/ft3)
Oxygen 0.08279 0.209476 0.017384
Nitrogen 0.072 0.78084 0.05622
Argon 0.103 0.00934 0.00096
Total weight = 0.074564

Another possible example could be a reaction of the oxidizing gas chlo-

rine dioxide with the reducing gas hydrogen sulfide:

Cl2 + H2S → 2HCl + So

and Hgo + Cl2 → HgCl2 + Hg2Cl2. And phosgene gas with water vapor
(high relative humidity):

COCl2 + H2O → 2HCl + CO2

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725 Problems with Solutions 305

The danger of the last example is if the phosgene gas alarm was calibrated
under high humidity conditions, low humidity conditions might under-
alarm for high levels of phosgene gas. Alarms must be set for phosgene gas,
not for less acutely toxic hydrogen chloride gas. Better, have alarms for both
with different audible tones.

598. On suspicion, a local public health agency analyzed water supplied to local
homes and businesses for methylene chloride, a once-common, highly
volatile chlorinated organic solvent (bp = 40°C = 104°F). Results were 120
parts CH2Cl2 per billion by weight/volume. 40 gallons of this water were
heated to 200°F and maintained at this temperature for 2 hours in an empty,
unventilated enclosed room with the inside dimensions of 20' × 14' × 7.5'
(equivalent to nearly a 1- 12 car garage with flat roof). What was the average
methylene chloride vapor concentration after mixing with the air? Assume
NTP. Disregard back pressure from water’s vapor pressure at this tempera-
ture and the small back pressure from methylene chloride vapor.
Assume, reasonably because of its low boiling point and high vapor pres-
sure, all methylene chloride evaporated.

40 gallons = 151.416 L

120 ppbw = 0.120 ppmw

0.120 ppmw/L = 0.120 mg/L

0.120 mg/L × 151.416 L = 18.17 mg CH2Cl2 evaporated into the air.

20' × 14' × 7.5' = 2100 ft3 = 59.47 m3. (Disregard volume of water, water
container, and the heating apparatus, etc.)

Molecular weight of methylene chloride = 84.94 grams/mole

(18.17 mg/59.47 m 3 ) × 24.25 L/gram-mole

ppm v =
84.94 grams/mole
= 0.0879 ppm v = 87.9 ppbv

Although concentration of methylene chloride vapor in air is very low,

the relative humidity would have been very high.

599. Consider the previous problem (598) and assume an initial humidity of 0%
before heating the water container began and a final volume of 39.6 gallons
after the 2 hours of heating elapsed. Again, assuming no ventilation or con-
densation, what is the new relative humidity? Assume atmospheric pressure
of 760 mm Hg.

40 gallons − 39.6 gallons = 0.4 gallons of water evaporated

0.4 gallon = 1.514 L = 1514 mL

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306 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

1514 mL × 1.00 g/mL = 1514 g

1514 g = 23,364.6 grains

2100 ft3 × 0.075 lb/ft3 = 157.5 pounds of dry air in building before heat-
ing began. (0.075 lb/ft3 is the mass of dry air per cubic foot of air at NTP.)

23,364.6 grains/157.5 lbs = 148.3 grains water/lb of dry air

From a high-quality psychrometric chart (available from the InterNet or

from the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning
Engineers), this amount of water vapor at a dry bulb temperature of 75°F
exceeds 100% relative humidity, so there will be condensation of liquid
water upon cooler surfaces and/or precipitation from the air.
At a dry bulb temperature of 85°F, the relative humidity is 80%, and at a
dry bulb temperature of 100°F in this room, this amount of water vapor pro-
duces a relative humidity of 52%. All of this demonstrates that at a constant
atmospheric pressure, warm air holds more moisture than cooler air—not
surprising once one crunches the numbers and understands the mass and
energy transfer concepts.

600. A worker spills 0.25 L chloroform on his clothing. He undresses immedi-

ately and promptly and tightly wraps all wet clothing in double-layer alu-
minum foil. Taking the solvent-saturated clothing home, he decides not to
launder his soiled clothing. Instead, he places clothing in his clothes dryer
to tumble until dryness occurring in exactly 9 minutes because of chloro-
form’s high vapor pressure and volatility. His clothing is just tumbled dry
without heating. His clothes dryer has a 165 cfm exhaust fan. What is aver-
age concentration of chloroform vapor in the exhaust?

9 minutes × 165 cfm = 1485 ft3 = 42.05 m3

Molecular weight CHCl3 = 119.38 grams/mole

Density CHCl3 = 1.48 g/mL

0.25 L = 250 mL

250 mL × 1.48 g/mL = 370 g = 370,000 mg

(370, 000 mg/42.05 m 3 ) × 24.45 L/gram-mole

ppm v = = 1802 ppm v
119.38 grams/mole

601. For the previous problem (600), sketch a diagram of the most likely appear-
ance of the chloroform vapor concentration in the exhaust duct as a time
function from the start of the dryer until clothing dryness.

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725 Problems with Solutions 307

concentration
CHCI3 vapor

9 minutes

Time

602. An air flow of 3750 cfm is heated from 23°F to 70°F. How much sensible heat
is added to the air? Said another way, how much heat must be added to the air?

Sensible heat, hs = 1.08 × 3750 cfm × (70°F − 23°F) = 190,350 Btu/hour

This information, among other factors (e.g., heating efficiency, heat

transfer), can be used to select the best furnace.
As air, or any object, is heated, its temperature, of course, increases in pro-
portion to the heat added. This increase in heat, hs, is known as sensible heat.
Similarly, as heat is removed from air, its temperature decreases, and the heat
removed is also called sensible heat. Simply stated, heat that changes the tem-
perature of an object is sensible heat. Air has mass; therefore, air is an object.
The factor 1.08 is the specific heat of air × density of inlet air at
70°F × 60 minutes per hour.

603. A home owner agrees with his HVAC contractor to design the heating
system for 70°F and 50% relative humidity in a northern climate city.
Assume that make-up air is solely by infiltration and the house net volume
is 120,600 ft3. Assume 0.6 air change per hour for this home. How much
water vapor must be added hourly to maintain this humidity?
The formula for pounds of water per hour is

building net volume × air changes/hour × grains of moisture required

specific volume of water × 7000 grains water/pound

From a psychrometric chart, 56 grains of moisture (water) is needed per

pound of air at 70°F and 50% relative humidity minus the amount of mois-
ture already in the air, or: 56 grains − 9 grains = 47 grains of water.

120, 600 ft 3 × 0.6/hour × 47 grains

= 36 pounds of water per hour
13.5 ft 3 × 7000 grains/lb

36 pounds of water per hour/8.33 lbs/gallon = 4.3 gallons/hour

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308 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

The humidification system must be capable of evaporating 4.3 gallons of

water hourly. However, if air temperatures exceed 0°F, less humidification,
obviously, is required.

604. Unlike the previous problem (603) where ventilation is by infiltration

(cracks in the doors and windows, people coming and going, and com-
bustion make-up air for appliances), commercial buildings typically have
mechanical air supply systems. Calculate humidification requirements for a
small industrial facility that has 7800 cfm outside air introduced under the
above conditions with a building air exchange rate of 0.8/hour. How much
humidification is required?

7800 cfm × 60 minutes/hour = 468,000 cfh

468, 000 cfh × 0.8/hour × 47

= 186.2 pounds of H 2 O/hour
13.5 ft 3/lb × 7000 grains/lb

186.2 lbs/hour/8.33 lbs/gallon = 22.35 gallons must be evaporated per

hour into the building’s air-handling system (assuming 0% relative humid-
ity for the make-up air).

605. For the preceding problem (604), what is the air exchange schedule on a
cfm/ft2 of floor area basis if the building’s length is 42 feet and the width is
32 feet?
7800 cfm/42' × 32' = 5.8 cubic feet of air per minute per square foot of floor
area. For most industrial buildings this is high and suggests that a reduction
might be achievable while still maintaining employee comfort if processes
are not present requiring mechanical local exhaust ventilation. Michigan, for
example, requires a minimum of 1 cfm per square foot of floor area supplied
mechanically and/or by natural air flow (wind, thermal gradient effects).

606. A polymer chemist developed a new plastic film and wants to test its perme-
ability for benzene. He fills a sphere of this film with benzene. The sphere’s
diameter is 11.5 inches. The sphere is in a stainless-steel box with interior
dimensions of 16" × 16" × 16". He immediately seals the box lid. He obtains
a direct reading of 1250 ppmv of benzene vapor through a gas-sampling
port after 8 hours. Assuming air in the box was free of benzene at the start
of the experiment, what was the perfusion rate of liquid benzene into vapor
phase through membrane in mcg/cm2/minute? Assume NTP conditions.

S, surface area of sphere = 4πr 2 = πd 2 = 12.57 r 2

S = π (11.5 in)2 = 415.48 in2 = 2680.5 cm2
V, volume of sphere = (4/3) π r 3 = (1/6) π d3 = 4.189 r 3
V = (1/6) π d3 = (1/6) π (11.5 inches)3 = 796.3 in3
Volume of box = (16")3 = 4096 in3
Net volume of box with sphere = 4096 in3 − 796.3 in3 = 3299.7 in3

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725 Problems with Solutions 309

mg ppm v × molecular weight 1250 ppm v × 78.11 g/mole

= =
m3 24.45 L/gram-mole 24.45
= 3993.4 mg/m 3

3299.7 in3 = 0.05407 m3

3993.4 mg/m3 × 0.05407 m3 = 215.92 mg of benzene was in the space

between the sphere and the box

8 hours × 60 minutes/hour = 480 minutes

215.92 mg = 215,920 micrograms

215,920 mcg/480 minutes = 449.8 mcg/minute

449.8 mcg/minute/2680.5 cm2 = 0.1678 mcg/minute/cm2

Permeation would continue over a greater time; however, he was inves-

tigating this polymer as a possible fabric for making personal protective
clothing for benzene-exposed workers, and it is unlikely that one would
wear a suit from this material longer than a normal 8-hour work shift. Forces
and stretching on sphere’s surface might affect permeation rate. Repeating
the experiment with a box made of this polymeric film inside the larger box
should be considered. Another test procedure follows in the next problem.

607. The chemist in the previous problem (606) attaches a box with a window
2 cm × 6 cm to a ventilation tube. This time he tests permeation of toluene
by filling the box with toluene. The polymeric membrane covers the win-
dow. Toluene-free air flows through the tube and over the box containing
liquid toluene at 0.5 Lpm for 8 hours at NTP. The exit end of the ventilation
tube is attached to a large activated charcoal tube that was analyzed for
toluene at the end of the experiment. 0.468 mg of toluene was detected and
0.0 mg found in a backup charcoal tube. The 6 cm dimension of the window
aligned with air flow axis. Calculate toluene vapor that permeated through
the film in mcg/cm2/minute.

0.468 mg Ø-CH3 = 468 mcg toluene

8 hours = 480 minutes
468 mcg toluene/480 minutes = 0.975 mcg/minute
2 cm × 6 cm = 12 cm2
0.975 mcg/minute/12 cm2 = 0.0815 mcg/cm2/minute

The permeation rate for toluene is roughly one-half that for benzene.
The higher molecular weight of toluene might account, in part, for this.
Also, this is a dynamic vapor generation system whereas the benzene

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310 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

permeation was done in a static system that might account for some vari-
ability. Undoubtedly, there are many other physicochemical factors (e.g.,
gravitational effects of the mass of the toluene on membrane, evaporative
cooling as the liquid toluene passes into the vapor phase, uniformity of
polymer film thickness, humidity). Another set of such experiments with
xylene isomers and ethyl benzene appears warranted.

608. An empty abrasive blasting room 12' × 12' × 8' has 3.77 mg respirable
silica dust suspended per cubic meter. The room must be exhausted until
dust level is less than 10% of the TLV. The make-up air and the exhaust
systems are configured so that K = 1. The exhaust system is 1350 cfm. The
air supply system is 1270 cfm. That is, this abrasive blasting room is under
negative pressure with respect to the adjacent work areas. Any leakage in
gaskets and seals is inward. How long must this exhaust system operate?
The TLV for respirable silica dust is 0.025 mg/m3 = 25 mcg/m3.

10% TLV = 2.5 mcg/m3

Room volume = 12' × 12' × 8' = 1152 ft3

3.77 mg/m3 = 3770 mcg/m3

Apply the “10% Rule.” That is, for every 2.3 volumes of well-mixed clean
air that passes through the contaminated dusty air, the dust concentration
dilutes by 10% (precisely 10.0259%). This assumes perfect mixing of clean
air with dusty air.
1152 ft3 × 2.3 (= 2650 ft3 of total dilution air) reduces the respirable silica
dust concentration to 377 mcg α-SiO2/m3.

Another 2650 ft3 reduces the dust concentration to 37.7 mcg/m3.

Another 2650 ft3 reduces the dust concentration to 3.77 mcg/m3.

Another 2650 ft3 reduces silica dust concentration to 0.377 mcg/m3. This
is below design objective. However, since respirable silica is a likely human
carcinogen—besides being an aggressive agent of progressive pulmonary
silicosis, it would be prudent to operate ventilation system until the room
air is equivalent in particulate silica quartz concentration to the ambient air.

(2650 ft3) × 4 = 10,600 ft3

10,600 ft3/1350 cfm = 7.85 minutes = 7 minutes, 51 seconds

Abrasive blasting rooms should be no larger than needed for the larg-
est part to be abraded so that the ventilation purge times are kept brief.
An electrical interlock on the door such that workers cannot enter until
the exhaust and supply fans stop operating at specified time is suggested.
Otherwise, workers might be tempted to enter the blasting room without an
air-supplied abrasive blasting helmet.

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725 Problems with Solutions 311

609. Confirm results in the previous problem (608) with a first-order decay equation.
3 ]7.85minutes
C = Co × e −[Q /V ]t = 3770 mcg/m 3 × e −[1350 cfm/1152ft = 0.338 mcg/m 3

If, for example, K was estimated to be 3, the ventilation operating time

becomes 7.85 minutes × 3 = 23.55 minutes.

610. What is the partial pressure of oxygen in dry air at sea level and at 16.5% O2
by volume?

Sea level barometric pressure = 760 mm Hg

Normal air contains 20.9476% by volume at any altitude or partial pressure.

760 mm Hg × 0.209476 = 159.20176 mm Hg for oxygen at sea level

760 mm Hg × 0.165 = 125.4 mm Hg

This partial pressure of oxygen should not have notable effect on a healthy
person at rest—that is, no cardiac ischemia, hyperthyroidism, and so on,
although OSHA regards any atmosphere below 19.5% by volume as oxygen
deficient to account for a wide range of health status in workers. However,
when oxygen level partial pressure falls to 90–120 mm Hg, there is increased
respiration and a slight diminution of coordination in healthy people at
rest. Loss of ability to think clearly occurs at an oxygen partial pressure of
76–90 mm Hg, and loss of consciousness and death result at 45–76 mm Hg.
Of course, if one is simultaneously exposed to a chemical asphyxiant gas
(e.g., CO, H2S, HCN), adverse health effects will be more rapidly profound.

611. A closed tank contains 58.3 vol. % propane. The balance is normal air.
What is the partial pressure of oxygen in this tank located in San Pedro
Terminal near Long Beach, California?

100%v − 58.3%v = 41.7%v air

760 mm Hg × 0.417 = 316.92 mm Hg for air

316.92 mm Hg × 0.209476 = 66.387 mm Hg for oxygen

To reduce the oxygen concentration to a fatal level, a gas or vapor level of

about 50% by volume must be attained. This is only possible with a gas or a
highly volatile liquid. In such concentrations, direct effects of most gases are
in themselves fatal. In this problem, propane (C3H8) acts promptly as a narcotic
gas causing rapid collapse followed by fatal anoxia subsequent to hypoxia.

612. Problems 610 and 611 are based on dry air. What if the partial pressure of
water vapor in air for Problem 610 is 12.1 mm Hg?

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312 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Since the total pressure does not change, the composition of the atmo-
sphere at sea level becomes:

Oxygen: 0.209476 × (760 mm Hg − 12.1 mm Hg) = 156.667 mm Hg

Nitrogen, argon, other gases: 0.790524 mm Hg × (760 mm Hg − 12.1 mm

Hg) = 591.233 mm Hg

Total pressure = 12.1 mm Hg + 156.667 mm Hg + 591.233 mm Hg

= 760 mm Hg

613. What is oxygen partial pressure at sea level and 100% relative humidity at
45°C (113°F)?
Vapor pressure of water at these conditions is 71.88 mm Hg. Vapor pres-
sures of water and volatile organic chemicals are available from handbooks
of chemistry and physics.

0.209476 × (760 mm Hg − 71.88 mm Hg) = 144.145 mm Hg versus

159.202 mm Hg for dry air, or (144.145/159.202) × 100 = 90.54%.

This is almost a 10% decrease in oxygen because of the high water vapor
content. Dry bulb temperature, high humidity, and diminished oxygen con-
centration would be taxing to healthiest workers particularly under high
work load conditions. Add CO gas, and the physiological and toxicogical
challenge increases.

614. A process attendant works in the ASA department (acetylsalicylic acid,

Aspirin®) of a large pharmaceutical company. The air is heavy with ASA
dust with an average concentration at the TLV of 5 mg/m3. He inhales 10 m3
of air every work shift and does not wear a respirator. His cardiologist pre-
scribed one baby Aspirin tablet daily to help prevent heart attack and stroke
from blood clots. Is he toxicologically overexposed to ASA?
No. We can reasonably assume that all ASA dust he inhales is either
absorbed by respiratory tract and/or his gastrointestinal tract. This dose
would be 5 mg/m3 × 10 m3 = 50 mg of acetylsalicylic acid. The TLV for
ASA was selected to help prevent eye and respiratory tract irritation. One
regular ASA tablet is 325 mg, and a baby ASA tablet is 81 mg. However,
dusty workplace air requires attention to prevent release of ASA dust to the
air by better process enclosures and isolation and good mechanical local
exhaust ventilation. A wet scrubber or dry filters would work. His cardiolo-
gist, armed with this knowledge, might consider reducing his oral dose or
instructing him to swallow the tablet late in his work shift so that he has
benefit of a pharmacologically sustained dose during evening hours as well
as at work. But, of course, because cardiologist errs, we must substantially
reduce this worker’s dust exposures. A hematologist should be consulted if
the worker experience abnormal bleeding because ASA is a blood thinner.

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725 Problems with Solutions 313

615. Industrial hygiene reports are often significantly improved by inclusions of

graphs, pie charts, histograms, diagrams, photographs, and other graphic
representations. Graphs with x−y coordinates can be particularly illustra-
tive. For example, graphs depicting the increased dilution ventilation with
decreased air contaminant levels; decreased group blood lead levels with
air concentrations of lead dust and fume; and decrease or increase of toxi-
cant in body fluid over time are typical examples. Graphs for x and y coor-
dinates for curve fitting are of four general types:
a. Polynomial function (rarely used in industrial hygiene, toxicology,
ventilation)
b. Straight line: y = mx + b
c. Exponential curve: y = abx, or log y = log a + x (log b) commonly
d. Power function: y = axb, or log y = log a + b (log x) used

Before computers, plotting of paired data (often using squares) was

tedious. Now with programs such as MicroSoft Excel® and others, curve
fitting is a breeze. We only need to type paired data; punch a few key-
strokes; and computer selects best fit, supplies equation, regression factor,
coefficients of correlation, and a plot of data so it can be cut and pasted into
one’s report. Exponential curves and power function curves can be likened
to cooling rate of a cup of coffee and growth rate of a tree where the tem-
perature and growth, respectively, can be plotted as a time function. See
Problem 544 and the following Problem 616.

616. A worker collapsed after inhaling an organic chemical vapor. After admission
to the hospital, venous blood samples were taken for this chemical with the
following values (time of blood specimen withdrawal was converted to mili-
tary time): 1:30 p.m. (1350) = 35.3 mcg/dL; 3:00 p.m. (1500) = 25.2 mcg/dL;
4:30  p.m. (1630) = 10.1 mcg/dL; 6:30 p.m. (1830) = 2.5 mcg/dL; and 7:00
p.m. (2100) = 1.5 mcg/dL. Plot these data (concentration versus time) using
the best fit graph.
50

40

30
mcg/dL

20

10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-10
Time y = –0.0634x + 118.99
r2 = 0.9486

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314 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Note display chart provides linear fit and an asymptotic fit. The asymptotic
display is most accurate because the concentration of the toxicant in blood
cannot be less than zero. The linear regression of r2 = 0.9486 demonstrates
the good correlation between blood level as a function of time. More impor-
tant than this graph is the regression equation given in the chart. These data
demonstrate the toxicant is being removed from his body through metabolic
and/or excretory pathways. The close, but nonlinear, asymptotic regression
suggests partial zero- and first-order decay metabolic transformation kinet-
ics coupled with excretory kinetics of removal. For example, ethanol follows
zero-order excretion kinetics (essentially, this is first-order excretion kinet-
ics). That is, EtOH can be measured in exhaled breath (excretion kinetics)
while EtOH is metabolized by the liver to CO2 and H2O. Combinations of
excretory pathways are not uncommon (exhaled breath, hair and nails, urine,
bile, breast milk, menstrual blood, dead epidermal cells and flakes, feces).

617. Using the equation for line of best fit in the previous problem (616), what
was the man’s most likely blood toxicant concentration at 5:12 p.m.?

5:12 p.m. = 1712 military time = x

Y = −(0.0634) x + 118.99 (the classic linear equation: y = mx + b)

y = −0.0634 (1712) + 118.99 = −108.5408 + 118.99 = 10.45 mcg/dL

Such calculations are valuable in forensic investigations because one can

easily calculate the concentration of toxicant at the time of an adverse event
(e.g., a fall from elevated work space, murder, missed judgment, assault,
automobile crash, time of last exposure, etc.).

618. A 12.5 liter partially evacuated gas-sampling bottle is used to sample work-
place air for a gas contaminant that is absorbed and chemically reacted
with a reagent with a distinctive color. The color intensity is measured with
a spectrophotometer and compared to laboratory-prepared standards. The
atmospheric pressure at time of sampling was 712 mm Hg. The residual
partial pressure in the gas bottle was 690 mm Hg. In this example, 25 mL
of reagent was used. How can the volume of this sample be calculated?

P2 − P1
Vs = (V − A) ×
P2

where Vs = sample volume, V = volume of bottle, A = volume of absorbent

added to the gas-sampling bottle, P1 = residual partial pressure in the bot-
tle, and P2 = the atmospheric pressure at the location and time of gas or
vapor sampling.

712 mm Hg − 690 mL
Vs = (12.5 L − 0.025 L) × = 0.385 L
712 mmHg

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725 Problems with Solutions 315

Evacuated gas-sampling bottles are rarely used now for industrial hygiene
survey purposes because they are cumbersome and often limited to brief grab
samples. They find wide applications in gas and vapor stack sampling when
concentrations may be substantially higher than in employee work zones.

619. In the previous problem (618), 12.4 mcg of phenol were detected. What was
the phenol vapor concentration in ppmv? Assume NTP.

12.4 mcg phenol/0.385 L = 32.21 mg phenol/m3

Molecular weight of phenol = 94.11 grams/gram-mole

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 32.21 × 24.45

ppm v = = = 8.37ppm v
molecular weight 94.11

The TLV for phenol vapor is 5 ppmv as 8-hour time-weighted average.

This air sample, however, is a “grab” sample that might not be representa-
tive of this worker’s exposures over a work shift even if it was collected in
his breathing zone. Phenol is absorbed readily through intact skin—some-
times fatally. The industrial hygienist must be especially mindful of this—
particularly for this chemical which has been fatal subsequent to brief and
limited skin surface area dermal contact.

620. At one time, there was a convenient “rule of thumb” to evaluate the ventila-
tion supplied to rooms where there was open stick electrode welding (not
fine wire MIG or TIG welding, or torch cutting). This equation for general
dilution ventilation is

100, 000 × (electrode diameter , in )2

Dilution air, cfm =
minutes per electrode

The “minutes per electrode” in this equation refers also to the idle time
both during welding and changing new electrodes for consumed electrode
stubs—but only if welding was done continuously by several simultaneous
welders. In such cases, this would help to ensure total welding fume did not
exceed 10−15 mg/m3. The author presents this equation only for historical
purposes and disagrees with this approach to control welders’ exposures to
metallic fumes for several reasons:
a. Some modern electrodes contain more toxic components than years ago.
b. The equation does not account for welding-generated gases.
c. General dilution ventilation for large volume stick welding is energy
wasteful. Mechanical local exhaust ventilation located at the point of
generation of fume and gases is the control method of choice. Otherwise,
where feasible, weld inside mechanically exhausted booth enclosures.
d. This approach does not meet current, hygienic welding fume control
practices.

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316 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

e. Modern industrial hygiene engineering strives to control welders’ expo-

sures to far below 10−15 mg/m3 total fume in their breathing zones.
Absent highly toxic components in welding fume, prudent industrial
hygienists attempt to control total welding fume exposures to less than
1 mg/m3.

621. Galena (lead sulfide, PbS) is the major ore from which lead is obtained. To
lower the amount of sulfur from galena, the ore is sintered with air (oxygen)
to convert it to litharge (lead oxide, PbO). For each ton of galena charged in
sintering furnace, how much sulfur dioxide is produced? Assume stoichio-
metric oxidation at NTP.

2 PbS + 3O2 → 2 PbO + 2 SO2

Molecular weight PbS = 239.26 grams/gram-mole

Molecular weight SO2 = 64.06 grams/gram-mole

Molecular weight PbO = 223.20 grams/gram-mole

Molecular weight O2 = 31.9988 grams/gram-mole

1 ton = 907.185 kg = 907,185 grams

907,185 grams/239.26 grams PbS/gram-mole = 3791.628 moles PbS

Feed: 2 × 239.26 grams = 478.52 grams

3 × 31.9988 grams = 95.9964 grams

478.52 grams + 95.9964 grams = 574.52 grams This verifies

mass balance
Product: 2 × 223.20 grams = 446.40 grams (massin = massout).

2 × 64.06 grams = 128.12 grams

446.40 grams + 128.12 grams = 574.52 grams

If there are 3791.628 moles of PbS per ton of galena feed, 3791.628 moles
of SO2 can be produced—the stoichiometric gas yield.

3791.628 moles SO2 × 64.06 grams/mole = 242,891.69 grams of SO2 produced

242,891.69 grams SO2 = 0.2677 ton SO2

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725 Problems with Solutions 317

622. How much air (oxygen) is required to oxidize the litharge in the previous
problem (621)?
We learned from Problem 596 that standard, dry air contains 20.9476%
O2 by volume and 23.31% O2 by weight.

For PbS: 2 moles = 478.52 grams That is, each mole

of PbS requires 1- 12
For O2: 3 moles = 95.9964 grams
moles of O2
So, each gram of PbS requires 478.52/95.9964 = 4.9848 grams of oxygen.

1 ton of galena = 907,185 grams

907,185 grams × 4.9848 grams of O2/gram of galena = 4,522,135.8 grams

O2 required

0.075 lb air/ft3 × 0.2331 O2 = 0.01748 lb O2/ft3

0.01748 lb O2/ft3 = 7.9288 grams O2/ft3

4,522,135.8 grams × 1 ft3/7.9288 grams = 570,343 ft3 of oxygen required

Air requirements are 570,343 ft3 O2 × 100/23.31 = 2,446,773.9 ft3 of air/
ton. The size of the air blower fan(s) depends on the oxidation rate, galena
feed rate, lead oxide extraction rate, amounts of bottom ash and fly ash gen-
erated, the galena’s moisture content of ore and air, if air is preheated, and
among other factors. To help ensure complete oxidation, this typically will
require surplus oxygen (air), say, by 10–20%.

623. From the previous problem (622), apply 15% excess air. Assume a process feed
rate of 2.3 tons of galena per hour. How many cfm will this furnace require?
2,446,773.9 ft3 × 0.15 = 367,016.1 ft3 excess air

2,446,773.9 ft3 + 367,016.1 ft3 = 2,813,790 ft3/ton/hour

2,813,790 ft3/ton/hour × 2.3 tons/hour = 6,471,717 cfh

6,671,717 cfh/60 minutes/hour = 107,862 cfm

Waste heat from the process can be used to preheat the air ensuring oxi-
dation efficiency.

624. Some organizations (e.g., American Petroleum Institute) and a few jurisdic-
tions (e.g., Delaware, New Jersey) endorse the Substance Hazards Index
(SHI) for volatile and toxic liquids. This can be used to very roughly com-
pare the relative hazards from spills of liquids based on their inhalation
toxicity and volatility. The formula is

VP × 106
SHI =
BP × ERPG − 3'

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318 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

where
VP = vapor pressure of the liquid at 20°C (and some solids, e.g., phenol),
mm Hg,
BP = barometric (atmospheric) pressure, mm Hg, and
ERPG is the Emergency Response Planning Guide established by a com-
mittee of the American Industrial Hygiene Association. The ERPG
values are intended to provide estimates of airborne concentration
ranges where one reasonably might anticipate observing adverse
health effects as a consequence of exposure to the specific substance.

ERPG-3 = maximum airborne concentration (in ppmv) below which it is

believed that nearly all people could be exposed for up to 1 h without expe-
riencing or developing life-threatening health effects. ERPGs have been
developed for about 50 chemicals.
Compare SHIs for methanol (ERPG-3 = 5000 ppmv) and benzyl chloride
(ERPG-3 = 25 ppmv) in Sarasota, Florida.
Vapor pressures of benzyl chloride and methanol at 20°C are, respec-
tively, 0.758 and 97.658 mm Hg.

0.758 mm Hg × 106
For benzyl chloride: SHI = = 39.89 (unitless)
760 mm Hg × 25 ppm v

97.658 mm Hg × 106
For methanol: SHI = = 25.70 (unitless)
760 mm Hg × 5000 ppm v

In comparing, we see the much less volatile and more toxic benzyl chlo-
ride vapor has a greater SHI than the more volatile but less toxic methyl
alcohol vapor.

625. 1.2 microliters (μL) of liquid mercury were injected into an empty Lucite®
box with interior dimensions of 12" × 14" × 14". After evaporation, assume
mercury vapor did not deposit on surfaces of the poly-(methylmethacrylate).
Assume NTP. What is the mercury vapor concentration?

12" × 14" × 14" = 2352 in3 = 0.03854 m3

Mercury density = 13.534 g/mL

1.2 μL = 0.0012 mL

0.0012 mL × 13.534 g/mL = 0.0162 mg

0.0162 mg/0.03854 m3 = 0.420 mg/m3, or 16.8 times the TLV for elemental
Hg and its inorganic forms (as mercury). This high concentration may be used
for calibration of direct-reading mercury vapor detectors. Larger boxes, with
smaller injection volumes, and/or serial vapor-phase dilution techniques with
clean air can all be used to obtain lower mercury vapor concentrations.

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725 Problems with Solutions 319

626. How much anhydrous analytical regent grade mercuric sulfate must be
dissolved in 10% reagent grade sulfuric acid and diluted to 100 mL with
mercury-free water to obtain a stock solution of 100.00 mg/100 mL = 100 mg/
0.1 L = 1000 ppmm/v?

Molecular weight HgSO4 = 296.65 grams/gram-mole

Molecular weight Hg = 200.59 grams/gram-mole

(200.59/296.65) × 100 = 67.6184% Hg

100/67.6184 = 1.478887

147.8887 mg HgSO4 × 0.676184 = 100.0 mg Hg

Weigh 147.8887 mg of mercuric sulfate. Carefully transfer to a 100 mL

volumetric flask containing about 30 mL 10% sulfuric acid. Thoroughly
rinse the weighing pan with 10% sulfuric acid collecting rinsings through
a glass funnel into the volumetric flask. Dilute volumetric flask to the “to
contain” mark with 10% sulfuric acid. Insert stop tightly. Label and store in
a dark cabinet. This stock solution contains 1.000 mg Hg/mL (1.000 ppmw).
Ensure dry HgSO4 before weighing. This problem is a refresher because
industrial hygienists can also be industrial hygiene analytical chemists and
prepare standard stock solutions for instrument calibration.

627. An industrial hygienist wants to demonstrate how minutely small the TWA
TLV® for beryllium is to worker’s health and safety training class she is
teaching (0.00005 mg/m3). To help make this concept most meaningful,
she chooses a building with the footprint of a football field excluding the
end zones (165' × 300') with a ceiling 18' high—a standard interior height
for most single-story industrial buildings. She claims the building is tightly
sealed, is empty, and has no ventilation. She poses a calculation based on
Problem 488 wherein we calculated mass of a single grain of table salt
at 0.0585 mg. Assuming these are grains of beryllium dust, how many—
crushed to an ultrafine powder—would have to be dispersed in air of this
building to equal the TLV concentration for Be?

165' × 300' × 18' = 891,000 ft3 = 22,230.31 m3

22,230.31 m3 × 0.00005 mg/m3 = 1.1115 mg Be dispersed in this

huge building

One grain of table salt (NaCl) weighs 0.0585 mg.

1.1115 mg/0.0585 mg/grain = exactly—and only—19 grains of table salt (Be).

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320 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Respective densities of beryllium and sodium chloride are 1.85 and 2.165
g/cc3; therefore, the size of the beryllium granules are only 2.165/1.85 = 1.17
times larger than the table salt crystals.

628. A cook at an automobile assembly plant files a grievance with his union
claiming the kitchen atmosphere is heavy with “fat and calorie vapors.”
He believes this is the sole cause of his 14.6 pounds weight gain in 14-½
weeks. He asserts that his diet has not changed over this interval, and his
exercise patterns are the same as before employment. Before launching an
expensive kitchen ventilation study and an air-sampling regimen, see what
can be done mathematically to verify or reject his claim. In fairness to him,
do not pre-judge and assume claim is preposterous.
Assuming his scale is accurate, and he correctly reads the dial, one can
aver that weight gain must be weightin. The body does not “make” mass.
Weightin can only be food, beverages, nonnutritional ingested material, and,
as claimed, retained air contaminants. The cook denies pica.
Make very liberal assumptions: 9-hour workdays, 6 days/week, inhales
30 m3 of air per work day (8–12 m3 is typical for most people), breathing
zone air contains 1000 mg of pure fat mist and vapor per cubic meter,
100% absorbtion of fat by his respiratory tract into his body; no catabolism
of lipids, and 100% storage in his fat and adipose tissue depots over 14-½
weeks.

6 days/week × 14.5 weeks = 87 work days

9/8 = 1.125 = the adjustment for work days exceeding 8 hours/day
87 work days × 1.125 = 97.875 equivalent 8-hour work days
30 m3/work day × 97.875 work days = 2936.25 m3

2,936.25 m 3 × 1000 mg/m 3 = 2,936,250 mg = 2936.25 g = 6.473 lb <

14.6 pounds—only 44.3% of his claimed weight gain. Under these very extreme
assumptions, his claim has no merit and is baseless. Bury the grievance.
Believing this cook, he should be examined by a physician and, perhaps,
receive nutrition, diet, and exercise counseling if underlying metabolic,
endocrine, renal (water retention), cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal disor-
ders are fully ruled out. Investigate electrolytes and salt intake. Regardless,
he must not sample soup or desserts on the job. The assistant cook, “Skinny,”
must do the taste testing.
What was his most likely weight gain if more realistic values are selected?

5 days/week × 14.5 weeks = 72.5 work days

10 m3/work day × 72.5 work days = 725 m3
10 mg/m3 (estimated) × 70% absorbed (est.) × 50% retained
(estimated) = 3.5 mg/m3

725 m3 × 3.5 mg/m3 = 2537.5 mg = 2.538 g = 0.0055 pound increase in weight

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725 Problems with Solutions 321

629. Antimony (Sb) is obtained by roasting, oxidizing its primary ore, stibnite
(Sb2S3), in furnaces with hot air:

Sb2 S3 + 4O2 → 2SbO + 3SO2

The antimony oxide is reduced with NaCl and scrap iron to obtain anti-
mony or by reducing it with carbon. Sb can also be obtained by reacting
stibnite with a strong acid or a strong base. A chemical engineer and air pol-
lution control engineer who work for the same mining company have excess
30% w/v sulfuric acid in storage tanks awaiting hazardous waste disposal.
They are considering using acidification to extract antimony sulfate from
stibnite. A key concern, however, is the process generates the more toxic
hydrogen sulfide instead of the less toxic sulfur dioxide. Regardless, the
H2S can be burned to SO2. How much H2S will be produced from each ton
of stibnite so treated with excess sulfuric acid?
Assume stoichiometric conversion. Reaction times, operating tempera-
tures, and feed rates can be determined later.

Sb2S3 + 3H2SO4 Sb2(SO4)3 + 3H2S

Molecular weight Sb2S3 = 339.68 grams/mole

Molecular weight H2S = 34.08 grams/mole

1 ton = 907,184.74 grams

907,184.74 g/339.68 g/gram-mole = 2670.7 moles stibnite/ton of 100% ore.

Therefore, since 3 moles of hydrogen sulfide gas are released for each
mole of stibnite:

2670.7 moles × 3 = 8012.1 moles of H2S

8012 mole × 34.08 grams/mole = 273,048.96 grams H2S

273,048.96 grams = 0.301 ton H2S produced for each ton of stibnite
treated with excess sulfuric acid. From this, the engineers can calculate the
air requirements to burn (oxidize) the H2S to SO2.

630. From the previous problem (629), calculate the amount of oxygen (from air)
that is needed to oxidize the hydrogen sulfide gas to sulfur dioxide gas.

H2S + 1.5O2 → SO2 + H2O

0.301 ton H2S = 273,048.96 grams

273,048.96 grams/34.08 grams/mole = 8012 moles of H2S

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322 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Therefore, 8012 × 1.5 = 12,018 moles of oxygen are required.

12,018 moles × 31.9988 grams/mole = 384,561.578 grams of oxygen
are required.
Knowing furnace H2S gas generation rate, one can calculate the rate
at which oxygen (air) must be fed to flare. An excess of air is required
to ensure complete oxidation of hydrogen sulfide to sulfur dioxide. Stack
sampling—at least initially—is needed to establish combustion operating
parameters: stibnite ore feed rate, sulfuric acid concentrations, mixing rates
and efficiency, solution temperatures, stack gas flow rates (temperature,
pressure, water vapor content, etc.).

631. The OSHA Inorganic Lead Standard (29 CFR 1910.1025) stipulates calcu-
lations for overtime exposures. The maximum dose is a PEL of 400 mcg/
m3-hours. That is, 50 mcg Pb/m3 for 8 hours, 40 mcg Pb/m3 for 10 hours, and
33 mcg Pb/m3 for 12 hours are all equivalent doses. Problems 60 and 101 use
Brief and Scala’s model to calculate maximum exposure limit for unusual
work schedules. Their model, however, is not incorporated into air contami-
nant standards by OSHA in spite of its elegance. If Brief and Scala’s model
is applied to the OSHA lead standard, the PEL for a 12-hour work day is
25 mcg/m3, not 33 mcg/m3. A few additional OSHA standards besides lead
require adjustments for overtime work. The OSHA Air Contaminants (29
CFR 1910.1000) does not specifically state adjustments must be made for over-
time work exposures. This has confused some. Explain how the language in
29 CFR 1910.1000 can be applied to address overtime exposures and unusual
work schedules.
29 CFR 1910.1000 gives an example of how to calculate 8-hour time-
weighted average exposures. Consider a chemical with a PEL of 100 ppmv.
A worker was exposed to a gas at 200 ppmv for 4 hours and 0 ppmv for
4 hours. His 8 hour time-weighted average exposure is, obviously, 100 ppmv.
On a 10-hour day, he was exposed to 150 ppmv for 5 hours and 50 ppmv for
5 hours. What was his 8-hour time-weighted average exposure?

150 ppmv × 5 hours = 750 ppmv-hours

50 ppmv × 5 hours = 250 ppmv-hours

(750 ppmv-hours + 250 ppmv-hours)/8 hours = 125 ppmv, or 25% overex-

posed. Always divide by 8 hours—not by the 10 hours in this case.
The OSHA compliance officer and others—using this approach—can
rightfully justify invoking calculations and OSHA regulations for overtime
work schedules.

632. Crude oil is considered “sour” when it contains more than one grain of
H2S in 100 ft3 of air bubbled through a specified amount of oil. If below
one grain H2S/100 ft3, crude is considered “sweet.” How many ppmv is one
grain of H2S/100 ft3 at NTP?

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725 Problems with Solutions 323

The equation to convert any amount of gas as mass/volume into ppmv

(at 0°C and 760 mm Hg atmospheric pressure) is

mg 22.4 L/gram-mole absolute temperature

ppm v = × ×
m3 molecular weight 273.15 kelvin
760 mmHg
×
barometric pressure, mmHg

1 grain = 64.799 mg

100 ft3 of gas = 2.8317 m3

64.799 mg/2.8317 m3 = 22.88 mg/m3

Molecular weight of H2S = 34.08 grams/gram-mole

At 75°F and 760 mm Hg, the above equation is

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 L/gram-mole 22.88 mg/m 3 × 24.45

ppm v = = = 16.4
molecular weight 34.08

Therefore, crude oil gas at more than 16.4 ppmv H2S at 75°F and
760 mm Hg is deemed “sour” crude oil. Also, when the total sulfur level in
oil exceeds 0.5%w/v, the oil is considered “crude.” The hydrogen sulfide in
crude oil can be reacted with organic amines with subsequent recovery of
the commercially valuable sulfur.

633. “Sour gas” is natural gas or other gas containing significant amounts of
hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Natural gas is typically considered “sour” if there
are more than 5.7 milligrams of H2S per cubic meter of natural gas. What is
this in ppmv?

(5.7 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 L/gram-mole

ppm v = = 4.089 ppm v H 2 S
34.08 grams/gram-mole

Practically, “sour gas,” by definition, contains over four parts hydrogen

sulfide gas by volume per million parts of gas. One can correct this calcula-
tion to natural gas instead of air.

634. A 14-inch diameter duct has an average duct velocity of 4500 fpm. What is
the velocity of the discharged air 30 duct diameters away?
A “rule of thumb” for discharge ducts and pressure jet openings is that
the velocity is 10% of the duct velocity 30 duct diameters away.

14" × 30 Øs = 420" = 35'

One could expect an air velocity of 450 fpm 35' from the duct discharge
if there are no cross drafts—that is, air is discharged into still air. It is

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324 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

often wrongly assumed the concentration of air contaminants in the duct

is diluted to ten percent 30 duct diameters away. The concentration is only
slightly less than duct concentration. It just moves more slowly as it dissi-
pates energy into the surrounding air.

635. An exhaust duct’s air velocity is 2760 fpm. What is the duct velocity pressure?

VPduct = (2760/4005)2 = 0.475" water gauge

636. A 4.5' diameter circular exhaust hood is 2 feet above a hot source 2 feet in
diameter. Ambient air temperature is 72°F, and the temperature of the source
is 190°F. What is the induced air flow due to the rising current of warm air?
This is considered a low circular canopy hood. As long as the distance
between the hot source and the plane of the hood is less than 3 feet, the diam-
eter of the warm air column is approximately the equivalent diameter of the
source. The diameter of the canopy hood must be at least one foot larger than
the diameter of the source. The following equation is used for such circular
canopy hoods:

Qt = 4.7(Df )2.33(Δt)0.42,

where
Qt = food air flow, cfm
Df = hood diameter, feet
Δt = the difference in temperature between the hot source and ambient
air, °F

Qt = 4.7 (4.5')2.33 (190°F − 72°F)0.42 = 1160 cfm

This air flow rate into the low circular canopy hood assumes no disrup-
tive cross drafts.
A similar equation can be used for low rectangular hoods with same
stipulations as for low circular canopy hoods:

Qt/L = 6.2 W1.33 Δt0.42,

where
L = length of the rectangular hood, feet
W = width of the rectangular hood, feet
Both types of hoods are effective to control humidity from water vapor
from steamy processes. Canopy hoods should not be used for high toxicity
air contaminants.

637. Side wall and ceiling air supply grilles should be located approximately
how many feet above the floor?
a. Eight feet
b. 10 feet
c. 12 feet

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725 Problems with Solutions 325

d. 18 feet
e. Four feet above a shortest standing person’s head
Answer: b. All should have a convenient manual louver adjustment method
(pull chains or pull rods so that supply air can be directed away from occu-
pants during the winter in cold weather climates).
638. In a local exhaust hood with slots, maximum plenum velocity should be no
more than:
a. 10% slot velocity
b. 25% slot velocity
c. 50% slot velocity
d. 80% slot velocity
e. 120% slot velocity
Answer: c. To ensure uniform air flow through all slots.
639. As a “rule of thumb” to ensure no reentry of stack exhaust air contaminants,
the stack height should be at least how high?
a. 20% greater than building height
b. 50% greater than building height
c. 80% greater than building height
d. Equal to building height
e. 250% building height
Answer: b. Architects and building owners often argue against high stacks
they consider unsightly. The “effective stack height” can be achieved by
increasing discharge velocity through a narrower cone stack head and/or
inducing additional ambient air flow into the stack with a roof-mounted fan
injecting ambient air into base of the stack. Be mindful, however, exces-
sively high discharge velocities can be noisy, resulting in community com-
plaints particularly at night.
640. Benzene is evaporated into room air at the rate of 0.1 pint during every 8-hour
work shift. What is recommended dilution air volumetric rate to control expo-
sures to benzene vapor at no more than 10% of the NIOSH REL of 0.1 ppmv?
Benzene is far too toxic to rely on dilution ventilation to protect the
health of exposed workers. Mechanical local exhaust ventilation at point of
benzene vapor release must be used if benzene cannot be eliminated and
substitution with a safer solvent and/or different work practices cannot be
achieved. As a genotoxic carcinogen, there is no “safe” level of exposure to
this chemical with its wild card behavior. All one can say is lower is safer.

641. Industrial hygienists respond to complaints of “stuffy” air. What explains

“stuffy”? D. Jeff Burton, editor, Hemeon’s Plant and Process Ventilation,
3rd Edition (Lewis Publishers, 1999) describes this nebulous term to assist
the practitioner:
“Stuffy” may, in practice, be interpreted to mean any of the following condi-
tions, or combinations of them:

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326 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

1. The air temperature may be above the level of comfort, with low air veloci-
ties (e.g., T > 76°F; V < 25 fpm).
2. Radiant heat, perhaps of low intensity, impinges on parts of the body,
especially the face, together with a low degree of air motion. (Author’s
comment: Increasing air volume and velocity will not blow radiant heat
away. This can, however, provide some degree of comfort when the relative
humidity is low.)
3. An uncomfortably elevated relative humidity may prevail (e.g., >60–70% RH).
4. A concentration of some airborne substance (e.g., body odor, tobacco
smoke, chemical gas, or vapor) causes unpleasant or irritating odors to per-
vade the atmosphere).

Some people, lectures, sermons, and conversations are “stuffy,” but these
do not reside in the province of industrial hygiene.

642. 0.7 pint of an organic solvent mixture entirely evaporates within 8 hours
into the air of a small work room with dimensions of 12' × 20' × 9'. The
solvent contains benzene at 750 ppmv. The work room is empty and has no
fresh air exchange ventilation. What is the benzene vapor concentration in
room air after 8 hours have elapsed?

750 ppmv = 0.075%v

0.075%v × 0.7 pint = 0.0525 pint = 24.842 mL

Benzene density = 0.8765 g/mL

24.842 mL × 0.8765 g/mL = 21.774 g = 21,774 mg

12' × 20' × 9' = 2160 ft3 = 61.164 m3

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45
ppm v =
molecular weight
(21,174mg/61.124 m 3 ) × 24.45 L/gram-mole
= = 108.4 ppm v
78.11 grams/gram-mole

643. Of concern besides the inhalation toxicity of benzene vapor in the pre-
ceding problem (642), are fire and explosion hazards by other remaining
organic solvent vapors. If the balance of the mixture is toluene, what fire
risk management issues exist?
Practically, for fire risk assessment, we may assume the entire 0.7 pint is
toluene.

Toluene LEL = 3.3% by volume in air (33,000 ppmv)

Upper explosive limit (UEL) = 19% by volume in air
Flash point = 45°F

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725 Problems with Solutions 327

Density = 0.86 g/mL at 68°F

Molecular weight of toluene = 92.14 grams/gram-mole

0.7 pint = 331.224 mL

331.224 mL × 0.86 g/mL = 284.853 g = 284,853 mg

(mg/m 3 ) × 24.45
ppm v =
molecular weight
(284, 853 mg/61.124 m 3 ) × 24.445 L/gram-mole
= = 1236.6 ppm v
92.14 grams/gram-mole

Fortunately, the maximum toluene (plus benzene) vapor concentration is

below the LEL of 33,000 ppmv. However, if evaporation resulted from a spill,
the vapor immediately above the liquid would exceed the UEL and then
LEL within a slight distance. A source of ignition at that point will result in
vapor flash fire with a most probable ignition of the remaining liquid.

644. One pint of warm toluene containing 0.085% benzene by volume evaporates
every 4 hours into workplace air. Although dilution ventilation is entirely
unacceptable to control air toxics such as benzene, what ventilation is required
to limit workers’ exposures to 10% of the NIOSH REL for benzene? Assume
an incomplete air mixing factor of 5 [scale of 1 (perfect) to 10 (abysmal)].

10% REL = 0.1 ppmv × 0.1 = 0.01 ppmv

ppm v × molecular weight

mg/m 3 =
24.45 L/gram-mole
0.01 ppm v × 78.11 g/gram-mole
= = 0.03195 mg/m 3
24.45 L/gram-mole

1 pint = 473.176 mL

473.176 mL × 0.085 = 40.22 mL of benzene

Benzene density = 0.8765 g/mL

40.22 mL × 0.8765 g/mL = 35.2528 g = 35,252.83 mg benzene evaporate

during the 4 hours (240 minutes)

35,252.83 mg/240 minutes = 146.89 mg/minute

 146.89 mg/minute 
Vrequired = 5  3 
× 35.315 ft 3/m 3 = 811, 803 cfm !
 0.03195 mg/m 

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328 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

The purpose of this problem is to demonstrate the absurdity of attempt-

ing to use general dilution air to control highly toxic air contaminants. The
energy costs are prohibitive, and the wind storm created by the large vol-
ume of dilution air would be disruptive. Moreover, controlling workers’
exposures to toluene vapor remains.

645. A room is 8' × 10' × 16'. A 30 cfm exhaust fan is installed in a wall adjacent
to the building’s 16' axis. A make-up air louver is installed in the opposite
wall. Benzene evaporation from a warm source is uniform at 0.01 pint/hour.
How long will it take for the benzene vapor concentration to reach 0.05,
0.1, and 10 ppmv? Assume 0.001 ppmv in make-up air. Further assume the
room is empty but for the solvent, and air mixing is excellent—such as it is.
Before we proceed, ventilation by dilution is never acceptable because of
benzene’s high inhalation toxicity both acutely and chronically. But we will
move on to demonstrate the calculation process and the learning points.

Room floor = 10' × 16' = 160 ft2

30 cfm/160 ft2 = 0.1875 ft3/ft2 of floor area

V = volume of room = 8' × 10' × 16' = 1280 ft3

Q = ventilation rate = 30 cfm

30 cfm × 60 minutes/hour = 1800 ft3/hour

Air changes/hour (ach) = (1800 ft3/hour)/1280 ft3 = 1.406

Benzene’s specific gravity is 0.8786 g/mL, and its molecular weight is

78.11 grams per gram-mole. NIOSH’s REL for benzene is 0.1 ppmv as an
8-hour time-weighted average.

(403)(106 )(0.8786)(0.01/60)
Effective ventilation rate (evr ) = = 7555 cfm
(78.11)(0.1 ppm v )

This evr controls only NIOSH’s REL. Mechanical local exhaust ventila-
tion must be used to control below the action level of 0.05 ppmv.
The room’s cross-sectional area is 8' × 10' = 80 ft2. 7555 cfm/80 ft2 =
94 fpm—a comfortable air velocity for most people.

V   G − evr × C2   1280 ft 3   0.003 − 7555 × 0.1 ppm v  

∆t = −  ln   =− ln

evr   G − evr × C1   7555 cfm   0.03 − 7555 × 0.001 ppm v  
= 0.78 minutes = 49 seconds
V   G − evr × C2   1280 ft 3   0.03 − 7555 × 1 ppm v  
∆t = − ln = − ln
evr   G − evr × C1   7555 cfm   0.03 − 7555 × 0.001 ppm v  
= 1.67 minutes

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725 Problems with Solutions 329

0.1 ppmv benzene vapor after only 49 seconds, and 10 ppmv after 1.67 min-
utes. These calculations help to demonstrate the foolishness of attempting to
control exposures to high toxicity air contaminants with dilution ventilation.

646. The acute 4-hour inhalation LC50 for diacetyl in rats is 2.25 mg/L. Diacetyl’s
vapor pressure is 52.2 mm Hg, and its molecular weight is 86.09 grams per
gram-mole. What is this in ppmv? Compare this to saturation concentration
at NTP to determine the vapor hazard ratio. For a discussion of vapor haz-
ard ratios, refer to Problem 416.
O CH3
C C
H3C O

2.25 mg/L = 2250 mg/m3

(2250 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45 L/gram-mole

ppm v = = 639 ppm v
86.09 grams/gram-mole

A 2001 NIOSH diacetyl inhalation study using rats demonstrated profound

injuries in the respiratory tract at 285–371 ppmv after 4 hours. The lead inves-
tigator said these were “... the most dramatic cases of cell death I’ve ever seen.”
Vapor saturation concentration in a sealed container = [52.2 mm Hg/
(760 mm Hg + 52.2 mm Hg)] × 106 = 64,270 ppmv.
VPsat/ppmv = 64,270 ppmv/639 ppmv = 100.6, a very high vapor hazard
ratio. Note that the denominator is typically the TLV or the lowest REL.
However, since a limit for the worst acceptable inhalation level has not been
established, the author selected LC50. The vapor hazard ratio will be sub-
stantially greater after an exposure limit is developed because of the high
inhalation toxicity.
For reference, the LC50 for chlorine in cats and rabbits is 660 ppmv for
4 hours. Four-hour LC50s for ozone and bromine are 10.5 ppmv (hamsters)
and 750 ppmv (mice), respectively.
Diacetyl is an artificial butter flavoring agent that was used for micro-
wave popcorn and other flavored food products such as ice cream and baked
goods. Inhalation of vapors by workers at low concentrations caused bron-
chiolitis obliterans. These severe lung injuries can be fatal if a total lung
transplant is impossible. There was a retail customer who developed bron-
chiolitis obliterans after eating large amounts of microwaved popcorn daily
and deliberately inhaling diacetyl vapors from freshly opened bags.
The slope of the inhalation dose–response curve is unknown. However,
when 50% of the test rats died from inhaling only 639 ppmv after only a
4-hour exposure, whatever permissible exposure level must be promulgated
will be very low. With assumption that human response is similar to the
pathophysiology in rats, we can expect an inhalation limit far below the LC1
in rats to apply for exposed workers.

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330 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

The combination of high vapor pressure and high inhalation toxicity

requires every workplace exposure be exquisitely controlled by tight enclo-
sures, mechanical local exhaust ventilation, rigorous worker education and
training, and full-face airline respirators for spills and emergency response.
Routine workplace surveillance and medical surveillance are essential.
Openly pouring liquid diacetyl and transfer of dusty, powdery materials con-
taining diacetyl outside of an enclosing hood with mechanical local exhaust
ventilation must be barred because a worker wearing a full-face airline respi-
rator pouring diacetyl from one container to another in the open puts workers
far away at risk from inhaling fugitive, migrating diacetyl vapors. Transfer
of dusty, powdery materials containing diacetyl must be done with utmost
caution by ensuring airborne dust is captured by local exhaust hood. Bonding
and grounding electrostatic charge accumulation practices must be enforced.

647. Compare vapor hazard ratio of benzene in Denver to Atlantic City. Assume
25°C for both cities.
The vapor hazard ratio is more precisely defined by the equation:

(Pvapor × 106)/(EL × BP),

where
Pvapor = vapor pressure of chemical at 25°C in mm Hg
EL = exposure limit, ppmv. Apply the lowest recommended limit. In
this case use 0.1 ppmv recommended by NIOSH as 8-hour TWAE
limit for benzene. In certain circumstances, the IDLH can be applied
(Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health, with “immediate” typi-
cally being within 30 minutes).
BP = barometric pressure in mm Hg for the location

Denver’s altitude is 5283' equivalent to 12.09 psia = 625.2 mm Hg.

Atlantic City’s altitude = 7 feet equivalent to 14.69 psia = 759.7 mm Hg.

Benzene’s vapor pressure at 25°C is 95.2 mm Hg.

For Denver:

VHR = 95.2 × 106/0.1 × 625.2 = 152,271 (dimensionless)

For Atlantic City:

VHR = 95.2 × 106/0.1 × 759.7 = 125,313 (dimensionless)

All other things being equal, we see VHR is greater in Denver than in
Atlantic City by a factor of 152,271/125,313 = 1.215, or 21.5% greater. This
is not surprising because the lower atmospheric pressure in Denver pro-
motes faster evaporation of liquids and volatile solids.

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725 Problems with Solutions 331

This can be applied as well to preventing heat strain at higher altitudes.

All other things being equal, an “average” heat-strained worker in Denver
will require 21.5% more hydration per unit time than a comparable worker
at sea level. Dehydration occurs more quickly at high elevations. Moreover,
with thinner atmosphere, more infrared radiation penetrates at high eleva-
tions enhancing heat gain of the body.
More easily, we can simply compare each city’s respective atmospheric
pressure: 759.7/625.2 = 1.215. Such is helpful if extrapolating a vapor haz-
ard ratio or index, from one altitude to another.

648. The methyl ethyl ketone vapor concentration vapor in an empty warehouse
with interior dimensions of 42' × 36' × 14' is 378 ppmv at 3:10 p.m. All sup-
ply air and exhaust fans are turned on at this time. At 4:40 p.m., MEK vapor
concentration was 119 ppmv. What is the rate of air exchange in this build-
ing? Assume 15% of warehouse’s interior volume is occupied by objects.
Assume excellent mixing of the outside air with the contaminated air.

(42' × 36' × 14') × 0.85 = 17,992.8 ft3, the net volume of the building

ach × (te − to ) = ln Co − ln Ce ,

where
ach = air changes per hour
Co = original concentration at time, to
Ce = concentration after elapsed time, te
Rearranging:

ln Co − ln Ce ln 378 ppm v − ln 119 ppm v

ach = =
te − to 4:40 − 3:10 = 1.33 hours
5.935 − 4.779
= = 0.869 ach
1.33

649. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) are a class of chemical compounds based

upon various degrees of chlorination of biphenyl. The base molecular struc-
ture of PCB is
3 2 2′ 3′

4 4′

(CI)n (CI)n
5 6 6′ 5′

Anywhere between 1 and 10 chlorine atoms can attach to the indicated

positions on the two biphenyl rings. For example, chlorine atoms attaching
to form 2,4,3',5',6'-pentachlorobiphenyl is one of the 209 possible congeners
of PCB. Arochlor® is one brand name. PCBs have a high chemical stability
and, therefore, a very long environmental half-life. PCBs are highly soluble

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332 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

in lipids, oils, and fats. Therefore, they tend to be stored in fatty tissues
where they persist. Their combined toxicity and long environmental and
biological half-lives place them high on EPA’s toxicant watch list. PCB pro-
duction was banned in 1978. They are carefully regulated by EPA under
the Toxic Substances Control Act and by the OSHA. Materials containing
50 ppmm PCB or greater must be treated as hazardous waste per the EPA’s
Toxic Substances Control Act.
As the degree of chlorination increases, toxicity increases, and water
solubility and vapor pressure decreases. For example, Arochlor® 1016 has
a water solubility of 0.42 mg/L at 25°C, whereas Arochlor 1260's water
solubility is 0.0027 mg/L at 25°C. Their respective vapor pressures are
4.0 × 10 −4 and 4.05 × 10 −5 mm Hg, respectively.
PCBs were used primarily as insulating fluids in electrical transform-
ers, capacitors, and other electrical equipment and present inhalation and
skin absorption risks to electricians and other workers who encounter them.
PCBs exposed to fires can release even more toxic chemicals such as diox-
ins and various chlorinated furans:
C1 C1

C1 O
CI O CI

C1
CI O CI
TCDD C1

A PCB-containing cable leaked in a tunnel at an electricity generator’s

sub-station. The tunnel was not ventilated, and PCB had accumulated over
months. Assume an average molecular mass of 341 grams/mole and an aver-
age vapor pressure of 4 × 10 −4.5 mm Hg, what is the PCB saturation in ppmv?
Assume the sub-station is in New York City and has no water on the floor.

[(4 × 10−4.5 mm Hg)/760 mm Hg] × 106 = 0.1664 ppmv

ppm v × molecular weight

mg/m 3 =
24.45 L/gram-mole
0.1664 ppm v × 341grams/gram-mole
= = 2.33
24.45 L/gram-mole

2.33 mg/m3 greatly exceeds NIOSH’s REL of 0.001 mg/m3 as 8-hour

time-weighted average exposure (2330). Moreover, PCB are absorbed
through intact skin. Target organs are skin, eyes, liver, and reproductive
system. The nursing infant at top of the human food chain is at great risk
of future adverse health effects. As a probable occupational carcinogen,
PCB cancer sites are the pituitary gland, liver, and bone marrow (leukemia)
based on animal studies.

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725 Problems with Solutions 333

650. The OSHA defines an oxygen-deficient atmosphere as one with the oxygen
level below 19.5% by volume (29 CFR 1910.134, Respiratory Protection).
What is the partial pressure of O2 at sea level? What is partial pressure of
O2 at a worksite at 12,000 feet altitude in the American Rocky Mountains
above Denver (e.g., Loveland Pass on Interstate 70 at 11,990 feet altitude)?
Compare these.
At sea level: 760 mm Hg × 0.20946 = 159.1896 mm Hg, the partial pres-
sure of O2
At sea level: 760 mm Hg × 0.195 = 148.2 mm Hg, the OSHA lower limit
for an O2 sufficient (not deficient) atmosphere
From physics and chemistry reference books, at 12,000 feet altitude the
standard barometric pressure is 496 mm Hg. So, at 12,000 feet:

496 mm Hg × 0.20946 = 103.892 mm Hg

(103.892/159.1896) × 100 = 65.26%

That is, at 12,000 ft altitude, the oxygen concentration is reduced

100 − 65.26 = 34.74%. Simply being there places one in an OSHA oxygen-
deficient atmosphere if one is not acclimatized over several weeks to pro-
duce more erythrocytes. One can easily imagine a highway work crew from
Los Angeles winning a contract to do repair work at Loveland, Colorado
where Interstate 70 crosses Continental Divide and several workers doing
heavy lifting collapsing without understanding why. The OSHA 19.5% O2
“rule” is good only up to about 5000 ft. One must take special provisions
beyond this elevation.
Using the volume percent of oxygen can be confusing. In the author’s
view, the partial pressure of oxygen in the inhaled air is more meaningful
to assess risks of inhaling oxygen deficient atmospheres.
Otherwise, healthy workers who are not acclimated to working at this alti-
tude are at great risk of O2 insufficiency. Those with cardiac ischemia are also
at risk of heart attack and death. Special industrial hygiene precautions are
necessary. With an acclimatization to working at high altitudes, workers, to
some extent, produce more erythrocytes with an increased hemoglobin con-
tent over several weeks. However, with this, blood is denser further compro-
mising a weak heart. Medical screening of those with angina, frequent rest
breaks, controlling heat strain, careful supervisory oversight, supplemental
oxygen-supplying masks, and education and training are important compo-
nents of the industrial hygiene program. Carbon monoxide, as a chemical
asphyxiant gas, must be monitored regularly if any combustion process is
nearby. Biomonitoring using digital oximetry should be considered.

651. A large building’s ventilation maintenance engineer checks a main exhaust

duct by cutting a 3" × 3" hole through the sheet metal. He measures the static
pressure a few inches downstream of this hole at—3.5" water gauge. He forgets
to patch and seal the hole after his inspection. How much air leaks through the

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334 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

hole and shunts from the design exhaust point? The hole may be considered a
sharp edge orifice with a coefficient of entry of approximately 0.72.

Q, cfm = 4005 × ft 2 × Ce SP, "H 2 O

3" × 3"
= 4005 × × 0.72 × 3.5" = 337 cfm
144 in 2 /ft 2

This is energy wasteful and reduces exhaust control volume where it is

required. If the hole is reduced to 2" × 2", the volumetric flow rate through
the hole is 150 cfm. Standard practices should be to make smallest hole
possible using an inspection mirror and flashlight and carefully sealing the
hole with gasket adhesive and duct tape after inspecting.

652. Refer to Problem 644 where we calculated that 811,803 cfm as dilution
ventilation are required to dilute benzene vapor to acceptable levels—a
practice that is highly unacceptable but performed here to demonstrate its
unreasonableness. Consider a worker exposed to this vapor is at a fixed
work location 7' high and 8' wide such as a work bench. What would be his
cross-draft air velocity?
811,803 cfm/(7' × 8') = 14,496 fpm = 164.7 mph!
A category 5 hurricane is defined as one with sustained wind exceeding
155 mph. Such air velocity results in catastrophic damages. This worker
certainly could not stand upright in such a wind speed.

653. A machinist worked 3 hours out of his 8-hour workday at a bench removing
lapping compound from machinery valves. He used recycled mineral spir-
its that contained 0.0015 vol. % (15 ppmv) benzene. This is hand intensive
work to remove dried adherent and caked lapping compound at this open
surface tank. What was his TWAE during actually cleaning dirty metal
parts? What was his most likely 8-hour TWAE to benzene vapor?
Hemeon’s Plant and Process Ventilation, 3rd Edition (D. Jeff Burton,
editor, Lewis Publishers, 1999) provides the following table useful for
industrial hygienists:

Organic Solvent Application Rates in Certain Typical Industrial

Operations (Table 10-1, p. 187)
Work Operation Pints/Minute/Worker
Manual, small brushing, cementing, “fussy” work 0.02–0.03
Manual, large-brush operations (“daubing”) 0.2
Manual, gross applications, maximum use rate by hand 0.75–1.5
Mechanical coating operation 0.33–2
Spray finishing machinery 0.25–0.5

This table of experimental data assists industrial hygienists and product

engineers to design appropriate control methods to protect the health of

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725 Problems with Solutions 335

workers exposed to the emitted solvent vapors before the solvent cleaning
process equipment becomes functional and is placed into commercial pro-
duction for retail customers.
One can make reasonable assumptions to calculate the worker’s most
likely vapor exposure during the specific work period and his 8-hour aver-
age exposure:

• Select 0.1 pint/minute from the above table based on personal experi-
ence and description of work practices.
• Use 2 feet as the typical distance from open surface tank solvent vapor
point source to the worker’s breathing zone.
• Choose 20 feet/minute single-plane dilution ventilation based on the
exposure authoritative reference (ibid) and personal experience.
• Vapor concentration decreases hemispherically from point source
following inverse-square law and diffusion ventilation mass transfer
kinetics. Mists that are most likely generated are not covered by this
prediction model.
• The surface area of a hemisphere excluding the flat base is 2πr 2
(r = radius).
• This plant is located near Detroit where the average atmospheric pres-
sure is 740 mm Hg. 740/760 mm Hg = 0.97368 atmosphere.

3 hours/workday × 0.1 pint/minute = 180 minutes × 0.1 pint/minute = 18

pints of mineral spirits used during 3-hour cleaning operations

1 pint = 473.176 mL

18 pints = 8517 mL

8517 mL mineral spirits × 0.0015% = 12.78 mL benzene evaporated over

a 3-hour cleaning period.
12.78 mL (0.430 fluid ounce = 2.58 teaspoons = 0.86 tablespoon). Moreover,
the benzene is far more volatile than the mineral spirits.
We might ask what volume of benzene vapor is produced from the evapo-
ration of 1 gallon of liquid benzene at 70°F and 740 mm Hg.

1 gallon = 3785.412 mL

3785.412 mL × 0.8765 g/mL = 3317.9136 grams of benzene

3317.9136 g/78.112 g/mole = 42.476 moles of benzene

nRT 42.476 moles × 0.0821 L − atm/k − mole × 294.261 kelvin

Volume = =
P 740/760 mm Hg
= 1053.9047 L
1053.9047 L = 37.218 ft 3

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336 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

One gallon of liquid benzene at 70°F and 740 mm Hg atmospheric pres-

sure yields 37.218 ft3 of benzene vapor after evaporation.

37.218 ft 3 x ft 3
=
3, 785.412 mL 12.78 mL

x = 0.1257 ft3 of benzene vapor

0.1257 ft3/180 minute = 0.000698 ft3/minute

ppmv near field (2') breathing zone benzene vapor exposure during parts
cleaning

2' × 0.000698 ft 3 /minute

= = 0.00000278 = 2.78 ppm v (ibid)
20 fpm × 2π(2')2

Distance from Breathing Zone (r = 2 feet) ppmv Benzene Vapor 2(1/r2)

4 feet 2 r 1.4
6 feet 3 r 0.62
8 feet 4 r 0.35
10 feet 5 r 0.22
12 feet 6 r 0.15

Far-field breathing zone is reported at 8' to 12' from near field > 0.1 ppmv.

(2.78ppm v × 3 hours) + (∼ 0.1ppm v × 5hours)

8-hour TWAE =
8 hours
= ∼1.1ppm v

The machinist performed this work for approximately 2- 12 years (5–6 days/
week), so: cumulative, chronic dose = 1.1 ppmv × 2.5 years = 2.75 ppmv-
years, minimally.
The predicted exposure exceeds OSHA’s PEL of 1.0 ppmv and is 11 × the
NIOSH REL (0.1 ppmv 8-hour average) to prevent hematopoietic cancers in
benzene-exposed workers. The worker’s TWAE is more than twice the TLV.
This model is conservative because a “puff” exposure concentration
which occurs briefly as the work station lid is opened is not included. Mist
and airborne particles are not included in the model. Several similar work
stations were located throughout the facility contributing to background
benzene vapor levels. Moreover, benzene skin absorption contributes to
worker’s systemic dose. Regardless, there is sufficient health hazard assess-
ment information from the model for one to design necessary ventilation
engineering, work practice controls, and personal protective equipment.
Robust industrial hygiene control methods must be installed to conserve
workers’ health. Included in these are OSHA’s Hazard Communication

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725 Problems with Solutions 337

Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200), Open Surface Tank local exhaust ventila-
tion (29 CFR 1910.94, part d), and OSHA’s Benzene Standard (29 CFR
1910.1028). The nature of this cleaning work requires careful selection of
protective equipment such as gloves and aprons because liquid benzene can
be absorbed through intact healthy skin and more so when skin is breached
by lacerations and nicks, sores, infections, dermatitis, and enhanced by the
presence of other skin defatting solvents. Chemical splash goggles and a
face shield are needed to protect against splashes. Use impervious aprons.

654. Stack exhaust gas (excluding particulates) from a combustion process was
11,670 ppmv CO (1.167%v). Water vapor was 28.3 vol. %. Concentrations
have been corrected to normal temperature and pressure. What was the
concentration of CO gas on a dry gas basis?
ppmv, dry concentration = ppmv, wet concentration/(1 − fraction wet con-
centration) = 11,670 ppmv/(1 − 0.283) = 16,276 ppmv CO.

655. What is the air exchange rate in a small building where homogenous concen-
tration of n-heptane vapor is 76.8 ppmv at 3:10 p.m. subsiding to 36.7 ppmv
by 4:30 p.m.? Assume no further vapor generation and steady-state ventila-
tion with good mixing.

ln Co − ln Ca
ach = ,
ta − t o

where
ach = air changes per hour
Co = original concentration at time to
Ca = concentration after ventilation at elapsed time ta

Δ ta − to = 4:30 p.m. − 3:10 p.m. = 1 hour, 20 minutes = 1.33 hours

ln 76.8 − ln 36.7 4.341 − 3.603

ach = = = 0.55 ach
1.33 1.33

656. Consider the previous problem (655). What is the projected air concentra-
tion of n-heptane vapor at 9:00 p.m.? Assume steady-state ventilation with
no further vapor generation and good mixing of solvent vapor-free air with
contaminated air.

Clater = Co e( − ach × t )

where
Clater is the projected concentration after elapsed time t
Co = original air concentration
ach = air changes per hour

elapsed time = 9:00 p.m. − 3:10 p.m. = 5 hours, 50 minutes = 5.833 hours

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338 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Clater = 76.8 ppm v e( −0.55× 5.833) = 76.8 ppm v e −3.2082

= 76.8 ppm v × 0.0404 = 3.1 ppm v

657. The manager of a five-chair beauty parlor 64' long and 14' wide wants sug-
gestions for outdoor air ventilation requirements to provide comfort and
reasonable control of hair spray mists, perfumes, shampoo odors, powders,
and so on. The five beauticians average 0.7 customer/h/each at this appoint-
ment-based salon. What do you review in your considerations, and what
would you recommend to the manager?
A good starting point is the Required Air Ventilation Rate per Unit
Area from the International Code (adopted from the American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers Standard 62-2001:
ft3/minute/ft2 Occupancy Classification
0.05 Public corridors, retail or storage warehouse
0.10 Education corridors, retail florists, hardware, fabrics, supermarket
0.15 Library, retail shipping and receiving
0.20 Arcade or mall retail showroom
0.30 Basement or street-level retail showroom, clothier, furniture shop
0.50 Locker room, darkroom, duplicating or printing room
1.00 Commercial dry cleaner, conference room, elevators, pet shop
1.50 Automotive service station, repair garage, enclosed parking garage

Typically, that which is sought is not in the searched table or chart. So, judg-
ment is required. The relatively small area has a high population density
(0.7 customer/hour/beautician, five beauticians, waiting customers, others
coming and going). 0.2 ft3/minute/ft2 might be too low, whereas 0.50 ft3/
minute/ft2 is probably too high. 0.4 ft3/minute/ft2 of floor area appears to
be a reasonable compromise. However, the outdoor air supply fan and the
shop’s exhaust system should have reasonable flexibility to change the out-
door air volumetric flow rate as conditions present with, say, a three-speed
fan or a variable air volume system (VAV).
Air should be supplied at about the 10' level so that it gently sweeps
past waiting customers toward patrons and their beauticians. A balanced air
exhaust plenum above the bench and behind where beauticians locate their
tools and beauty aids would be ideal.
(0.4 ft3/minute/ft2) × 64' × 14' = 358.4 cfm. Arguably, one may subtract
the area of mechanical room and lavatory from total area of shop because
they have separate ventilation exhaust systems to control odors from the
lavatory and capture CO from the combustion equipment (water heater and
furnace). However, if the overall supply is applied for negative pressure to
these rooms, use 358.4 cfm.
Provide temperature and humidity control of the mixed air. The lava-
tory and the furnace and water heater closet must have an independent air
exhaust to prevent recirculation of CO and other tramp, fugitive exhaust
gases. Design these spaces so they are under negative pressure with respect
to the main parlor.

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725 Problems with Solutions 339

658. The author encountered a safety engineer who was not concerned when
his meter measured 20.1 vol.% oxygen in a confined space work project.
He said, “It’s not below OSHA’s 19.5% lower limit.” We evacuated workers
immediately. I explained he should be highly concerned at any oxygen mea-
surement below 21% because (assuming meter is calibrated and properly
functioning) 21% − 19.5% = 1.5% (15,000 ppmv) of some gas and/or vapor
which has intruded into the space. What is the gas/vapor? Will the intrusive
leak increase? Could 1.5% exceed LEL of some gases and vapors? Be wor-
ried. Be very worried! Take all interventional steps immediately: evacuate
workers, determine source(s), repair, ventilate, test.
But wait! Is it really 1.5% of an unknown gas or vapor intrusion? We are
mistaken because (19.5%/21%) × 100 = 92.86%. 100% − 92.86% = 7.14% =
71,400 ppmv. Our first mistaken calculation assumed we were just measur-
ing “air.” No, we were measuring oxygen. 71,400 ppmv of something myste-
rious is in this tank. Anybody strolling into this tank without a SCBA and an
extraction harness might be taking their last saunter into never-never land.

659. Consider a previous problem (650). What is the equivalent percent oxygen
in dry air at sea level?
From the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists’
Threshold Limit Values® for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
(2011), Appendix F: Minimal Oxygen Content:

P%O2 = 20.948 × e − (altitude in feet/25,970) = 20.948 × e − (12,000/25,970)

= 13.2% by volume

Healthy workers would, sooner or later, experience abnormal fatigue

with exertion, poor coordination, impaired judgment, emotional upset, and
other symptoms and signs listed by ACGIH for lower partial pressure oxy-
gen exposure levels. Workers with cardiac ischemia and a history of angina
are at risk of a fatal heart attack.

660. An acetylene gas cylinder falls to the floor of a confined space rupturing its
valve at an oxy-acetylene torch cutting operation. Workers evacuate. A sub-
sequent air sample did not show acetylene gas concentrations above 10%
of the LEL, but a mysterious analytical peak from the gas chromatograph
suggested acetone later confirmed by GC-MS. Acetone was not used in the
confined space tank. Explain.
Acetylene gas is dissolved under pressure into highly volatile liquid ace-
tone in the gas cylinder. This helps to ensure steady, predictable release of
acetylene gas at oxy-acetylene torch metal-cutting activities.

661. Industrial hygienists and chemical safety engineers regularly make deci-
sions about the flammability and explosion potential of gases and organic
solvent vapors. The following can assist them.

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340 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

To determine the saturation concentration in air at 75°F, divide the vapor

pressure of the organic solvent at this temperature by the barometric pres-
sure and multiply by 106. Add vapor pressure to the atmospheric pressure if,
for example, the vapor pressure is more than 20 mm Hg.
An example for toluene: (21 mm Hg/760 mm Hg) × 106 = 27,632 ppmv =
2.76v%. Toluene vapor has a “built in match” because saturation concentra-
tion is between the LEL (1.1v%) and the UEL (7.1v%). All that is needed for
an explosion is source of sufficiently sustained ignition of at least 8.82 eV.
An example for turpentine: (4 mm Hg/760 mm Hg) × 106 = 5263 ppmv =
0.53v%. This is below the LEL of 0.8% for turpentine. One must not confuse
explosion with combustibility. As we see with turpentine at room tempera-
ture and at nearly sea level barometric pressure, an explosive atmosphere
will not form. However, this kerosene will obviously burn thereby heat-
ing the remaining liquid kerosene. Once the fire is extinguished, the warm
kerosene’s vapor pressure increases so that an explosive atmosphere can
ensue with a subsequent ignition source.
Ignition Vapor
Flashpoint LEL UEL Evaporation Temperature Pressure
Organic Solvent (°F) (%) (%) Rate (eV) (mm Hg)
Diethyl ether −49 1.9 36.0 1.0 9.53 440
Acetone 0 2.5 12.8 1.9 9.69 180 
Toluene 40 1.1 7.1 4.5 8.82 21
Ethyl alcohol 55 3.3 19 7 10.47 44
2-Butoxyethanol 143 1.1 12.7 85 10.00 0.8
Turpentine 95 0.8 ? 375 ? 4
Gasolinea −45 1.4 7.6 2.5 ? 38–300
Carbon tetrachloride None None None 2.6 Will not ignite 91
a Gasoline must never be used as a solvent, and none of the above or other organic solvents

must be used as skin and clothing cleaners. Perchloroethylene is an exception in some com-
mercial clothing dry cleaning establishments.

Boiling point
Vapor
pressure
curve
UEL
% Vapor

Flammable
region
LEL

Flash point Temperature

Note that chemicals have a range of LELs and UELs. This range expands
as the liquid temperature increases because more energy is now in the liquid
phase, and less energy is needed to shift a liquid-to-vapor-phase transition.

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725 Problems with Solutions 341

Also note how LEL decreases with increasing liquid temperature—nothing

very surprising about this.

662. Half-lives (t) can be mathematically expressed several ways. Assuming

first-order decay kinetics, the half-life can be helpful in toxicology, ventila-
tion, and radioactive decay. State a few ways half-lives can be expressed.

k
log C = log Co − t
2.3

Co
= Co e −kt
2

1
Dividing both sides by Co : e − kt =
2

0.693
k =
t

Consider the remaining concentration after, for example, nine half-lives:

C = Co e − k × 9 t
0.693
t =
k
C 1 1 1 1
= − kt × 9 = ln 2 × 9 = 9 =
Co e e 2 512

663. An industrial hygienist studied solvent degreasing work stations where the
workers cleaned dirty machinery parts with an organic solvent, A. Several
breathing zone air samples revealed excessive exposures exceeding the TLV
of 20 ppmv. While mechanical local exhaust ventilation would be the best
choice to control exposures, this little company was on the cusp of bank-
ruptcy. He studied another solvent, B, with a TLV of 100 ppmv finding it
was as effective as A for cleaning, however, it cost 10% more. Management
was reluctant to purchase the costlier solvent. The parts cleaning time was
the same for both solvents. The target organ for both A and B is the same
(brain; CNS effects of dizziness, incoordination, and vertigo).
The industrial hygienist did another study by placing equal volumes of A
and B in two small Pyrex® Petri dishes. Both dishes were placed side-by-
side in a gentle air stream of 50 fpm. The liquid solvent and the air tempera-
ture were identical to this workplace, 70°F. After 4 minutes and 32 seconds,
all of solvent A evaporated, whereas after 30 minutes and 12 seconds, all
of solvent B evaporated. Using this information, he justified to the manage-
ment to replace solvent A with solvent B.

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342 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

4 minutes, 32 seconds = 272 seconds

30 minutes, 12 seconds = 1812 seconds

1812 seconds/272 seconds = 6.66

That is, evaporative losses of A would be about 6-⅔ times more than
B. A costs $5.36/gallon, and B costs $5.90/gallon. Plant purchase records
revealed that, on average, workers used 18.9 gallons of A daily, or a cost of
$101.30 each day. The industrial hygienist’s research demonstrated that only
about 6.3 gallons of B would be used daily [(1 − 0.666) × 18.9 gallonsA)].

6.3 gallonsB/day × $5.90/gallon = $37.17/day

($101.30 − $37.17) × 230 work days/year = $14,749.90 saved annually

Subsequent air samples demonstrated that exposures were well below

applicable TLV for B. Moreover, solvent A is skin absorbed but solvent B
is not appreciably absorbed through intact, healthy skin. Special, pricey
gloves were not needed.
Plan B might consider warm soapy water cleaning with ambient air drying.

664. For stoichiometric combustion of one cubic foot of natural gas (83–99%
CH4), how many cubic feet of exhaust gases are created?
One cubic foot of natural gas (CH4) needs 9.6 cubic feet of air (21%
O2) for perfect (100%) stoichiometric combustion. The total gas volume,
therefore is 10.6 cubic feet that expands to a larger volume when heated.
Charles’ law applies when we know initial mixed gas temperature and the
exhaust gas temperature (absolute): V1/T1 = V2/T2. Assume both the initial
natural gas and air temperature are 70°F, and the exhaust gas temperature
is 1100°F. Further assume both air and natural gas contains no moisture.

70°F = 21.11°C

21.11°C + 273.16 = 294.27 kelvin

1100°F = 593.33°C 593.33°C + 273.16 = 866.49 kelvin

V2 = T2V1/T1 = [(866.49 × (1 ft3 + 9.6 ft3)]/294.27 = 31.21 ft3

10.6 ft3 of mixed gas expands (31.21 ft3/10.6 ft3) 2.94 times under these
stipulated conditions. After the expansion, of course, the gas contains less
energy releasing energy to the heating process.
665. Downdraft ventilation at a conveyor line where workers glued plastic parts
using a solvent (methyl ethyl ketone) was adequate to control workers’
exposures to MEK vapor. Glued parts dried in the open to which the local
fire marshal objected. He insisted on installing a drying tunnel with suf-
ficient ventilation to control MEK vapor to no more than 0.01% by volume

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725 Problems with Solutions 343

(100 ppmv) inside the tunnel. This fire marshal is overly conservative
because the LEL of MEK in air is 1.4v% or 14,000 ppmv. Regardless, man-
agement agreed. Calculate the volumetric rate of dilution air for the drying
tunnel if purchasing records show that an average of 1.5 pints of MEK are
used each hour by four employees gluing parts. Assume mixing factor of
2 inside the tunnel. The tunnel is 2' high × 2.5' wide × 24' long.

1.5 pints/hour/employee × 4 employees = 6 pints MEK/hour

6 pints/hour × 1 hour/60 minutes = 0.1 pint of MEK/minute

Specific gravity of MEK is 0.805 g/mL. MEK’s molecular weight is 72.1

grams per mole.

ft 3 403 × 0.1 pint/minute × 0.805 g/mL × 2 × 106

= = 8999 cfm
minute 72.1grams/mole × 100 ppm v

If the exhaust duct is located at the center (12') of the tunnel, what is the
capture velocity at each end of the tunnel?

V = Q/A = [8999 cfm/2' × 2.5']/2 = 900 fpm

The author maintains this is energy wasteful and would argue for 10% of
the LEL inside the tunnel, or 1400 ppmv thereby conserving the energy costs
for tempering make-up air and fan operating costs. If this volumetric rate was
successful to dry parts, the volumetric flow rate would reduce to 633 cfm, and
the capture rate at the tunnel inlet and outlet reduces to 63 fpm—satisfactory
with control of cross drafts. Give some thought to reducing the 2' × 2.5' tun-
nel openings consistent with size of glued parts to increase capture velocity
and rate of airflow through a drying tunnel.

666. The concentration of carbon dioxide gas inside an empty beer brewing vat
at 2:00 p.m. is 468,500 ppmv—residual headspace gas from yeast fermenta-
tion of barley, hops, water, and other ingredients. The vat’s volume is 52,800
gallons. What is the expected CO2 gas concentration at 3:10 p.m. with an
exhaust fan with a 2300 cfm capacity. Estimate the air-gas mixing factor at
5. Use calculations to assist in determining if it would be safe for a worker to
enter without respiratory protection such as a SCBA and other elements of
OSHA’s permit required Confined Space Entry standard (29 CFR 1910.146).

t2 − t1 = 3:20 p.m. − 2:00 p.m. = 1.33 hours × 60 minutes/hour

= 79.8 minutes

52,800 gallons = 7058.33 ft3 = V

Co = 468,500 ppmv

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344 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Mixing factor, M = 5

Q = 2300 cfm

2300 cfm × 79.8 minutes = 183,540 ft3

Cafter = Co × e −[Q ( t2 − t1 ) /MV ]

Cafter = 468,500 ppmv × e−(2300 cfm×79.8 minutes)/(5×7058.33 ft3) = 2583 ppmv CO2

While this gas concentration does not exceed occupational exposure lim-
its, the ventilation should continue until CO2 gas level in the tank approaches
ambient levels of approximately 360–400 ppmv. The site industrial hygien-
ist or chemical safety engineer should ensure that the exhaust duct vents
in a manner that does not reintroduce the CO2 into spaces that could be
occupied. A stenching agent could be added to odorless CO2 to alert people,
but the brewers and customers, I am sure, would object.

667. Industrial hygienists, toxicologists, and risk managers are involved in cal-
culating a person’s total daily dose to one or more toxicants. This is no easy
feat and relies on making several assumptions and calculating various itera-
tions in a stochastic manner. One must consider all routes of absorption:
percutaneous, trans-ocular, inhalation, and food and beverage ingestion.
An example follows for chloroform.
Our hypothetical male weighs 185 pounds; is 5 feet, 10 inches tall, is 35
years old; drinks 1.5 liters of beverages daily; eats 6 pounds of food daily; takes
one 15-minutes shower daily; and washes his hands 4 times daily at 20 sec-
onds per washing. His totally glass-enclosed shower is 6 feet × 5 feet × 8 feet
high. He adjusts the shower water flow rate to 4 gallons/min with temperature
of 100°F. Assume 90% of chloroform evaporates from the shower stream into
air in the shower. Assume chloroform (CHCl3) in all beverages is 30 parts
per billion (mass/volume). Assume CHCl3 is absorbed through intact healthy
wet skin at 10 mcg/cm2/h. Assume chloroform in food is 40 mcg/kg. CHCl3
in ambient air is 2 parts per billion by volume. Assume the following absorp-
tion factors: skin and eyes at 100%, inhalation at 90%, ingestion of food at
60%, and 70% from all beverages. His average alveolar ventilation rate is
7 L/min. Also assume he is not exposed to chloroform vapor or liquid in his
occupation as a high school economics teacher. His only hobbies are golfing
and trombone playing in a community orchestra. Absorption factors vary
greatly, but by assigning different values one can calculate iterations within
a broad range. These were selected on judgment and reasonableness and are
presented here simply to demonstrate the calculation processes.
First, convert units and measurements to metric. A very helpful online
conversion tool for placing as an icon on your computer screen is www.
onlineconversion.com.

185 lb ♂ = 83.915 kg = 83,915 g

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725 Problems with Solutions 345

5' − 10" = 70" = 1.778 m = 177.8 cm

30 ppb = 0.03 ppm = 0.03 mg/L = 30 mcg/L H2O

6 lb = 2.722 kg

40 mcg = 0.04 mg

4 gpm = 15.142 Lpm

6' × 5' × 8' = 240 ft3 = 6.796 m3 = 6796 L

4 times/day × 20 seconds/time = 80 seconds = 0.0222 hour

23 hours, 45 minutes = 23.75 hours = 1425 minutes (nonshower time)

Beverages: 1.5 L/day × 0.03 mg/L × 0.7 = 0.0315 mg/day

Food: 2.722 kg/day × 0.04 mg/kg × 0.6 = 0.065 mg/day

Ambient air: 1425 minutes × 7 L/min = 9975 L = 9.975 m3

Ambient air less shower time: 2 ppbv × 0.9 = 1.8 ppbv = 0.0018 ppmv

mg/m3 = (0.0018 × 119.4)/24.45 = 0.00879

0.00879 mg/m3 × 9.975 m3 = 0.0877 mg/day

Hand washing: 810 cm2 × 10 mcg/cm2/hour × 0.0222 hour = 179.8 mcg

= 0.180 mg/day

Ambient air in shower: 15 minutes × 7 L/min = 84 liters = 0.084 m3

0.00877 mg/m3 × 0.084 m3 = (0.0007 mg/day)

Chloroform vapor in shower air: 15.142 L H 2O/min × 12 minutes = 181.7 liters

181.7 liters × 0.015 mg/L × 0.9 = 2.18 mg volatilizes

2.18 mg/6796 L = 0.0003 mg/L

0.0003 mg/L × 7 L/min × 12 min = (0.0252 mg/day)

Total inhalation (0.0023 mg/day + 0.84 mg/day) = 0.0259 mg/day from shower
plus ambient air

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346 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Skin absorption = (83.915 kg)0.425 × (177.8)0.725 × 0.007184

= skin in shower (DuBois formula)

Skin surface area = 2.02 m2 = 20,200 cm2

20,200 cm2 × 6 mcg/cm2 × 0.2 hour = 24,200 mcg = 24.2 mg/day

0.01575 + 0.049 + 0.0879 + 0.1079 + 24.2 = 24.46 mg/day

Total absorbed chloroform = 24.46 mg/day/83.95 kg

= 0.29 mg/kg/day (way high)

23 hours, 48 minutes = 1428 minutes (nonshower time)

Water: 1.5 L/day × 0.015 mg/L × 0.7 = 0.01575 mg/day

Food: 2.722 kg/day × 0.03 mg/kg × 0.6 = 0.049 mg/day

Ambient air: 1428 minutes × 7 L/min = 9996 L = 9.996 m3

(less shower time) 2 ppb × 0.9 = 1.8 ppb = 0.0018 ppm

mg/m3 = (0.0018 × 119.4)/24.45 = 0.00879

0.00879 mg/m3 × 9.996 m3 = 0.0879 mg/day

Hand washing: 810 cm2 × 0.006 mg/cm2/hour × 0.0222 hour

= 0.1079 mg/day* (0.1079 mg/day/106 = 0.00000018 mg/day)

Ambient air in shower: 12 minutes × 7 L/min = 84 liters = 0.084 m3

0.00879 mg/m3 × 0.084 m3 = (0.0007 mg/day)

Chloroform vapor in shower air: 15.142 L H2O/min × 12 minutes = 181.7 liters

181.7 liters × 0.015 mg/L × 0.8 = 2.18 mg volatilizes

2.18 mg/6796 L = 0.0003 mg/L

0.0003 mg/L × 7 L/min × 12 min = (0.0252 mg/day)

Total inhalation from shower plus ambient air: 0.0023 mg/day + 0.84 mg/day
= 0.0259 mg/day

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725 Problems with Solutions 347

Skin absorption in shower: (83.915 kg)0.425 × (177.8)0.725 × 0.007184 = skin

Surface area = 2.02 m2 = 20,200 cm2

20,200 cm2 × 6 mcg/cm2 × 0.2 hour = 24,200 mcg = 24.2 mg/day

0.01575 + 0.049 + 0.0879 + 0.1079 + 24.2 = 24.46 mg/day

Total absorbed chloroform = 24.46 mg/day/83.95 kg = 0.29 mg/kg/day

(way high)

Preceding calculations rely on many assumptions. Risk management

toxicologists typically state their assumptions and calculate most likely
exposures through many iterations selecting the most plausible exposure
scenario when done.

668. Air pollution engineers must regularly report losses of organic vapors and
mists to the atmosphere. There are many ways to do this. For example, we can
apply the total amount into the mathematical box from the purchase records.
Knowing how much is incorporated into the product(s) and amounts lost to
plant drainage water, we can rightly assume the difference is transferred to
community air. Another way is to calculate atmospheric emissions from exist-
ing analytical data. For example, an estimate of acetone vapor released to
ambient air from wood pulp digested by caustic soda (NaOH) in a paper mill
is known to be 1.08 lb/ton of paper pulp that is produced. This mill produces
100,000 tons of pulp per year. Acetone vapor is fed to an incinerator at steady
99.9% combustion efficiency. What mass of acetone is released annually?

1.08 lb 100,000 tons  99.9 

× × 1 − = 108 pounds of acetone/year
ton year  100 

669. A tank truck delivered 4000 gallons 10% w/v (in H2O, pH 8) sodium hydro-
sulfide solution to their customer. The driver, having done this monthly for
several years, connected the tank’s discharge pipe to the client’s hose fitting
not knowing that the client added 6500 gallons of 17% (v/v) sulfuric acid to
their 20,000 gallon storage tank the day before. The ensuing chemical reac-
tion released hydrogen sulfide gas into the surrounding air killing the truck
driver and two workers in the plant. Assuming quantitative stoichiometric
conversion, what mass of H2S was released to the air?

2NaHS + xs H 2 SO 4 H
2O
→ 2 H 2 S + (Na )2 SO 4 + exotherm

4000 gallons = 15,142 liters

10% m/v solution = 100 g H2SO4/L of solution

100 g/L × 15,142 liters = 1,514,200 grams NaHS

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348 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Molecular weight NaHS = 56.06 grams/mole

1,514,200 grams NaHS/56.06 grams/mole = 27,010 moles NaHS

Thus, from the balanced chemical reaction equation above, 27,010 mol of
H2S were released to the air disregarding solubility of H2S in the sulfuric
acid solution. This exothermic reaction would encourage rapid release of
dissolved gas into the surrounding air. Note in the following equilibrium
reaction, H2S ionizes as a weak acid, and the presence of excess sulfuric
acid shifts the reaction to the left. This, plus the highly exothermic reac-
tion, drives the dissolved H2S into gaseous phase. Moreover, as H2S escapes
from the liquid, reaction is driven rapidly to the left.
H2S is a diprotic acid. Ergo, ionization is

H2 O H2 O

H2S ←  → H + + HS− ←

 → S= + 2 H +

(Note how adding acid shifts reaction to left.)

Molecular weight H2S = 34.08 grams/mole

27,010 moles × 34.08 grams/moles = 920,501 grams = 920.5 kilograms

of H2S gas were released to the ambient air.
This rapid generation and atmospheric release of a potent chemical
asphyxiant is another example of a de novo toxicant sprinkled through-
out this book. Others are household chlorine bleach plus liquid ammonia
releases considerably more toxic chloramine gases [(NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3),
soluble cyanide salts plus acids or water release HCN, other soluble sulfides
plus acids also release H2S, household bleach plus acids release Cl2 and
ClO2, a reducing agent plus inorganic arsenic releases arsine (similar with
phosphine and stibine), and thermal decomposition of chlorine-containing
solvents produces phosgene gas].
One might wonder why the author selected this problem (and others simi-
lar to it for this book). The problem is not a mere exercise in mathematics-
engineering equity. There are at least three good practical reasons.
First, the calculations permit us to provide a worst-case estimate of the
total mass of a gaseous strongly toxicant released into the community.
Regulatory agencies often require this after a release (e.g., Coast Guard,
EPA, and state departments of environmental quality). Indeed, even irate
community residents demand data.
Second, the calculations can be one of several iterations of theoretical
worst-case estimates by industrial hygienists predicting mass emissions and
emission rates in potential problem analyses, “What if ...?” engineering cal-
culations, and necessary due diligence practiced by responsible chemical and
nuclear material processing facilities and their risk management engineers.
Third, such calculations can help one to predict what exposures of
workers and those in the community most likely experienced—or could

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725 Problems with Solutions 349

experience—if process upset and failures occur. The scope of such model-
ing calculations is beyond this book. The equations to do this can be daunt-
ing, however, modeling software is available.
For workers, in the absence of blood specimen biomarkers, one needs
proximity of worker to the source, emission rate, mass emitted, ventilation,
perturbances such as walls and equipment, respiration rate, and the duration
of exposure. For those in the community, one needs time of day, emission
rate, distance from emission source (x, y, and z coordinates), height of emis-
sion point above ground, duration of exposure, topography, meteorological
status (precipitation, wind direction, wind velocity, cloud cover, temperature).
Also note 6500 gallons of 17% (v/v) sulfuric acid = 6500 gallons × 0.17 =
1,105 gallons sulfuric acid. 1105 gallons = 4182.88 L. Density of H2SO4 is
1.85 g/mL. So, on hand, chemical facility had at least 4,182,880 mL × 1.85 g/
mL = 7,738,328 g = 17,060.1 pounds of sulfuric acid. This greatly exceeds
the 1000 pounds threshold limit for reporting under OSHA’s Instruction CPL
2–2.45 (Systems Safety Evaluation of Operations with Catastrophic Potential).
This instruction lists H2SO4 as an “Extremely Hazardous Substance.”
Surprisingly, sodium hydrosulfide is not listed, and, apparently, reporting
does not appear to be required. Yet, H2S is also an “extremely hazardous
substance” with a reporting threshold of 500 pounds. 920.5 kg = 2029.36 lb.
Since the H2S was generated in situ and not initially present, technically,
the facility appears to comply with the OSHA instruction. The author, how-
ever, believes NaHS should be listed as either an “extremely hazardous
substance” or as a “hazardous chemical.” In so doing, a responsible facility
in compliance with the OSHA instructions most likely would have averted
the three-death catastrophe. Since more than the threshold quantity of H2S
could have been foreseen by a diligent industrial hygienist, the OSHA
should provide for in situ generation of de novo toxicants. Regardless
of OSHA’s requirements, the facility failed to provide a reasonably safe
workplace.

670. What elements of a risk management plan must have been in place to pre-
vent the horrific catastrophe described in the previous problem (669)? Of
all, rank the top three with the greatest degree of prevention.
a. There must be advance communications between all parties and full
agreement on nature of tasks to be performed, when to be performed,
how to be performed, where to be performed, steps to be taken in emer-
gency, who will perform, their education and training regarding task
including OSHA’s hazard communication training, and lock out—tag
out (LOTO), and so on.
b. Dedicated and unique pipe threads for NaHS pipeline should be installed
in the tank truck for the pipe conveying NaHS solution into client plant’s
storage tank. Unique external pipe diameters should be used to hinder pip-
efitters and others from interchanging valves, fittings, and hoses and pipes.
c. Truck driver and chemical plant receiving operator must each have
dedicated, personally assigned keys for all valves and valve locks.

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350 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

d. Clear, large warning signs that exhort the H2S gas inhalation hazards
must be installed at all transfer points and possible gas release points.
Color-coded pipe helps to alert, but is never a substitute for the unique
pipe fitting flanges and external diameters.
e. Inspect the receiving tank before dispensing NaHS solution. Both par-
ties must verify that the tank is empty and clean. Double block and
bleed systems must be used if inadvertent introduction of incompatible
chemicals into the tank could occur.
f. Insist on a two-person team with trained and equipped standby personnel.
g. Emergency audio notification system must be in place (cell phone,
megaphone, police whistle, bull horn, klaxon horn) with a supporting
action plan—that is, who does what when?
h. SCBAs and escape respirators must be available with every element of
OSHA’s respiratory protection program in place (29 CFR 1910.134).
i. There should be ample community and residential set-back distances
from this hazardous chemical transfer point.
j. A wind sock or a weather vane should be used to ensure that if a release
occurs the greatest numbers of those at greatest risk are not located in
harm’s way.
k. Mechanical local exhaust ventilation should be used at all pipe fittings
where gas release could occur.
l. The receiving tank should have mechanical local exhaust ventilation to
capture fugitive emissions of H2S gas displaced as the tank is filled.
m. Only daytime transfers should be permitted.
n. A spill containment system to collect overflow splashes and leaks must
be used. This must include neutralization by alkaline materials (e.g.,
sodium bicarbonate).
o. A public notification system through collaboration with local public
safety officers must be in place.
p. H2S gas alarms at sites where maximum gas leaks could occur or accu-
mulate should be electrically connected to the plant security office who, in
turn, notify on advice about community evacuation plans and procedures.
q. Antidote kits containing amyl nitrite inhalation and sodium nitrite
infusion hasten forming sulfmethemoglobin thereby preventing methe-
moglobinemia. Personnel must be trained in cardiopulmonary resusci-
tation. Oxygen must be nearby.
r. Elements of OSHA’s Process Safety Management regulation (29 CFR
1910.119) must have been in place. This powerful standard requires
responsible parties to address all “management of changes” that could
result in a chemical catastrophe before such occurs.
s. Workers at greatest risk of H2S gas inhalation exposure should be pro-
vided with personal gas monitors.
t. Local public safety agencies must be notified under EPA’s “Community
Right-to-Know” regulations of amounts of hazardous chemicals on site
that exceed the threshold reporting quantities including NaHS.
Answer: b, c, and a

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725 Problems with Solutions 351

671. A homeowner intended to refinish a bathtub by dispensing estimated six

ounces of a stripping chemical. He brushed this on the surface of the tub’s
floor returning 15 minutes later to finish the job. His wife found him kneel-
ing and slumped over tub’s edge face down in stripping material an hour
later. He was dead. The decedent did not take special efforts to provide
local exhaust ventilation. He did not wear an air-supplied or an organic
vapor cartridge respirator. This product contained 80% methylene chloride
by volume. Forensic reconstruction of the most likely CH2Cl2 vapor con-
centration indicated about 123,900 ppmv vapor existed 14 in above tub’s
floor when he returned. Assume NTP (20–25°C, 760 mm Hg). Comment.
This concentration of methylene chloride vapor is IDLH. This solvent is
highly volatile with a boiling point of only 104°F at sea level. Compared to
clean air (1.00), methylene chloride has a relative density of 2.93. A narcotic
solvent vapor, it has the potential to sensitize the myocardium to a fatal
arrhythmia when there is coincident release of endogenous adrenalin such
as in a flight or fight response. It would be easy to “blame the victim,” but
were the product warnings sufficiently compelling, and did manufacturer
consider a product formulation with a less volatile and toxic solvent?
123,900 ppmv = 12.39%v. We might ask what the density of a 12.39%v
CH2Cl2 in air vapor mixture is.

100% air − 12.39% CH2Cl2 = 87.61% air

For CH2Cl2: 0.1239 × 2.93 = 0.363

For air: 0.8761 × 1.00 = 0.876
For air and vapor mixture: 1.239

That is, this vapor mixture is 23.9% denser than air. No wonder the atmo-
sphere in this bathtub was immediately capacitating. With little air move-
ment, this mixture is so dense it hovers inside the tub with little dissipation
into ambient bathroom air.
With this much dense solvent vapor in air, we can also ask how much
oxygen is in this resultant air and vapor mixture.

20.95%v × 0.8761 = 18.35%v O2

18.35%v O2 is an oxygen-deficient atmosphere per OSHA (<19.5%v) that,

in itself, is unremarkable for healthy people with strong hearts. But, when
combined with a very high CNS toxicant solvent vapor, this becomes an
additive toxicity mixture by only a few inhalations.
What happens when one is in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere? One will
breathe faster (tachypnea), and with the higher respiratory rate, the victim
inhales a greater amount of solvent vapor. One can reasonably state the
root cause of death of the victim was brief inhalation of an excessively high
level of methylene chloride vapor augmented by atmosphere with decreased
oxygen content. This will tax anyone’s heart, brain, lungs. One kneeling
and leaning in this space would be immediately overcome compounded by

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352 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

oxygen deficiency. Falling forward, their nostrils and mouth are now in the
no escape zone. Rapid breathing leads to panting and quick unconscious-
ness and death, perhaps, in only a few minutes.

672. The chemical processing industry is replete with mishaps where tanks
overflow leading to explosions, environmental pollution, property dam-
ages, atmospheric emissions, fires, and personal injuries and deaths. Root-
cause analyses of such mishaps often reveal the absence of tank fill capacity
alarms or their malfunction, other process equipment failures, dispensing
materials into the tank with an un-calibrated flow measurement meter, cor-
roded and weak tank walls and pipe walls, leaky valve gaskets, not con-
sidering preexisting tank volume contents, insufficient written safety work
procedures, missing or nonlabeled tanks, inattentive process operators (e.g.,
dispensing into wrong tank, or the correct tank at the wrong time), and poor
communications among all involved parties.
For example, consider a 1000 gallon steel tank containing 200 gallons of
23% w/v sodium hydroxide in water. The same concentration of lye solution
is continuously added at 100 gallons/hour. Another process removes this
solution concurrently at 50 gallons/hour. How many gallons are in this tank
after 3 hours? When, if ever, will this tank begin to overflow?

The mass balance equation is: accumulation = materialin − materialout.

Materialin = 3 hours × 100 gallons/hour = 300 gallons

Materialout = 3 hours × 50 gallons/hour = 150 gallons

Accumulation = 300 gallons − 150 gallons = 150 gallons

Accumulation = 1000 gallon tank − 200 gallons initially contained

= 800 gallons

(100 gph − 50 gph) × t = 800 gallons

t = 800 gallons/50 gallons/hour = 16 hours

Such overflow might be unnoticed, for example, if filling commences

at noon at a plant unoccupied after 5:00 p.m., and the security guard fails
to notice spillage and overflow at 4:00 a.m. or after. From the data, one
can easily calculate how much NaOH (not including the water portion) was
released to the environment. Try it!
All such systems must have an overflow sensor that is interlocked with
supply line and active audio-visual alarms. For extremely hazardous materi-
als, moats must be present to collect and scavenge overflow. As important is
good communication between all involved in transfer process as the following
example demonstrates (from a manual written by the author of medical educa-
tion fact sheets for physicians who practice occupational and environmental
medicine):

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725 Problems with Solutions 353

OEM MEDUCATION FACT SHEET 97

CLEAR COMMUNICATIONS TO PREVENT DEATHS
The title of this Fact Sheet speaks volumes and indicates in the absence of clear com-
munications between two or more parties, there can be deaths, life-altering injuries,
and property damages. The editor investigated four fatalities from gas inhalation
(NH3, Cl2, and two H2S) and numerous others short of lethal (chemical pneumonitis,
bronchiolitis obliterans, RADS, and so on) where there was the lack of understand-
ing between those shipping a hazardous material and those receiving it. SHE and
OEM personnel must ensure that clear communications are established before the
actual shipment (or any other hazardous activity). Here are opportunities for indus-
trial hygienist and safety engineer to prepare an advance script covering all safety
aspects involved in receiving hazardous materials. The time that it takes to prepare a
well-written script is invaluable because it allows all parties to apply various hazard
metrics (e.g., What if?, HAZOP, FMEA). The following is a basic example.

Simple Communication Failures and Poor Safety Coordination

Can Cause Life-Altering Injuries, Deaths, and Property Damages

Railroad: “Hi. This is Bob Adams with Central Michigan Railroad on behalf
of Ammonia Chemicals. We’re planning to spot three rail cars of ammonia
next to your plant in Flint between 8:00 a.m. and 9:00 a.m. on Monday,
October 30, 2000. Are you unloading any anhydrous ammonia cars then
that could expose our guys to gas?” (Note: This communication should
be initiated by chemical plant to railroad as well. Both parties have safety
engineering coordination duties.)
Plant: “No, we’re not. Everything should be OK then. Go ahead and spot your
cars. We’ll let you know if our plans change. Thanks for asking.” or: “Great
minds think alike. We were just about to call you and let you know our
plans. Yes, we are. We’ll be unloading one ammonia car at that time. It’s a
jumbo that should take about three hours. Can you reschedule your train to
be there some time after 11:30 a.m. when we’ll be done?”
Railroad: “Yup, we can. How’s noon that day?” or: Nope, we can’t. We have
to switch and set out cars at that time. We’re on a tight schedule to make
Detroit and the connection to St. Louis.”
Plant: “OK. Then we’ll have our safety man on site to watch out for your
people. The anhydrous ammonia car will be ‘blue flagged.’ He’ll have a
powered megaphone to warn you about any upset conditions. He will assess
the conditions at the time to determine boundaries of the setback lines and
danger zone. This might be 50 to 100 feet or more from the anhydrous
car. Your people must not enter this zone without wearing self-contained
breathing apparatus. There will be a secondary zone from 50–100 feet to
300 feet or more where your workers must have a five-minute escape air
pack on them or a SCBA. You won’t be able to miss him. He’ll be on the
unloading ramp about 12 feet up wearing a SCBA and bright yellow turn-
out gear. Look for the red flag and red windsock. Your people must not

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354 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

enter either zone if they do not see him. We assume your people have
good hearing and have been trained in SCBA and escape pack use and in
the hazards of ammonia gas. Right? Also, your people must understand
that conditions can change quickly and place them in harm’s way. They
must remain in the sight of our safety engineer. He is in the best position
to know if there is a release of gas. Have your engineer signal him with
three short whistle blasts when you’re done, and the train is about to
leave. We’ll let him know when you are arriving. By the way, the anhy-
drous car is a large black GATX, Serial No. 7350194. By the time you get
there, it will be spotted and braked at the unloading rack. As you know
a derail is in place and must be removed after replacing our empties with
your loads. After, replace the derailer. Our guy will wave to you as you
arrive. Again, thanks for calling. We’re in this together.”
Railroad: “Thanks. The work plan sounds good. We’ll let you know if there
are any changes. Please get back and let us know that you informed your
safety engineer and anybody who might replace him that day. He should
know that, besides the engineer who remains in the locomotive, there will
be a brakeman and the conductor—John and Marty—on the ground. We’ll
pass this safety information onto the train crew verbally and in writing.
They’ll have two-way radios. Their band frequency is 1234.5 Hertz in case
your safety guy has to talk to them. It’s good to work with you. Any ques-
tions? In the future, let’s have a check list so that we can pre-arrange all the
safety items, and so we don’t overlook any. OK?”
Plant: “You bet. I’ll get cracking on it and fax my draft to you so that we agree
on everything.”

673. Refer to the previous problem (672). Assume a process operator noticed the
overflow condition and stopped it promptly at 9:30 a.m. How many pounds
of NaOH were released to the environment and, in this case, reported to the
Coast Guard and the State Department of Environmental Quality?

9:30 a.m. − 4:00 a.m. = 5.5 hours

5.5 hours × 50 gallons/hour 275 gallons

275 gallons × 0.23 = 63.25 pounds

While this amount of NaOH is relatively small, an area in the receiving

water could have substantial increase in pH depending on dilution rate from
water inflow with a resultant fish and plankton kill.

674. The Carboniferous and other periods in Earth’s early history had huge time
spans of many millions of years with an atmosphere considerably richer
in carbon dioxide gas than today. Plants were abundant sequestering tre-
mendous amounts of CO2 from the warm atmosphere into their tissues
ultimately forming today’s fossil fuels of natural gas, shale oil, mineral
petroleum oil, and coal. In only a few centuries, we will reverse this long

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725 Problems with Solutions 355

natural process by combusting these fuels returning the CO2 to the atmo-
sphere. Global warming ensues with horrible sequelae.
The author teaches a graduate school course (Principles of Environmental
Health) in which robust discussion of global warming ensues. A student
assignment is to suggest a plausible engineering method to capture CO2
from fossil fuel electricity generating power plants. I encourage time-tested
engineering and crazy notions as well. I love it when I see student pods
“brain storming” the assigned problems.
One student suggested that CO2 in stack gases could be bubbled through
milk-of-lime scrubbers [Ca(OH)2] to capture the gas as calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). She claimed the CaCO3 precipitate could be safely disposed in a
landfill and/or used in chemical manufacturing processes. She presented
the following cogent chemical equation:

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 (precipitate) + H2O

Close, but no cigar, because when I asked her where she would obtain the
milk-of-lime, she said, “Well, purchase lime (CaO) from a chemical sup-
plier and mix it with water,” and offered this equation:

CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 (slurry)

What she failed to consider is that lime is obtained by calcining lime-

stone (calcite) in a lime kiln:

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Δ
The energy for this is ΔH1200–1300°C = +4.25 million Btu/ton of limestone
produced assuming perfect heat transfer and residence baking/calcining
time in the kiln.
So, as you see, every mole of CO2 removed from the power plant exhaust
gases evenly balances 1 mole of CO2 released into the atmosphere from
the lime kiln. Her proposal does not change the CO2 balance in the atmo-
sphere. Regardless, I gave her a good grade for her out-of-the-box thinking.
Depending on combustion efficiency at the power plant, her idea should be
given consideration because the energy required to calcine limestone might
be substantially less than the energy gained from combusting the fossil fuel.
That is, although CO2 is not removed from the atmosphere, the net energy
generation balance might be socially economical.
But wait! Later, she came exclaiming, “Professor, our discussion gave me
pause to my whimsical idea. You said my proposal is CO2 neutral because
for each mole collected in powerhouse stack gases one mole is released at the
lime kiln.” “Yes, I replied.” Wondering why she brought this up again, she
said, “We are both wrong because fossil fuel energy is required to roast and
calcine the limestone to lime at the kiln. The overall process releases even
more CO2 gas to the atmosphere than we first believed.” I uttered something

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356 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

like, “Ouch! You got me on that one, and a power of two engineering a solu-
tion surely beats solitary engineering.” I was toast, and humility and collec-
tive thinking saved my day. We laughed and thanked each other from which
action I coined a new hybrid word from humor and humility for my vocabu-
lary: “humorility.” Humorility goes a long way and will often carry the day.

675. As graduate students of industrial hygiene, our professor, the late Dr. Ralph
Smith, provided co-students and me his challenge: Search chemical pro-
cessing industry literature to find a single manufacturing process from
raw materials to the finished single chemical product that has the largest
number of starting chemicals with highest overall toxicity and hazards—a
daunting assignment. Teachers of IH take note!
My selection was the synthesis of toluene 2,4-diisocyanate from carbon
monoxide, chlorine, and 2,4-dinitrotoluene. The simplified reactions are:

CO + Cl2 → COCl2 (phosgene)

2H2 + 2,4-dinitrotoluene → 2,4-diaminotoluene

2,4-diaminotoluene + COCl2 → toluene 2,4-diisocyanate + 2HCl

This batch of materials contains a chemical asphyxiant, a highly explo-

sive gas, a methemoglobin forming agent, an upper respiratory irritant gas,
a lower respiratory irritant gas, a former battlefield war gas, a cardiotoxi-
cant, and a potent respiratory sensitizer. The challenge to the reader is to
match these chemical toxicants to the potential adverse health effect.
Eight nasty chemicals earned an “A.” Dr. Smith’s assignment was a wise
choice because industrial hygiene practitioners must think outside of their
box. That is, if the industrial hygienist, for example, only considered phos-
gene evaluation in this process, much would be missed in the overall expo-
sure assessment process and implementation of solid risk management plans.

676. Toxicological terms of additive, synergistic, potentiating, and antagonistic

are used by industrial hygienists to describe effects of toxicants, toxins, and
physical agents on worker health. Express the toxicity concept for each term
using whole numbers with a few examples.

Additive: 2 + 3 = 5
CO + HCN: Both gases are systemic chemical asphyxiants. Their mech-
anisms of toxicity are different, but both hinder the body’s oxidative meta-
bolic pathways.
CO + heat strain: Heat-strained worker shunts a large blood volume to
peripheral tissues to promote evaporation cooling and radiation heat transfer.
Tachycardia ensues. Meanwhile, his brain, heart, and retinas—highly oxy-
gen dependent—become oxygen-starved by carboxyhemoglobin formation.
Pb + certain organic solvents: Both are ototoxic.

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725 Problems with Solutions 357

Pb + n-hexane: Both are peripheral neurotoxicants.

Synergistic: 2 + 3 = 12
Inhalation of tobacco smoke and asbestos fibers is a classic example.
Ingestion of ethyl alcohol and inhalation of trichloroethylene promotes
“degreaser’s flush” while neither alone does.
Potentiation: 0 + 3 = 8
A cardiologist controls his patient’s coronary ischemia with medications
(0) with no knowledge his patient is exposed to carbon disulfide (3), a car-
diac ischemia agent. Improved dialogue between the cardiologist, nurse,
worker-patient, and industrial hygienist would identify this hazard with
attendant risks of heart attack or stroke.
Antagonism: 2 + 3 = 1, or 3 + (− 3) = 0, or 3 + 0 = 1 (where 0 is a pharmaceutical)
The author encountered a maintenance worker of a pharmaceutical cli-
ent cleaning an air pollution control bag house who simultaneously inhaled
minute amounts of dusts of testosterone and estrogens—pharmacological
agonists. He said, “This is better than working in the androgens or estro-
gens departments—a (physiological) conflict between beards or breasts.”

677. Previous problems demonstrated how to calculate vapor saturation concen-

trations in the head space above the volatile liquid or solid for a sealed
container. That is, simply divide the vapor pressure for the chemical (liquid
or solid) by the barometric pressure and multiply the result by 106 to get the
saturation concentration in ppmv. This method is correct for chemicals with
low volatility because the vapor does not add very much to the system’s
pressure. Recall molecules migrate back and forth between the liquid or
solid phase and the vapor phase. When this migration is essentially zero,
we may say the head space is vapor saturated. Use the following formula for
high volatility chemicals:
vapor pressure at a temperature
× 106 = ppm v of vapor
barometric pressure + vapor pressure
For example, naphthalene has a low vapor pressure at 25°C of 0.082 mm Hg.
We know naphthalene has a vapor pressure because of its unique sharp
odor. Substituting
0.082 mm Hg
× 106 = 107.88 ppm v
760 mm Hg + 0.082 mm Hg

The vapor saturation concentration is 107.89 ppmv if we do not account

for the slight back pressure of naphthalene vapor on the solid naphthalene.
Practically speaking, one normally does not calculate for this variance for
chemicals of low volatility.
Now let us see what happens with a highly volatile chemical such as
methyl ethyl ketone with a vapor pressure of 95.1 mm Hg at 25°C.
95.1 mm Hg
× 106 = 111,215 ppm v
760 mm Hg + 95.1 mm Hg

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358 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Compare the above result to the following where we did not account for
high back pressure exerted by methyl ethyl ketone at saturation:

95.1 mm Hg
× 106 = 125,132 ppm v of vapor
760 mm Hg

This result is incorrect. The industrial hygienist and chemical safety

engineer must be mindful of the increased pressure inside, for exam-
ple, 55-gallon drums of such volatile solvents. We see in the first example
the pressure in the drum is 760 mm Hg + 95.1 mm Hg = 855.1 mm Hg.
This is substantially greater than the atmospheric pressure of 760 mm
Hg. An unprotected worker opening the drum is enveloped in a cloud
of MEK vapor as the pressure is released. The vapor cloud is larger for
a partially filled drum than from a full drum. Mechanical local exhaust
ventilation at the bung hole, personal protective clothing, and a SCBA
are required. A chemical cartridge respirator is unacceptable because
these cartridges are limited to 1000 ppmv total organic vapors among
other restrictions.

678. The target tissue of benzene (as a hematopoietic carcinogen) is the bone
marrow. Calculate the average number of benzene molecules per bone mar-
row cell for a worker at the end of his work shift inhaling benzene vapor at
OSHA’s PEL of 1 ppmv. A 70 kg adult male individual has an estimated 100
trillion cells in his body. Yellow and red bone marrow for the standard man
is 3000 grams (6.61 pounds, or 4.28% of body weight). Assume an alveo-
lar ventilation rate of 6.5 Lpm and 50% absorption of benzene vapor in
inhaled air. Further assume this worker has no skin contact with benzene.
Molecular weight of benzene is 78.11 g mole−1.

mg 1ppm v × 78.11 3.195mg 3.195 mcg benzene

= = =
m3 24.45 L m3 liter of inhaled air

480 minutes × 6.5 Lpm × 3.195 mcg/L × 0.5 = 4984.2 mcg benzene absorbed

78.11 grams of benzene contain 6.023 × 1023 molecules. 78.11 micro-

grams of benzene contain 6.023 × 1017 molecules. (6.023 × 1017 mol-
ecules/78.11 mcg) × 4984.2 mcg = 3.843 × 1019 molecules of benzene. 100
trillion cells (1014) × 0.0428 = 4.28 × 1012 cells in red and yellow bone
marrow. 3.843 × 1019 molecules/4.28 × 1012 cells = 8,978,972 benzene mol-
ecules per bone marrow cell. This does not mean 8,978,972 benzene mol-
ecules are in or on each bone marrow cell at the end of his work shift. Some
of these are in interstitial fluid and might never contact a cell. What it means
is that by end of his work shift, this large number of benzene molecules in
perfusing blood could contact, on average, every bone marrow cell. All
would have to be catabolized or excreted before the start of the next work
shift to ensure benzene accumulation is not occurring from one day to the

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725 Problems with Solutions 359

next. Our bone marrow is metabolically highly active, and, for example,
an average of 2,500,000 erythrocytes are produced each second in healthy
adults. How’s that for some roaring biochemistry?
Obviously, this large number of benzene molecules per bone marrow cell
is neither highly accurate nor precise because of the stated assumptions
and the total number (1014) of body cells. The author places the number in
a range of 7−11 million. However, by any measure, results are undisput-
edly large and provide a reasonable frame of reference for occupational
toxicologists.

679. A wash cloth containing 34.5 mL H2O hangs on a hook inside an empty
closet 3.5' × 3.5' × 8'. Closet air initially had 37% relative humidity at 72°F,
is tightly sealed, and has no ventilation. What is the relative humidity after
this water evaporates?

3.5' × 3.5' × 8' = 98 ft3

Air at 37% relative humidity and 72°F contains approximately 0.0064

pound of water per pound of dry air (obtain from psychrometric chart).

98 ft3 × 0.075 lb/ft3 = 7.35 pounds of air in closet

7.35 lb air × 0.0064 lb H2O/lb dry air = 0.04704 lb moisture in air

before wash cloth

34.5 mL H2O = 34.5 g = 0.07606 lb

0.04704 lb + 0.07606 lb = 0.1231 lb H2O vapor after evaporation

0.1231 lb H2O/7.35 lb air = 0.01675 lb H2O vapor/pound dry air

From psychrometric chart, this is equivalent to 100% relative humid-

ity—saturation. In time, mold growth can be expected on vulnerable sub-
strates. However, as the mold amplifies, water vapor is removed from the
air. If the relative humidity drops below 60–70%, growth stops. With mold
death, water vapor not incorporated into cells will again enter the atmo-
sphere, and the cycle continues until most water is bound in dead mold
molecules.

680. A fan installed in a fixed air-handling system operates at 10,000 cfm, 1.5"
water gauge static pressure, 5.0 brake horsepower, and 1000 rpm. What fan
rpm is required to handle 25% more air (12,500 cfm) through this system?
This example can be viewed as either the present installation requires more
air than designed, or the air balancing report demonstrates 25% less air
than specified in design plans.
Rearrange the fan laws:

rpm2 = (cfm2/cfm1) × rpm1

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360 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

rpm2 = (1250 cfm/1000 cfm) × 1000 rpm = 1250 rpm

sp2 = sp1 × (rpm2/rpm1)2

sp2 = 1.5" w.g. × (1250 rpm/1000 rpm)2 = 2.34" w.g.

bhp2 = bhp1 × (rpm2/rpm1)3

bhp2 = 5.0 × (1250 rpm/1000 rpm)3 = 9.77 bhp

According to the fan laws, in order to use the original fan, the fan speed
must be increased from 1000 to 1250 rpm, and the fan motor must be
changed from a 5 hp to a 10 hp. The energy requirements almost double for
only a 25% gain in system air volume.
It is important to ensure that the new fan rpm do not exceed the maxi-
mum allowable fan tip speed for the existing fan. Maximum fan rpm are
listed in fan catalogs. One may always consult fan manufacturers for engi-
neering specifications if you would like them to review the application.

681. Assume gasoline is entirely octane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane). It is not,

but we may assume this simply when asking how much carbon dioxide
gas can be produced from burning about 6 pounds of this hydrocarbon.
Well, how much?
Gasoline weighs 6.25 pounds per gallon at NTP. Each molecule of
C8H18 produces eight molecules of CO2 if perfectly combusted. The
molecular weights of octane and CO2 are 114 and 44 grams/gram-mol,
respectively.

44 pounds mole−1 × 8 moles = 352 pounds

6.25 pounds × (352/114) = 19.3 pounds

That is, combusting 1 gallon of gasoline produces 19.3 pounds of atmo-

spheric CO2. It has been calculated that 70 million tons of CO2 enter our
Earth’s atmosphere daily. The official World Resources Institute adopted
conversion of 19.564 pounds of CO2 released per gallon of gasoline.
Every combusted gallon of gasoline adds roughly 8 pounds of water
vapor to our atmosphere that ultimately returns to our hydrosphere.

682. Industrial hygienists and forensic toxicologists are asked now and then to
estimate the uptake of an inhaled material into a person’s body. What one
must know, or state as assumptions, are the concentration of the air con-
taminant inhaled, nature of the contaminant (particulate and gas or vapor),
respiration rate, absorption through the alveoli (as a fraction), duration
of exposure, additional routes of exposure, and the pulmonary function
parameters (tidal volume, dead space, minute ventilation, etc.).
The alveolar ventilation must be determined. This is defined as the
volume of gas per unit time that reaches alveoli (respiratory portion of

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725 Problems with Solutions 361

lungs where gas exchange occurs). This can be calculated by the equation
Av = (tidal volume − dead space) × respiratory rate. The following table
provides example values for an adult male with two levels of activity:

Respiration Metric Resting Moderate Exercising

Tidal volume 0.5 L 1.8 L
Respiratory rate 15/minute 30/minute
Minute ventilation 7.5 L/minute 50 L/minute
Dead space 0.1667 L 0.1667 L
Alveolar ventilation 5.0 L/minute 49 L/minute

For this gentleman, calculate his alveolar ventilation rate while he walks
inhaling air at 1.1 Lpm with a respiratory rate of 20 inspirations−exhala-
tions per minute.

683. In this business of industrial hygiene risk management, we encounter the

terms of hazard and risk frequently. Some wrongly use the terms inter-
changeably. Hazard ≠ risk. A hazard is an object and/or energy that can
cause harm. That is, hazard is the potential for harm. The author uses the
six Ds (discomfort, reversible health disorders or dysfunctions, irreversible
diseases, deaths, or significant personal or property damages when identify-
ing hazards. Risks, on the other hand, are the potential outcomes of hazards.
Risk has two major components: probability and severity. One can never
manage risks without first carefully identifying hazards. To wit, a sealed
drum of 97% sulfuric acid is an incredible hazard, but it will never be a risk
as long as the drum remains sealed and intact. Once the drum is breached in
any manner, deliberately for use or inadvertently (e.g., impaled by blades of
fork lift truck), numerous risks present to those nearby and the environment.
Most would agree that, in the modern world, the automobile and truck
are hazards to us either as drivers, passengers, or pedestrians. Few recog-
nize that in the United States 2% (i.e., 1/50) of adults die from an accident
involving a car or a truck. Did you know that—this probability? Severity of
such an event ranges from minor to life-altering injuries to multiple deaths
and property damages.
As practice, ponder the likelihood (probability) of risks from the follow-
ing examples of hazards:

Air Contaminants(s) Risks (Typically Multiple, >3)

CO + heat strain
9.1% oxygen by volume in inhaled air
Certain isomers of PCBs + intense fire
Unmarked 55-gallon drum of some green liquid
α-Quartz dust + tobacco smoke
4% Phenol in 10% caustic soda (NaOH) solution
Pb + intense noise
Simultaneous inhalation exposure to Pb, Mn, Hg

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362 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Immediately, you see challenges to “fill the blank spaces” because we

ask: acute exposure?, chronic exposures?, skin contact?, preexisting medi-
cal issues?, work practices?, personal protective equipment?, education and
training?, failures of existing controls?, special circumstances?, or other
pertinent (or spurious) issues. It is not easy, and the chances of overlooking
major concerns abound due to nonprofessional conduct, errors and omis-
sions, out-and-out sloppy carelessness, and failure to recognize one’s limi-
tations and seeking advice of others more skilled.

684. Industrial hygienists and plant engineers often toss out phrases like
“mechanical local exhaust ventilation,” “dilution ventilation,” “thermal
head ventilation,” and other arcane terms pertaining to air movement. For
those responsible for protecting the health of the worker from toxic air con-
taminants and otherwise providing for their comfort, an understanding of
terms is essential. The following diagram—although crude—attempts to
clarify, in a general way, what is meant by these various ventilation engi-
neering phrases. Please excuse the author’s highly diagrammatic concep-
tual sketch; an artist I am not, but I strive to be a good HVAC engineer.

A+G=D+E+H
J
D
Tc
C E
K
I
+ − –
G
ΔΤ F

A
H

B
Tf

A = natural ventilation (“God given” wind, humid, dry F = dilution ventilation

unpredictable, unreliable, cold, hot, polluted) G = air supply ventilation
B = hot process with convective heat air currents H = mechanical local exhaust
C = thermal gradient ventilation (“chimney effect”) I = recirculation ventilation
D = natural (thermal exhaust becoming rare) J = make-up air unit (air
E = general mechanical exhaust (ceiling and/or wall filtered and tempered)
exhaust fans) K = shunt ventilation

685. The following are guidelines for indoor air comfort for up to 80% of the
occupants recognizing that about 10% of the occupants will claim “It is too
cold,” and another 10% will say “It’s too hot in here.” The author calls this the

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725 Problems with Solutions 363

“Goldilocks Principle” where MaMa Bear found her porridge too hot, PaPa
Bear claimed it too cold, and Baby Bear uttered, “My porridge is just right.”
Indoor Comfort for Offices, Commercial Buildings, Schools, and so on
where Worker Heat Stress and Heat Strain are Not an Issue

Acceptable Ranges of Indoor Temperatures and Relative Humidity during Summer

and Wintera
Relative Humidity (%) Dry Bulb, Winter (°F) Dry Bulb, Summer (°F)
30 68.5–76 74–80
40 68.5–75.5 73.5–79.5
50 68.5–74.5 73.0–79
60 68–74 72.5–78

Source: Adapted from American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning

Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 55-1981: Thermal Environmental Conditions for
Human Occupancy (see later editions as indicated).
a For people dressed in typical summer and winter clothing in geographic regions with signifi-

cant differences between the summer and winter climates and who are mainly at light, sed-
entary activity. Values should be adjusted as metabolic activity and radiant temperatures
increase, and airflow rate over occupants significantly departs from 50 fpm (0.57 mile/hour).
The outside wall temperatures should approximate dry bulb air temperature to eliminate
excessively cold drafts resulting from temperature differences between the floor and the
ceiling. Rooms with high ceilings have a large gradient in air temperatures from floor to
ceiling (e.g., >30°F). Judicious placement of ceiling fans in such rooms promotes occupant
comfort if the air velocities passing over persons are not excessive (e.g., >100–200 fpm).

There is considerable debate among researchers, building ventila-

tion engineers, indoor air quality specialists, industrial hygienists, and
public health professionals concerning the optimum levels of relative
humidity. In general, the broad range of relative humidity levels recom-
mended by different organizations is 30−60%. Relative humidities below
30% produce discomfort by promoting drying of skin, eyes, and mucous
membranes. Low humidity results in accumulating electrostatic charges
on objects including people and clothing. Maintaining relative humid-
ity at lowest possible level greatly restricts mold and mildew growth.
Rhinoviruses and influenza virus do not thrive in the air when humidity is
below 50%. Concerns (comfort for most part) associated with dry air must
be balanced against risks (enhanced microbial growth) associated with
over-humidification. If dry bulb temperatures are maintained at lower end
of comfort range (68–70°F) during heating periods, relative humidity in
most climates will not fall much below 30% (also within comfort range)
for most occupied buildings.
Industrial hygienists investigating worker complaints of chilly air must
be mindful of the complainant’s clothing. That is, one who wears light sum-
mer clothing in a cold climate building with low humidity during the winter
should expect goose bumps.

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364 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

686. List the industrial hygiene control methods within their philosophical
framework.
Industrial Hygiene Control Methods

1o Eliminate > 2o Engineering > 3o Administrative > lastly PPE

Hierarchy of Approaches (Combinations are often required.)
1. Engineering methods (normally the best; OSHA requirements when
feasible)
2. Administrative methods and changes in work practices
3. Personal protective equipment (generally the last choice; often temporary)
Application Points (Combinations are often required.)
1. At the source (best; e.g., mechanical local exhaust ventilation, process
enclosure), but only after elimination has been shown impossible or costly.
2. In the path between hazard source and worker (e.g., pedestal fan, shield,
distance).
3. At the worker (worst, i.e., use of personal protective equipment, e.g.,
respirator)
18 Basic Industrial Hygiene Control Methods
1. Hazard evaluation, analysis, and risk assessment; risk ranking and
priorities
2. Hazard education, risk communication, and training (necessary for all
hazards, workers)
3. Eliminate > substitute with less hazardous materials, processes,
components
4. Process isolation; guards, barriers, and shields
5. Process enclosure; interlocks
6. Wet methods of dust suppression
7. Time, distance, and shielding (inverse square law, half-thickness
shields)
8. Ventilation (mechanical local exhaust, dilution, general supply, and
exhaust)
9. Warnings, labels, posting, and written safety instructions and work
practices
10. Housekeeping and plant sanitation and hygiene
11. Changes in work practices and applying administrative controls
12. Medical placement, screening, and routine medical surveillance
13. Biological monitoring, biomarkers
14. Regular workplace surveillance, employee monitoring, reporting, and
record keeping (e.g., air sampling and analysis, noise monitoring, radia-
tion testing, wipe samples)

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725 Problems with Solutions 365

15. Emergency and hazard contingency plans and procedures, spill response
plans
16. Prescription of personal protective equipment (PPE: respirators, gloves,
etc.)
17. Regular inspection and preventative maintenance of equipment, tools,
devices
18. Modify management cultures and supervisor and employee attitudes.

687. Display some data characteristic of environments with suspended airborne

dust particles.
The following chart displays data obtained from four distinct environ-
ments. It is offered only to give an idea of the nature of data and how it is typi-
cally displayed. It must not be construed as typical average or range—only to
illustrate diversity. Note how the particles are log-normally distributed. This
is typical because sub-micron particles tend to remain airborne by numer-
ous aerodynamic physical factors. For example, 3% of airborne particles by
mass could comprise over 95% of the particles by count. One milligram of
silica dust in the size range reported for the atmosphere in an iron foundry or
quarry typically contains 200−300 million particles. A single particle of this
silica dust, therefore, weighs only 4 picograms (4 × 10 −12 gram). Tiny!

Particles per liter of air

Particle Size, New Home Old Home with
(microns, μ) Outside Air (<5 Years) Visible Mold Officea
0.3 814,908 315,298 2,651,469 113,899
0.5 94,721 101,875 291,193 21,896
1 16,530 61,879 70,852 9283
2 7264 45,519 36,837 5934
5 2926 28,105 17,993 3285
10 145 2607 1979 617

Source: Data from Evaluating Indoor Air Quality, Fluke Corporation, 2005.
a The office make-up air unit had a good, but non-HEPA, dust filter system to remove many,

but not all, ambient air particles. The HVAC system was carefully maintained.

688. List the risk factors for workers exposed to airborne particles (dusts, mists,
fibers, fog, smoke). Several risk factors must be evaluated in evaluating a
worker’s dose to particles suspended in their breathing zone air. Failure to
account for these can over or underestimate the worker’s dose with risks of
adverse health outcomes—or deaths.
Workplace Airborne Particle Inhalation Considerations

• 1Breathing zone concentration (mg/m3, ppmv, fibers/cc, etc.)

• Particulate toxicity
• Duration of exposure (daily, weekly, yearly, career)
• Acute or chronic exposures
• Exposure limits (RELs, TLVs®, PELs, WEELs, EPA air quality, etc.)

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366 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

• Particle size distribution, length-to-width aspect ratios

• Respiration rate (driven by metabolic rate)
• Individual risk factors, biological variability
• Industrial hygiene control methods (eliminate > 1o > 2o > 3o)
• Medical screening; medical surveillance, biomarkers
• Life style factors
• Other air contaminants, gas adsorption on particles
• Age, health, mouth breathing, and so on
• Co-toxicity of other air contaminants (gases, vapors) and adsorption
• Co-toxicity of over-the-counter and prescription medications
• Biological particles (e.g., mold, fungi, bacteria, viruses, biogenic
fragments)
• Overtime work
• Signs and/or symptoms concordant with toxicants, toxins
• Target organs
• Hand-to-mouth activities
• Education and training
• Management culture
• Respirator use and practices
• Applicable regulations
• Heat strain

689. See preceding problem (688) to define risk factors for skin-absorbed
chemicals.
Skin Absorption Risk Factors (supplemented by risk factors in Problem
688):
• Skin absorption (perfusion) rate of chemical (mcg per cm2 of skin per
minute)—obtained from in vivo and in vitro research
• Surface area covered
• Glove or clothing occlusion
• Duration of contact; evaporation
• Skin washing efficiency, personal hygiene
• Integrity of skin; any breaches (sores, rashes, diseases, lacerations,
eczema, psoriasis, etc.)
• Type of skin (area of body, thickness, hairiness, pores)
• Biological variability, individual susceptibility; medical screening
• Cofactors (heat strain, abrasion, other chemicals, medications, friction,
pressure, perspiration rate, etc.)
• Metabolic rate
• Blood perfusion rate through dermal contact area
• Acute (one time) or chronic (e.g., regular daily) exposures
• Personal protective equipment permeability
690. List some clinical tips for physicians, nurses, and dentists that can help
them see if there is nexus between their patient’s presentation and possible
work-relatedness.

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725 Problems with Solutions 367

Industrial Hygiene Clinical Tips

The worker presenting clinically often demonstrates, explains, or exhibits
numerous stigmata of occupational disorders and diseases. These diagnos-
tic clues include:
• The appearance and condition of a worker’s hands speaks volumes on
what they do for a living and their health status (e.g., clubbing, blanch-
ing, dermatitis, nail status, injuries, calluses, fissures). Other diagnostic
clues elicited clinically are:
• Do you, or others, have to raise your voice to be heard at work?
• Are sounds muffled and faint after you leave work? Do you have to turn
up the volume on your car radio after you leave work?
• Are there odors? Smells like? When? Duration and frequency?
• Do your eyes burn, tear? When? Where? Doing what?
• Can you see your work clearly? How is the lighting?
• Burning nostrils, throat, lungs? When? Where? Frequency? Duration?
• Productive cough? Dark sputum? What do you think is causing this?
• Dizzy, nauseous, vomiting? Headaches? When, where, duration, frequency?
• Settled dust? Process emissions? Dust, fumes in the air? Your proximity?
• Extreme fatigue? When, where, duration, frequency?
• Chemical spills? When, where, duration, frequency?
• Dermatitis? Itching? When, where, duration, frequency?
• Elaborate ventilation systems in plant? Local exhaust ventilation?
• Labels, placards, warning signs, and posters? For what? MSDS? Training?
• Production or maintenance work?
• Nasal discharge? Epistaxis? Dirty residue in nostrils?
• Work and medical histories?
• Dirty work clothing? How soon into shift?
• Prior industrial hygiene studies? When? For what? Findings?
• Anything unique or distinctive in workplace since you noticed health
problems?
• Special work clothing provided?
• Respirators provided? For what? What type? Do you use them? Other PPE?
• Other workers affected? How many? Clusters? Locations? Who?
• Community complaints? Stack emissions?
• Weight loss of more than 1.5% in any 2−8-hour period (dehydration).
• What do you think is the major cause of your health problems?
691. Discuss the important statistical underpinnings of the NIOSH/OSHA
action level.
There are exposure limits for about 700 occupational air contaminants—
a paltry few of the 4,000,000 chemicals so far identified and about one-third
of 2000 chemicals that comprise 95% of chemical commerce in our nation.
Perhaps fewer than 50 or so have substantial toxicological, epidemiological,
and a foundation of clinical case reports. The remainder has much less than
ideal research data and experience to support the limits. Animal data helps,
but can mislead.

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368 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Since occupational toxicology is a highly inferential undertaking, there

can be great risks to some workers if limits are applied using a binary atti-
tude: Exposures above the limit are per se toxic, and exposures below the
limit are acceptable. No! Most seasoned industrial hygienists would hope
that it was that simple. How often have toxicologists, safety engineers, phy-
sicians, and industrial hygienists been asked: “Is it toxic?” Dose, dose rate,
individual susceptibility, comorbidity factors, and everything Dr. Paracelsus
taught us come into play. Although this question is simplistic, that, for the
most part, is how most see our world: toxic or nontoxic? Good or bad? OK
or not OK? Compliant or noncompliant?
The limits for the chemicals are decreasing as more is learned about their
adverse effects on human health. For example, the limit for CO gas was
100 parts per million of air (ppmv) when the author began his professional
career. The limit for CO was reduced to 50 ppmv, then 35 ppmv, and it now
is 25 ppmv. Another chemical believed to be a simple CNS narcotic is now
an aggressive liver and lung carcinogen. Still another treated as a simple
upper respiratory irritant is now known to be a human teratogen capable of
inducing severe cardiac malformations in utero.
Enter the action level! Considered by some to be a safety factor, it has
much more far-reaching significance. The eminent NIOSH statisticians,
Busch and Leidell did elegant research showing, for the most part, a one-
day full-shift air sample collected in John’s breathing zone cannot be used
to infer John’s exposure yesterday or what it would be tomorrow. We could
infer a little about other workers near John when the air sample was taken,
but little else. To deduce anything about John’s exposure in the future, we
need at least 2 days of air sampling. The action level, for all but lead and
cotton dust, is defined as 50% of the exposure limit whether it is an OSHA
PEL, an ACGIH TLV, or a NIOSH REL.
The statistical power of the action level is this: If a worker’s TWAEs to an
air contaminant or to a mixture of air contaminants are less than the action
level on two days of sampling, it can be concluded at 95% confidence that
future exposures of the worker will be below PEL, TLV, or REL if condi-
tions in the worker’s environment do not change. One day of air sampling
does not cut it.
What can change? Production rates, ventilation, overtime, chemical
concentrations, work practices, process changes, and so on, but if these
are carefully documented during the initial study, future air samplings to
ensure compliance are normally not required unless change has occurred.

692. On your first day on the job as an OEM and SHE professional, you are
introduced to your coworkers, are shown your office and coffee pot, and the
lavatory. You set up your files and books, adjust your chair, boot your com-
puter, and study the company organization charts and telephone book. You
then go to lunch with some of your new colleagues. That afternoon, you
decide to conduct a preliminary walk-through audit of one nearby plant in
your company. Through education and training, you learned that situations

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725 Problems with Solutions 369

arise that do not require air sampling, but prompt intervention is impera-
tive. The six examples set out below require resolution—some with much
greater urgency than others. Let us see how you do.
1. A worker is enveloped in clouds of silica flour dust as he slits 20
75-pound bags and dumps the powder into a slurry mixing tank. He
does this once per workday.
2. A pipe fitter is exposed to cough-producing concentrations of chlo-
rine gas while making adjustments and repairs to a high-pressure
chemical plant process line.
3. Refrigeration plant workers are exposed to ammonia gas that irreg-
ularly causes throat irritation and lacrimation.
4. Employees are periodically exposed to offensive odors that intrude
from a nearby butcher scrap meat rendering plant. The odors come
and go. They smell offal.
5. Extensive mold is growing on a few ceiling tiles in the plant man-
ager’s office.
6. A worker without a SCBA is about to enter an empty confined
space process tank to retrieve a man who collapsed from whatever
unknown cause.
Obvious problems require intervention stat, not air samples!
Here’s your quiz: Rank the six from highest priority to the lowest.
Compare your set with the correct answers 13, 9, 10, 8, 11, and 12 by sub-
tracting 7 from each of these. Great! You are an interventional OEM—SHE
professional unsurpassed at triage!
Can you see how the amateur industrial hygienist or other OEM—SHE
“professional” could dally about taking air samples before standing up to
be counted to intervene on behalf of these workers? Obvious war problems
require obvious prompt inserts.
As General George Patton bellowed:
“Lead, follow, or get out of my way!”

693. Discuss industrial hygiene ramifications of pregnant workers.

There are several industrial hygiene risk factors in workplaces that can be
significant to pregnant employees. Of course, in every case, dose and dose
rate are important. Exposures in early pregnancy for certain chemical and
physical agents can be more significant than in late pregnancy. Conversely,
musculoskeletal issues assume more importance toward the end of preg-
nancy. These hazards include:

• Excessive heat strain, especially in the first trimester, can cause devel-
opmental defects in the embryo/fetus neural tube. Heat stress is a tera-
togenic hazard.
• Heavy metals, especially lead and mercury, can cause birth defects, mis-
carriages, neurological impairments, and other adverse medical outcomes.
• Ionizing radiation, such as x-rays and radioactive materials including
hazardous waste containing radionuclides, can cause abnormal fetal

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370 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

development, cancer, mutations, miscarriage, and other dysfunctions—

developmental and metabolic.
• Excessive exposure to workplace noise may adversely affect the child’s
hearing.
• Research animals exposed to pharmaceutical agents and chemothera-
peutic drugs have demonstrated low birth weights, miscarriages, and
deformations.
• Infectious microbes (e.g., rubella, hepatitis) are risk factors for both the
mother and the fetus. Pregnant health care workers, in general, are a
high-risk work group.
• Prolonged standing or sitting, heavy lifting, and walking are special
ergonomic factors for pregnant workers. Job stresses, multitasking, cir-
cadian rhythms, and variable work shifts including prolonged overtime
work can have adverse risks.
• Some solvents—inhaled and/or skin-absorbed—can produce fetal defor-
mities (e.g., heart, brain) and other adverse developmental outcomes.
• Chemical asphyxiant gases such as CO, H2S, and HCN can impede
high oxygen demands of the developing embryo/fetus.
• While at work, and off the job, the pregnant woman should not smoke
or chew tobacco or consume alcohol. While her obstetrician or family
physician may have advised her of these risk factors, the OEM physi-
cian, OEM nurse, and industrial hygienist should reinforce these pru-
dent practices with the worker at her job site.

The American Medical Association recommends the following for preg-

nant workers:

• Take a rest break every few hours.

• Take a longer meal break every four hours.
• Drink plenty of fluids while on the job.
• Vary work positions continuously, from sitting to standing to walking.
• Minimize heavy lifting and bending.

Heavy lifting becomes increasingly difficult during pregnancy. The gain

in weight strains the back. This is compounded by lifting heavy objects.
Frequent lifting and awkward postures are additional risk factors for back
injuries. OEM professionals should educate and train pregnant workers the
following ergonomic practices:

• Stand with both feet apart separated to the outer width of your shoulders.
• Tuck in your buttocks.
• Slowly bend at your knees—not at the back. Keep your back as straight
as possible.
• Lift with the legs and the arms—not with your back.
• Limit the weight, size, and frequency of lift of objects. If in doubt about
weight, enlist other workers to do the lifting or supply mechanical lift-
ing devices.

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725 Problems with Solutions 371

• Back braces and supports are not recommended. This applies not just to
women who are pregnant, but to all workers—male and female—as well.

694. Discuss toxicant absorption and excretion vis-á-vis first-order kinetics.

The following diagram depicts absorption and excretion (actual toxicant
or one of its metabolites) of a toxicant following typical first-order kinetics.
Most toxicants follow this pattern in a healthy person.

C = concentration of toxicant in a body

“compartment” (water, fat, bone)
A = toxicant absorption phase
E-M = toxicant/metabolite excretion and/or
Co
detoxification phase
C Co = maximal concentration (in blood, exhaled
breath, urine, etc.) when exposure stops.
At t = 0, C = 0.
k = elimination rate constant (e.g., 0.26/hour)
e = natural logarithm (base e = 2.718)
t = time (minutes, hours, days, whatever)

to

Time, t

A E-M

In toxicology, the body is divided into three “compartments”: aqueous

(blood, organs, muscles, tissues, lymph, etc.), lipids and fats, and mineral-
izing (bones, teeth). The curves shown above vary from toxicant to toxicant
and person to person. However, they show absorption is rapid at first and
later slows (saturation, tolerance, impaired enzymatic pathways, cofactors,
etc.). Elimination is the inverse with rapid loss when exposure stops. One
becomes “drunk” quickly. “De-tox hangovers” linger for hours.
For elimination: C = Co e−kt. This is the simplest mathematical model
by which a toxic substance is eliminated from the body. The negative sign
indicates loss or decay.
The elimination half-life is: 0.5 C at T1/2 = Co e−kT. Note this is T, not t
(T = 0.693/k).
For example, what fraction of the inhaled, absorbed dose remains in
the body after a time = 9 T? Remember that detoxification is occurring as
intoxication proceeds.

C = Co e−k9T

C/Co = −1/ekT9 = 1/eln 2×9 = 1/29 = 1/512 = 0.002 Co.

How much toxicant is in the body 50 hours after exposure stops if

T = 14.3 hours?

50/14.3 = 3.5 C/Co = 1/23.5 = 1/11.3 = 9% of Co.

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695. Provide a reasonable solvent selection guide policy for your industrial
client.
SHE and OEM personnel must be vigilant and mindful of organic sol-
vents used in their production and maintenance operations. The proper
selection of a solvent is a robust, sophisticated undertaking. A choice to
use a particular solvent over another can be daunting especially when
chlorinated solvents are considered. Solvents are usually selected by their
solvency power, past experience with the solvent in other operations, and,
sometimes, costs. Rarely are inhalation toxicity, dermal absorption, evapo-
ration rate, flammability, and chemical stability considered. For example,
a highly volatile and relatively nontoxic, inexpensive solvent can be more
costly and hazardous to workers’ health than a more toxic solvent with a
low evaporation rate. The use of highly volatile solvents in a confined space
is particularly hazardous.
The following guidelines should be applied when selecting a solvent:
1. Try tap water at room temperature first. Next, consider cool water at
high pressure.
2. Failing the above, try warm tap water. Next, consider warm water at
high pressure.
3. Failing the above, try hot water not to exceed 120°F (instantly
scalding).
4. Failing the above, consider steam using special burn and scald pre-
vention methods.
5. Failing the above, try tap water at room temperature with a mild
detergent.
6. Failing the above, use the same detergent with increasing water tem-
perature not to exceed 120°F. Contact times cooler and longer are
better than hot and brief.
7. Failing the above, consider selecting other cleaning methods, for
example, dry ice pellets or liquid nitrogen blasting with good local
exhaust ventilation and hypothermic protective clothing, ultrasonic
cleaning, presoaking before cleaning, oven baking.
8. Failing the above, consider selecting a solvent, or a solvent blend,
that meets the following criteria: flashpoint >120°F, highest published
occupational exposure limit >100 ppmv, not absorbed through intact
skin, noncorrosive, chemically inert, free of analytically detectable
benzene and other recognized carcinogens and teratogens, noncon-
tributive to destruction of ozone layer in the stratosphere, vapor pres-
sure below room temperature water, and compatible with the work
process and materials.
9. Failing the above, consult an experienced industrial hygienist.
10. The following organic solvents, in the author’s view, should never
be used for any cleaning activities: benzene, mono-chloroacetic acid,
chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, methylene chloride, trichloroeth-
ylene, enthers of any kind, some glycol ethes, chlorofluorobromo
hydrocarbons (Freons®), n-hexane, and carbon disulfide.

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725 Problems with Solutions 373

11. Strong acids and alkalis are often inappropriately considered solvents.
Their use should be reviewed by an industrial hygienist or chemical
safety engineer.

696. Workers, more often than not, are potentially exposed to multiple stressors
as they go about earning their living. OEM and SHE professionals must
always be mindful of this because it is very easy to lose sight if our primary
focus at the time is, for example, evaluating workers’ exposures to welding
fumes and gases. We must constantly ask: Besides fumes, “Is John exposed
to other stressors in the major industrial hygiene categories: chemicals,
physical agents, ergonomics, biological factors”? Multiple exposures (not
always concurrent) impacts workers’ well-being by additive, synergistic,
and potentiating mechanisms or otherwise exacerbates occupational and
nonoccupational health conditions. Use a well-designed check list at the job
site will help us to be mindful of all risk factors impacting our clients.
This photograph of an electric arc (“stick”) welder in a fabrication shop
at one of author’s clients reveals multiple industrial hygiene stressors listed
below (before interventions).

Although we cannot “see” the noise, this gentleman is also exposed to

welding fumes, smoke, and gases; airborne dust; ergonomic and postural
issues; thermal skin burns; poor ambient lighting; radiation to eyes and
skin; electric shock; heat strain, injuries by tools; and fires (requires a “hot
work” permit). Can you identify other stressors? Human factors? Bully
boss? Production demands? Note the objects on his tool belt: wire brush,
meat cleaver, axe, ball peen hammer. Hand and power tools can be a clue
to types of air contaminants the worker generates. Does this welder use the
wire brush to remove surface materials such as lead, zinc, cadmium, and
so on before welding? Does such dust contribute to his exposure?

697. There is increasing evidence that several industrial chemicals can induce
hearing loss. Comment on this.

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374 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Ototoxic Chemicals + Noise = Whudyasay?

Toxicologists, audiologists, and others are increasingly finding a relation-

ship between hearing loss and occupational and/or avocational exposures to
certain chemicals. We can expect additional linkages in the future. In the
interim, it would be prudent to control inhalation of, and dermal contact
with, organic chemicals—particularly low molecular weight solvents—and
metals known to be neurotoxic. Chemical asphyxiant gases and vapors—
besides carbon monoxide—such as hydrogen sulfide, cyanide salts and
hydrogen cyanide, aniline and homologues, and some pharmaceuticals
should also alert SHE professionals.
It is unlikely that MSDS—in the near future—will declare possibility for
products that contain known or reasonably suspected ototoxicants. Therefore,
this topic should be covered in HazCom training sessions, with patients in
the clinic, and one-on-one by SHE professionals as they interact with work-
ers and supervisors. Those workers with exposures to high noise levels and
ototoxic agents have—presumably—the risks of additive hearing loss. That
is, noise + solvent vapor inhalation + dermal absorption of solvents = hearing
loss greater than would be expected from independent exposures.
Effects on hearing most likely do not require concurrent exposures. For
example, a paint sprayer inhales toluene and n-hexane for 10 years. He loses
hearing, but never worked near high noise sources. For the next 10 years, he
worked as a mechanic where he inhaled carbon monoxide gas and Stoddard
solvent vapors. Without wearing impervious gloves, he washes oily parts in
Stoddard solvent and gasoline (contains n-hexane). Noise exposures were
intermittent. He is now 40 years old with the hearing of a 75-year-old man
without a documented history of exposures to solvents, metals, noise, and
carbon monoxide gas. In noise-induced hearing loss training programs, the
author has shared this wake-up call: “When you reach 55, 65, or 75 and
choose to retire because you finally have cash money for that dream stereo
system, you won’t be able to enjoy it.”
The following chemicals are ototoxic (* = high priority ototoxicants per
NIOSH):

Carbon monoxide* Carbon disulfide

Arsenic Mercury and mercury compounds
Lead and lead compounds* Stoddard solvent (mineral spirits)
Cyanides Styrene
Manganese Toluene*
n-Hexane Xylene isomers
Some aminoglycoside antibiotics Organic tin compounds
Trichloroethylene*

698. List six key points of occupational toxicology that influence human dose
response.

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725 Problems with Solutions 375

Chemicals and radioactive materials are potential toxicants, whereas

materials biologically derived are potential toxins. Toxicant will be used
interchangeably for each type of poison here. One may be intoxicated by
both a toxicant and a toxin via different biomechanisms.
Toxicology is the science and study of the effects of toxicants on living sys-
tems (plants, animals, and microbes). Occupational and environmental toxi-
cology focuses primarily upon the adverse effects of toxicants on workers and
people outside of workplaces. Since workers go home, they can, for example,
be exposed to carbon monoxide gas in both environments: CO as a fork lift
truck driver at work, CO from their active tobacco smoking, CO from passive
smoke of others, CO in ambient air, and CO from a faulty gas hot water heater,
fireplace, car, and furnace. When using a paint stripper that contains methy-
lene chloride solvent (CH2Cl2), the inhaled and absorbed vapors are metaboli-
cally converted into CO in vivo. If this worker then inhales hydrogen sulfide
gas (H2S) while repairing his home septic tank, his ischemic high oxygen
demand myocardium is stressed by both asphyxiants. Death could be at hand.
There are six key factors affecting responses to toxicants. Carefully con-
sider all in your health hazard assessments.
1. The toxicant itself. Some produce immediate and dramatic
adverse biological effects. Others may produce no discernible
adverse effects—short or long term. Others may produce adverse
effects delayed as long as 10–40 or more years later (carcinogens).
Chromium+6, for example, does both.
2. The type and mode of contact. Inhalation, percutaneous absorption,
ocular absorption, direct injury to the skin and eyes, ingestion. Some
toxicants are harmless after one mode of application (e.g., skin), but
have serious effects when contacted another way (e.g., lungs). Brief
dermal contact with silica dust is unremarkable, but chronic inhala-
tion of high amounts of respirable silica dust (quartz) can produce a
progressive, nodular pulmonary fibrosis that leads to an early death.
3. Dose of toxicant. The amount actually absorbed into the body or
in direct contact with tissues that interface with our environments:
respiratory tract, skin, eyes, and gastrointestinal tract.
4. Duration of exposure. Some toxicants produce signs and symptoms
after only one exposure (acute), some only after exposures of long
time periods (chronic), and some produce adverse health effects from
both acute and chronic exposures. For example, a one-time excessive
dose of inhaled hydrogen chloride gas can be lethal or cause cough-
ing and a reversible, treatable chemical pneumonitis, but inhalation of
this gas at sub-acute levels in the air for many years can cause severe
corrosion of tooth enamel, bronchial asthma, and laryngeal cancer.
The dose of a toxicant is, then, a function of concentration and dura-
tion of exposure—sometimes referred to as the dose rate. Equal dose
rates in John, Mary, and Bob may produce three different responses.
5. Individual sensitivity. Humans vary considerably in their adverse
responses from exposures to toxicants. These can range from no

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376 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

discernible adverse effects to mild signs and symptoms to serious

illness to death. Different effects can occur in the same person at dif-
ferent exposures. Certain preexisting medical conditions can influ-
ence and promote exaggerated response to toxicants.
6. Interaction with other toxicants or agents. Toxicants in combination
with other toxicants or agents can produce different or exacerbated
adverse biological responses observed when the exposure is to one
toxicant alone. There may be comorbidity between inhaled chemical
at work and prescribed oral medication or an over-the-counter drug.
Adverse toxic effects can be additive, antagonistic, synergistic, or
potentiating. The example given in the preface of a worker inhaling
CO, H2S, and CH2Cl2 is a simple example of additive toxicity. These
can be sneaky.

699. By now, readers have encountered several ways to calculate the air contam-
inant concentration in a space when the volume of space is known, the gen-
eration rate of air contaminant is known, the initial concentration is known,
and the ventilation rate of space is given or assumed. American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers provides another
formula for these calculations:

 (C ) V / ( N − 1) 
t = (v/V ) ln  i 
 X 

where
t = time required to lower the concentration to a fraction X above the
final steady-state concentration (X should, in turn, be a fraction of the
most restrictive limit),
v = room volume,
V = ventilation rate,
N = contaminant generation rate,
Ci = initial concentration

This equation is elegant, however, the author recommends adding a coef-

ficient, K, to the right-hand side of equation from 1 to 5 where 1 = excellent
ventilation air distribution, and 5 = extremely poor air mixing—both judg-
ment calls of the industrial hygienist.
Assume an initial concentration of 200 ppmv carbon monoxide, a small
garage 20' × 30' × 10' high, ventilation rate of 2.5 cfm/ft2 floor area, CO
generation rate of 32 ft3 per hour, X selected at 0.1 (= 20 ppmv), and air mix-
ing factor of 3. The garage is empty but for an unattended small gasoline-
fueled electricity generator.

V = (20' × 30') × 2.5 cfm/ft2 × 60 minutes = 90,000 ft3/hour

v = 20' × 30' × 10' = 6000 ft3

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725 Problems with Solutions 377

 (200 ppm v ) × 90, 000 ft 3 hour/32 ft 3 /hour − 1) 

t = 3 (6000 ft 3 /90, 000 cfh) ln  
 0.1 
= 15.6 hours.

In other words, 15.6 hours/0.1 = 156 hours (assuming generator does not
run out of fuel, ventilation remains constant, ambient CO level does not
increase, etc.). What this calculation tells us is the eventual steady state of
20 ppmv is reached in 156 hours (6.5 days!). Clearly, this is way too long
because a worker, believing the fan operated long enough for 5 hours, might
wrongly assume a safe atmosphere.
Other than turning the generator off, the ventilation must be greatly
increased, and mixing clean outdoor air with indoor air must be improved.
One cannot reasonably allow the generator to run in this open space and
expect dilution to 20 ppmv in a short period of time. One must not enter
until air quality has been quantitatively determined “safe,” or those who do
wear self-contained breathing apparatus while under observation by others
remaining outside.

700. Analytical chemists are now able to detect some environmental toxicants to
as low as 1 part per trillion. Most people, including the author, find the con-
cept of such a tiny amount difficult to grasp. Using an example, try to make
this meaningful to people with the need to know—for example, a group
of workers for whom you are conducting chemical hazard communication
training classes per OSHA’s 29 CFR 1910.1200.
31,688 years have 1 trillion seconds. That is, 1 second in 31,688 years is
1 part per trillion. Oops! I forgot to include leap years. A part per billion is
1 second in 31.688 years. The chemist can search and identify that single
second. And we say, “Where did the time go?”

701. When plotting data consider which regression trend line has the best fit:
normal or logarithmic as depicted below:
y = –58.572 x + 1003.3 y = 5174.9 e–0.4263 X
y r2 = 0.6461 r2 = 0.974
r = 0.0804 r = 0.989
Linear regression Exponential regression
2500

2000

1500
y
1000

500

0
X
0 10 20 30
–500

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378 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Clearly, the exponential regression has the best fit (r 2: 0.974 > 0.6461)
providing superior predictive value particularly for higher values of y and
lower values of x.
As seen here, the familiar algebraic equation y = mx + b (equation for a
straight line) has limitations when paired data sets are not linear correlates.
Empirical data for the above graph are:

X Y
2 1460
4 800
8 230
10 60
12 50
14 20
16 5
18 4
20 1
22 0.2

702. Refer to Problem 544. In this modification, ducts bring in outside air to this
building at 4000 cfm. So, instead of calculations based on x air changes per
hour, use the following formula:

240,000 ft 3 /hour × (1air change/hour ) × 47 grains

= 119 lb H 2 O per hour
13.5 ft 3 /lb of air × 7000 grains/ft 3

where 240,000 ft3/hour = 4000 cfm × 60 minutes/hour

703. The author, early in his career, did not have access to most of the sophisti-
cated instruments available in today’s modern industrial hygiene laborato-
ries. He only had a visible wavelength spectrophotometer, a crude balance
worthless for most gravimetric methods for airborne dust, pH meter, a few
direct reading devices for combustible gases and mercury, an oxygen meter,
microscope, combustible gas indicator, sound level meter, an electrostatic
precipitator, sling psychrometer, and numerous detector tubes for common
gases and vapors. Basic tools, yes, but he had to improvise devices and
methods in many situations.
Colorimetric methods were used for mercury, lead, cadmium, nickel,
manganese, a few other metals, and SO2, H2S, Cl2, and TDI. Many of the
chemicals made and used by his employer were highly acidic or alkaline.
For these, he relied upon his knowledge of chemistry and acid−base reac-
tions in what he termed “gas phase air titration.” A midget impinger was
used in place of, and analogous to, a burette.
For example, to measure NH3 and organic amine vapors, he prepared a
very dilute solution of sulfuric acid (0.0001 N) adding bromocresol purple
as an indicator. 10 mL were added to impingers. Breathing zone air was

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725 Problems with Solutions 379

bubbled through the solution until there was a distinct change from yel-
low to purple. Based on calibrating visual color changes in the calibration
chamber for several concentrations, he now could measure alkaline air con-
taminants directly in the field without a need for laboratory analysis. The
time to a color change was the average vapor or gas concentration. Field
results were typically ±10% of true calibration value. Practical, satisfactory.
The advantages of this method are immediate results, no costly labora-
tory bench analyses, ability to discuss results immediately with workers
and their supervisors, better accuracy than most detector tubes, air-
sampling times (depending on acid or base strength of impinger solution)
of approximately 15 minutes or less based on air concentration, and low
cost. A disadvantage is lengthy, necessary one-time calibration protocols.
Another disadvantage was the presence of other acidic or alkaline air
contaminants competing for the indicator. Besides, it is fun to “titrate” the
air. The worker, see the color change, is impressed and now teachable.
A list of various indicators follows. Select one near neutral pH with
abrupt, narrow change of color and narrow range. The author used those in
italics with success for alkaline and acid gases and vapors. Others were not
evaluated.

Indicator Low pH Color pH Range High pH Color

Gentian violet Yellow 0.0–2.0 Blue-violet
Leucomalachite yellow Yellow 0.0–2.0 Green
Leucomalachite green Green 11.6–14 Colorless
Thymol blue B Red 1.2–2.8 Yellow
Thymol blue Yellow 8.0–9.6 Blue
Methyl yellow Red 2.9–4.0 Yellow
Bromophenol blue Yellow 3.0–4.6 Purple
Congo red Blue-violet 3.0–5.0 Red
Methyl orange Red 3.1–4.4 Orange
Bromocresol green Yellow 3.8–5.4 Blue
Methyl red B Red 4.4–6.2 Yellow
Methyl red Red 4.5–5.2 Green
Azolitmin Red 4.5–8.3 Blue
Bromocresol purple Yellow 5.2–6.8 Purple
Bromothymol blue Yellow 6.0–7.6 Blue
Phenol red Yellow 6.4–8.0 Red
Naphthol red Red 6.8–8.0 Yellow
Naphtholphthalein Colorless to reddish 7.3–8.7 Greenish to blue
Cresol red Yellow 7.2–8.8 Reddish-purple
Phenolphthalein Colorless 8.3–10.0 Fuchsia
Thymolphthalein Colorless 9.3–10.5 Blue
Alazarine red Yellow 10.2–12.0 Red

The equation for a sampling rate of 0.1 cfm (2.832 Lpm) using a 0.01 N
reagent is

0.2445 × 106 × mL reagent 86 × mL reagent

=
2832 × minutes sampled minutess sampled

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380 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

1 mL 0.01 N reagent is equivalent to 0.2445 mL monovalent gas or vapor at

25°C and 760 mm Hg pressure. The industrial hygienist records the pump’s
sampling time to observe a color change in the impinger solution. See
Problem 429.
Air titration works best for alkaline air contaminants. Always use non-
volatile acids such as H2SO4 in the impinger or fritted gas bubbler because
the concentration of volatile acids (e.g., HCl, acetic, HNO3) reduces as air
sampling proceeds. Results would be unreliable. The use of dilute alkaline
solution for acidic air contaminants is unreliable because atmospheric CO2
competes for alkali reactant. For example, if one selected 0.0001 N NaOH
to sample HCl in air, the reaction:

NaOH + CO2 → NaHCO3

interferes because sodium bicarbonate results from CO2 scavenging NaOH

in the impinger.

704. Morpholine (not morphine!) is used for, among other applications, an emul-
sifier for waxes to coat fruits such as apples and pears and as a boiler cor-
rosion inhibitor in steam-powered electricity generation plants. Its vapor
pressure is 7 mm at 20°C. The molecular weight is 87.1 g/mole. A 329.4 liter
air sample obtained at 722 mm Hg and 17.5°C contained 17.6 mg. Calculate
the concentration in parts per million by volume for this worker applying
the NIOSH coefficient of variation.

17.6 mg 22.4 273.16 K + 17.5o C 760 mm Hg

ppm v = × × ×
0.3294 M3 87.1 273.16 K 722 mm Hg
= 15.39 ppm v

NIOSH reports combined correlation coefficient (air sampling, labora-

tory analysis) for morpholine at 0.06. Therefore, the true value at the 95%
confidence level for this test result is

15.39 ppmv × 0.06 = ±0.92 ppmv

15.39 ppmv ± 0.92 ppmv = 14.47 ppmv − 16.31 ppmv (i.e., 14.5 ppmv
to 16.3 ppmv)

This range is below the OSHA’s PEL and the ACGIH TLV of 20 ppmv.
However, it exceeds the NIOSH action level. Prompt industrial hygiene
intervention is required.

705. Consider the previous problem (704). Another chemical safety engineer
evaluated the same worker on the same day using colorimetric detector
tubes. Several were used throughout the workday, and the average breath-
ing zone concentration was 17 ppmv. Again, using the NIOSH coefficient

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725 Problems with Solutions 381

of variation for detector tubes (0.14), calculate the 95% confidence level
range. With both methods, the lower ends of the 95% confidence levels are
essentially identical (14.47 ppmv vs. 14.6 ppmv).

17 ppmv × 0.14 = ±2.38 ppmv

17 ppmv ± 2.38 ppmv = 14.6 ppmv − 19.4 ppmv

Both air sampling and analysis methods demonstrate reasonably good

agreement between results. Sometimes it is not the means but the ends.
Regardless of the evaluation method used, intervention is required. Slightly
higher readings obtained with the detector tubes could be attributed to bias
in determining the length of stain readings. The reader, by now, will have
recognized that preservation of employee health is paramount—not neces-
sarily the method selected to evaluate exposures when there is slight dis-
agreement between the results.
NIOSH published combined (air sampling and/or laboratory analysis)
coefficients of variation for several methods as listed below:

Colorimetric detector tubes 0.14

Rotameter on personal pumps (sampling only) 0.05
Charcoal tubes 0.10
Asbestos (sampling, counting) 0.24−0.38
Respirable dust, except coal mine dust (sampling, weighing) 0.09
Total airborne dust 0.05

The coefficients are not surprising for seasoned practitioners with field
experience in these instruments and subsequent analysis of the laboratory
samples. See the NIOSH’s Occupational Exposure Sampling Strategy
Manual, N.A. Leidel, K. Busch, J. Lynch (1977).

706. The exhaust gas velocity in a 14" internal diameter chemical plant stack at
NTP is 2260 fpm. The concentration of sulfur dioxide gas in these exhaust
gases is 31.7 ppmv. How many pounds of SO2 are emitted per hour from this
stack?

Stack cross-sectional area = πr 2 = π(7")2/144/in2/ft2 = 1.0724 ft2

“molecular weight” of air = 28.966 g molea1

Molecular weight of SO2 = 64.066 g/mole

Q = AV = 1.0724 ft2 × 2260 fpm = 2423.6 standard cubic feet per minute

(60 minutes/hour) × 0.07639

lbs/hour = scfm × molecular weight ×
(28.966 g/mole) × 106

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382 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

(60 minute/hour) × 0.07639

lbs/hour = 2423.6 scfm × 64.066 g/mole ×
(28.966 g/mole) × 106
= 0.02457

707. The architectural design plans for a new school stipulate an air change every
20 minutes for each classroom. Each classroom is 35' × 25' × 10'. How many
cubic feet of tempered, clean air are required per minute per classroom?

35' × 25' × 10' = 8750 ft3

Base your calculations on an empty classroom:

room volume 8750 ft 3

cfm required = = = 437..5ft 3 /minute
minutes per air change 20 acm

How many cfm/ft2 of floor area is this?

437.5 cfm/35' × 25' = 0.5 cfm/ft2

This air exchange rate might be low. Reconsider 1.0 cfm/ft2. Consider
occupants’ comfort, the air flow distribution patterns, climate and energy
costs, tempering and humidifying, and students’ physical activities (e.g.,
music, dance vs. mathematics, history).

708. Automotive service garages commonly have flexible hoses that can be
attached to the exhaust pipes of operating car and truck engines. These
typically vent through a hole in garage service doors. Exhaust gas flow is
not mechanically assisted with a fan. Problems with this approach to pro-
tect occupants’ health by accumulation of CO include kinked hoses, hoses
too short, back pressure from long hoses and condensed water vapor to
liquid water, holes in the hose, and wind forcing exhaust gases back into
the garage through cracks under doors. Workers sometimes fail to make the
connections or to ensure a secure connection.
An example (with permission) from the 26th edition of Industrial
Ventilation … A Manual of Recommended Practice published by the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (2007), dem-
onstrates design requirements for mechanically exhausted tailpipe system:
A 15-liter engine operating at 1000 rpm displaces 530 scfm. Under heavy
load, corrected for a 1300°F exhaust temperature, the actual exhaust is
1758 acfm. This example applies a 20% safety factor in the equation:

 0.0353ft 3   460o F + 1300o F 

Q,acfm = (1.2) 15 L × × 1000  ×  
 L   530o F 
= 2110 acfm

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725 Problems with Solutions 383

This equation can be used for any internal combustion engine as long as
engine rpm are known (design for maximum) and the exhaust gas temperature
is known. It is far safer to vent exhaust gases through a high stack instead of
through the door. The “safety factor” can be eliminated with excellent design.
The author suggests installation of CO gas alarms at strategic locations in the
shop and education and training of workers in the hazards of CO gas inhala-
tion. A common myth is that engines with catalytic converters generate less
CO. This is true if the converter is not fouled and is hot. Cold starting gener-
ates much CO until convertor acquires a high operating temperature.
These calculations also apply to engine dynamometer actual operating
conditions testing.

709. A ranch house built on a concrete slab above a crawl space has wood, lino-
leum, and tile floors for all floor surfaces. Area dimensions for rooms are
living room (22' × 26'), two bedrooms (10' × 12'/each), dining area (10' × 8'),
kitchen (8' × 10'), total hall area (3.5' × 18'), four closets (3' × 3.5'/each), and
a bathroom (6' × 8'). A virgin HEPA dust filter was used on the vacuum
machine to double sweep all floor areas. Laboratory analysis of filter deter-
mined 2267 milligrams of inorganic lead (spalled paint, window well chips,
chipped door casings), outdoor soil tracked inside, etc.).
What is the minimum average Pb dust concentration in micrograms per
square foot?

Living room 22' × 26' = 572 ft2

Bedrooms 2 (10' × 12') = 240 ft2
Dining room 8' × 10' = 80 ft2
Kitchen 8' × 10' = 80 ft2 (including counter areas)
Hall areas 3.5' × 18' = 63 ft2
Closets 4 (3' × 3.5') = 42 ft2
Bathroom 6' × 8' = 48 ft2 (including bathtub, counters)
Total house floor area = 1125 ft2

2,267,000 mcg Pb/1125 ft2 = 2015 mcg/ft2

This is over 10 times the current Housing and Urban Development

standard of a maximum of 200 micrograms of lead per square foot of
interior floor surface area. Occupancy must be curtailed immediately and
not allowed until a robust cleaning and abatement program demonstrates
acceptable lead-free surfaces. Some key applicable regulations are OSHA’s
(29 CFR 1910.1025)—for all lead abatement workers, HUD’s Lead-Based
Paint Poisoning Prevention Act, Title X Residential Lead-Based Paint
Hazard Reduction Act—for residential occupants, and EPA’s hazardous
waste disposal, and EPA’s Clean Air Act—both for our environment.
One, of course, must be aware that vacuum sweepers have different effi-
ciencies. So, the result in the example problem is low. Canister vacuums are

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384 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

the best for hard surface floors. Those with power brushes could be up to 6
times more efficient than those without. Shag carpets and deep plush rugs are
the most difficult to clean. Upright vacuum sweepers will remove 35−55% of
recently deposited dust. Older dust is often more difficult to vacuum clean.

710. Until now, we have not applied Henry’s law: At constant temperature, the
amount of gas (or as vapor) that dissolves in a given type and volume of a
liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilib-
rium with that liquid. Think of an un-opened bottle of soda or a sparkling
wine where the head space is rich in CO2. After opening, head space loses
pressure from the CO2. Ergo, so will the carbonated liquid and, in time,
“goes flat.”
The following example is modified with permission from a problem in
professional development course attended by the author (Mathematical
Modeling of Exposures, given at American Industrial Hygiene Conference
and Exhibition, Toronto, Course 707, 2009).
Consider a 1 cubic meter (264 gallons) open surface tank of water that
contains 10 mg benzene/liter (10 ppmm/v). The empty room volume is
100 m3 (3531.5 ft3), and there is no ventilation of the room with outside air.
A 3531.5 ft3 room is, for example, 20' × 20' × 8.83'. For reference, the solu-
bility of benzene in water at 15°C is 1.8 g (1800 mg) per liter of water.
10 mg benzene/L H2O = 0.001%—is much less than the 0.1% stipulated
by OSHA to be reported on Material Safety Data Sheets for carcinogens in
product mixtures.
Henry’s law constant for benzene in water is 0.22 (no units). This con-
stant is the water-to-air partition coefficient for benzene for a set volume
and temperature. Or, 0.22 = Cair(benzene in air)/Cliquid(benzene in water).
Apply a mass balance at equilibrium: initial mass of benzene in
water = final mass of benzene in water + benzene vapor in air. That is, ben-
zene that was dissolved in water is now in air as vapor, and some benzene
remains dissolved in the water in this two-phase system at equilibrium.

2m3 tank = 1000 L

1000 L × 10 mg/L = 10,000 mg total benzene in water tank

0.22 × (Cbenzene in air × 99 m3) + (Cbenzene in water × 1 m3) = 10,000 mg benzene

Cbenzene in water = 459 mg/m3

Cbenzene in air = 0.22 × Cbenzene in water

0.22 × 459 mg/m3 = 101 mg/m3 = 31.6 ppmv

31.6 ppmv is over 30 times the OSHA’s PEL for benzene and 316 times
NIOSH REL for benzene. Both limits are worst acceptable vapor concen-
trations for this genotoxic hematopoietic carcinogen.

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725 Problems with Solutions 385

711. Industrial hygienists investigate workplace health disorder outbreaks to

determine if there is any work-relatedness in groups of those of concern.
The following is an analytical tool they use to this end.

Two-By-Two Tables
Present A B A+B
Absent C D C+D
Total A+C B+D A+B+C+D

Calculations and comparisons of disease or injury incidence rates are help-

ful in determining strengths of association between risk factors and a health
problem.
The data are summarized and distributed into four cells: A, B, C, and
D. These data are used to compare occurrence and exposure. The standard
format is

Health Event, Injury, or Disease

present, absent, total

exposure

A = those with disease and exposure A + C = those with disease

B = those exposed without disease A + B = those with exposure
C = those with disease, but not exposed B + D = those without disease
D = those neither exposed nor with C + D = those without exposure
disease A + B + C + D = those at possible
risk

Apply this to a chemical plant where some workers present with chronic
peripheral neuropathy of upper extremities—bilateral in all cases. The plant
manufactures a neurotoxic pesticide. Research on the disease incidence and
populations reveals: A = 43, B = 312, C = 2, and D = 401.

A 43
Cumulative incidence of exposed group = =
A + B 43 + 312
= 0.122 = 12.2%

C 2
Cumulative incidence in unexposed group = =
C + D 2 + 401
= 0.005 = 0.5%

A/A + B 43/355
Relative risk = = = 24.4
C/C + D 2/403

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386 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Group A was initially seven workers. Plant physician was suspicious of

this apparently high incidence of affected workers and evaluated all at pos-
sible risk. This uncovered 36 more workers with bilateral peripheral neu-
ropathy. Group A expanded to 43 employees.
These calculations help to compare risks that a worker in this plant will
develop a nerve disease of this type. This, of course, depends on the work-
er’s inhalation, dermal, and the ingestion dose of this pesticide, its chemical
intermediates, raw materials, and other factors. Ratio of rates in the unex-
posed and exposed work groups are then compared—the relative risk (RR).
If RR = 1.0, there is identical risk between the exposed and unexposed
workers and is unremarkable. If RR exceeds 1.0, this suggests there could
be association between the disease and exposure. This RR of 24.4, in the
example, is extremely high. The 95% and 99% confidence intervals for RR
can be determined from standard statistical tables. If RR is substantially
below 1.0, one might tentatively conclude exposure presumably protects
against a particular health issue: disease or injury.
This high RR of 24.4 requires a prompt investigation, reporting the
data to public health agencies, and immediate industrial hygiene inter-
ventions. Investigation is worthy of reporting in the scientific literature.
An alerting and prompt report to the EPA is required as a matter of law
under the Toxic Substances Control Act. State OSHA and public health
agencies require reporting of known or suspected disease originating in
workplaces.
When considering medical statistics, we should be mindful of the late Sir
Austin Bradford Hill who reminded us, “Health statistics represent people
with the tears wiped off.”
Last, J. M. and R. B. Wallace, Public Health and Preventive Medicine, 13th
Edition, Appleton & Lange, 1992—an excellent textbook for practitioners.

712. Nonoccupational benzene vapor exposures of residents in urban and subur-

ban areas of the United States are typically 5.76 mcg/m3 (1.8 ppbv). By how
much will one’s exposure increase if he or she has daily 8-hour occupa-
tional exposures at NIOSH’s occupational REL of 0.1 ppmv (100 ppbv)?
EPA (Exposure Factors Handbook, 1997) gives the following inhalation
rates and daily air volumes inhaled for a 70-kilogram adult male:

Sedentary 0.62 m3/hour × 8 hours (sleeping) = 4.96 m3

Light activity 1.40 m /hour × 8 hours (leisure time) = 11.2 m3
3

Moderate activity 1.78 m3/hour × 8 hours (working) = 14.24 m3

Total inhaled volume/24 hours = 30.4 m3/day

Ambient benzene vapor exposure (no occupational exposure):

5.76 mcg/m3 × 30.4 m3 = 175.1 micrograms benzene

per day (ambient inhalation).

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725 Problems with Solutions 387

To one’s ambient exposure we must add occupational exposure at NIOSH

limit:

ppm v × molecular weight 0.1 ppm v × 78.11 grams/mole

mg/m 3 = =
24.45 L/gram-mole 24.45 L/g-mole
= 0.3195 mg/m 3

0.3195 mg/m3 = 319.5 mcg/m3

319.5 mcg/m3 × 14.24 m3 = 4549.7 micrograms of benzene from occupa-

tional exposure vapor inhalation

worker’s total inhalation exposure/day = ambient air + workplace air

= 175.1 mcg + 4549.7 mcg = 4724.8 micrograms

contribution from occupational exposure to total daily exposure

= (4549.7 mcg/4724.8 mcg) × 100 = 96.3%

That is, for this worker, ambient benzene exposure contributes only 3.7%
of daily dose.
For workers exposed at OSHA’s PEL of 1 ppmv, occupational workplace
air contributes:

ppm v × molecular weight 1.0 ppm v × 78.11 grams/mole

mg/m 3 = =
24.45 L/gram-mole 24.45 L/g-mole
= 3.195 mg/m 3

3195 mcg/m3 × 14.24 m3 = 45,496.8 micrograms of benzene

45,496.8 mcg + 175.1 mcg = 45,671.9 micrograms

Occupational = 99.6%, and nonoccupational = 0.4% of benzene vapor

daily dose excluding weekends.
Skin contact will increase workers’ absorbed systemic benzene dose.
Calculate this worker’s weekly exposure at the OSHA’s PEL:

1 week = 168 hours

40 hours working: 5 days × 45,496.8 mcg = 227,484 micrograms benzene

Sleeping: 7 days × 8 hours/day × 0.62 m3/hour × 5.76 mcg/m3

= 200 mcg benzene

Light activity: 5 days × 8 hours/day × 1.40 m3/hour × 5.76 mcg/m3

= 322.6 mcg

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388 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

Light activity: 2 days × 16 hours/day × 1.40 m3/hour × 5.76 mcg/m3

= 258 mcg

Weekly dose = 227,484 mcg + 200 mcg + 322.6 mcg + 258 mcg
= 228,264.6 mcg

Workplace contribution = (227,484 mcg/228,264.6 mcg) × 100 = 99.66%

713. The CO2 gas concentration in a beer brewing plant’s fermentation area is
33,800 ppmv. What is the oxygen gas level?

33,800 ppmv = 3.38%v

100% air − 3.38% CO2v = 96.62%v air remaining

Air is 20.95% oxygen by volume.

96.62%v × 0.2095 = 20.24% by volume O2

Although the oxygen gas concentration complies with OSHA’s minimum
level of 19.5% oxygen by volume, the CO2 gas concentration is excessive.
Preventing CO2 gas from leaking from fermentation tanks and piping and
increasing dilution ventilation must be done. Of these intervention methods,
eliminating gas leaks is the least expensive and most effective. Workers
with cardiac issues might be at risk because elevated CO2 levels stimulate
the aorta’s carotid body. Heart and breathing rates increase, and diminished
oxygen in the air can act in combination to stress an already compromised,
ischemic heart. Protracted inhalation of CO2 could increase arterial car-
bonic acid resulting in acidosis. Inform workers. Fix it now.
The TLV and STEL for CO2 are 5000 and 30,000 ppmv, respectively.

714. Industrial hygienists and toxicologists are asked what was the person’s expo-
sure to carbon monoxide gas when his carboxyhemoglobin concentration is
known. Or, conversely, at what time can we expect a certain COHgB level
when the CO gas level is known or assumed. Or, more commonly, when we
know carbon monoxide gas concentration and duration of exposure, what is
the expected COHgB level? The following equation can provide answers to
these questions (Wallace, L. A. et al., A linear model relating breath con-
centrations to environmental exposures: Application to a chamber study of
four volunteers exposed to volatile organic chemicals, Journal of Exposure
Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 7(2): 141–163 (1993):

β
[COHgB]total = [COHgB]base + [COHgB]exog × e −gt + [CO](1 − e −gt ),
g

where
COHgB = percent hemoglobin combined with exogenous CO in the blood
CO = concentration of inhaled carbon monoxide gas, ppmv

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725 Problems with Solutions 389

β = rate constant for exogenous CO uptake by blood (0.06% COHgB

ppmv−1/hr a1)
γ = rate constant for return of exogenous blood CO to the lungs (0.402 hr −1)
[COHgB]total = baseline (endogenous) CO level in blood, constant at
0.5% (background carboxyhemoglobin level derived from catabolism
of heme), %
[COHgB]exog = exogenous CO level in blood at time t = 0, %

For example, what is COHgB level in a one pack per day cigarette smoker
([COHgB]exog = 5.0%) exposed to 350 ppmv CO for 90 minutes?

90 minutes = 1.5 hours

[COHgB]total = 0.5% + 5% × e − ( 0.402/hour × 1.5hours )

0.06
+ [CO](1 − e − ( 0.402/hour × 1.5 hours ) )
0.402
= 0.5% + (5% × 0.547) + 0.149 × 350 ppm v × (1 − 0.547)
= 26.9% COHgB

715. A pollutant source releases 238 mg CO every minute into an empty non-
ventilated building (30' × 20' × 12') that has 0.5 air change each hour. What
is the maximum CO gas concentration that will be achieved when the CO
emission rate is balanced with the fresh air dilution ventilation?

30' × 20' × 12' = 7200 ft3 = 203.88 m3

238 mg/minute
[0.5 air change/hour ] × [1 hour/60 minutes] × [203.88 m 3 /air change]
= 140.1 mg/m 3

Assume this pollutant source is repaired after 3 hours. What is the CO

gas concentration at this time?

3 hours = 180 minutes

238 mg/minute
[0.5 air change/hour] × [1hour/60minutes] × [203.88 m 3 /air change]
× (1 − e − ( 0.5)(1/60 )(180minutes ) ) = 140.1 mg/m 3 × 0.777 = 108.9mg CO/m 3

mg/m 3 × 24.45L/gram-mole −1
ppm v =
molecular weight
108.9 mg/m 3 × 24.45 L/gram-mole
= = 95.1 ppm v
28.01grams/mole

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390 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

716. An industrial hygiene chemist prepares a dilute concentration of hydrogen

bromide gas in a Tedlar® bag for a direct reading instrument calibration. She
injects 1.0 mL HBr into an air stream delivering 7.65 Lpm for 23.5 minutes
into the bag. What is the final HBr concentration in the bag?

7.65 Lpm × 23.5 minutes = 179.775 L

VHBr ,mL
CHBRv ,%v = 100 ×
1000(Vair ) + (VHBr )
1.0 mL
= 100 ×
[(1000 mL/L) ×
× (179.775 L)] + 0.1 mL
= 0.0005563% by volume

0.0005563%v = 5.563 ppmv HBr

Hydrogen bromide does not have a TLV for an 8-hour TWAE. However,
the TLV ceiling level is 2 ppmv. A set of serial dilutions of the mixed
gas from this bag must be made to make instrument calibration bags of,
for example, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, and 5.563 ppmv. This can be done easily by
setting up arithmetic dilution ratios. Take instrument readings from each
bag, and plot the six (one on “zero” air) results on normal graph paper
(ppmv HBr vs. meter reading at the calibration pressure and absolute
temperature).
Contact the Tedlar® bag manufacturer or the NIOSH laboratory to ensure
that HBr will not react with the material resulting in low, false-negative
readings.

717. The concentration of carbon monoxide gas in an empty room is 573 ppmv.
We will not permit occupancy until the CO gas concentration is reduced to
5 ppmv. The room is 30' × 25' × 12'. The ventilation of the room with fresh
air is 620 scfm, and air mixing is excellent (K = 1). How long will it take?

30' × 25' × 12' = 9000 ft3

V C  9000 ft 3  573 ppm v 

t req = × ln  initial  = × ln   = 19.26 minutes
q  Cfinal  620 scfm  5 ppm v 

On a scale from 1 to 5 (no units), if we believed air mixing was greater

than dismal and less than excellent, we might assign a mixing factor of
3. We will then multiply 19.26 minutes × 3 = 57.78 minutes and only allow
occupancy after 1 hour and several air samples confirm the desired 5 ppmv
CO gas occupancy concentration. Determine source of CO and fix it to
assure no recurrence. Obtain blood samples from those who occupied the
room before ventilation intervention to determine their COHgB concentra-
tions and to treat medically as appropriate.

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725 Problems with Solutions 391

718. Calculate the mass of EPA air pollutant SO2 represented by a fritted gas
bubbler containing 36.5 mL of SO2 collection solution. One milliliter was
taken for analysis. The sample contained 13.2 mg, and the blank contained
<0.01 mg. The collection efficiency of the bubbler is 0.87 (87%, no units).
The sampling rate was 5.2 Lpm, and the stack exhaust gases were sampled
for 19.5 minutes (corrected to NTP).

(36.5 mL/1 mL) × (13.2 mg − 0.009 mg)

mg/L = = 5.46
0.87 × 5.2 Lpm × 19.5 minutes

5.46 mg/L × 1000 L/m3 = 5460 mg/m3

(5460 mg/m 3 ) × 24.45

ppm v = = 2083.9 ppm v = 0.2084%v
64.06 grams/gram-mole −1

719. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry offers the following
equation to calculate a reasonably acceptable risk for carcinogens:

RWL
Cm = ,
PIA(ED)

where
Cm = the action level, for example, air concentration of carcinogen above
which remedial action must be taken,
R = acceptable risk, or the probability of developing cancer,
W = body mass,
L = assumed lifetime,
P = potency factor (unitless),
I = intake rate (total from inhalation, dermal, ingestion, trans-ocular,
injection),
A = body absorption factor, the fraction of carcinogen absorbed by each
route of exposure (unitless), and
ED = exposure duration.

Assume a 70-kg male individual with life expectancy of 70 years exposed

to benzene vapor for 17 years. Further assume an acceptable risk one cancer
per million persons, or 10 −6. Benzene’s established potency factor is 1.8 mg/
kg-day. Assume his lung absorption is 60% (0.6). By the inhalation route:

(10 −6 )(70 kg)(70 years)

Cm =
(1.8 mg/kg/day )(30.4 m 3 /day )(0.6)(17 years)(mg/1000 mcg)
= 0.088 mcg/m 3

Risk is unacceptable if this person’s 17-year inhalation exposure exceeds

0.088 mcg/m3 = 0.000088 mg/m3.

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392 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

(0.000088 mg/m 3 )(24.45 L/g-mole)

ppm v = = 0.0000275ppm v
78.11 grams/mole
= 0.0275 ppbv

This concentration is less than benzene vapor levels reported for ambient
urban air. Moreover, because the equation contains several fuzzy variables,
the utility of these calculations, in the author’s view, has severe limitations.
The value of these calculations is to determine relative risks between sev-
eral carcinogenic chemicals in the atmosphere. In time, with more research
and refinements, the calculations and iterations will have greater predictive
power and public health utility.

720. A general area ambient air sample was obtained for respirable dust near a
large stone-crushing operation. Process enclosures, wet methods of dust
suppression, and mechanical local exhaust ventilation were not used to
prevent and capture fugitive dust that contained silica (α-quartz) at 23%.
The filter used in respirable dust cyclone weighed 41.22 milligrams initially
and 44.08 milligrams after air sampling at a rate of 1.7 Lpm for 7 hours,
42 minutes. What was the average respirable dust concentration in the air
over this sampling period? What was the ambient silica dust level?

7 hours, 42 minutes = 420 minutes + 42 minutes = 462 minutes

462 minutes × 1.7 Lpm = 785.4 liters = 0.7854 m3
44.08 mg – 41.22 mg = 2.86 mg respirable dust
2.86 mg/0.7854 m3 = 3.64 mg total respirable dust/m3
3.64 mg total respirable dust × 0.23 = 0.84 mg respirable silica/m3

Prompt intervention by installing dust controls are necessary to protect

the workers and people living nearby. Dispense appropriate respirators to
educated, trained, and medically approved workers. Inform neighbors to
remain inside and to close all windows and doors. Respirable silica dust
causes pulmonary fibrosis (silicosis) and lung cancer.

721. Subsequent analysis of the respirable dust in the previous problem (720)
revealed, in addition to quartz, the presence of cristobalite (1.1%) and tridymite
(0.6%). What is the PEL for this three-mineral component respirable dust?

10 mg/m 3
PEL, respirable mg/m 3 =
[% quartz + (% cristobalite × 2)
+ (% tridymite × 2)] + 2
10 mg/m 3
=
[23% + (1.1% × 2) + (0.6% × 2)] + 2]
10 mg/m 3
= = 0.352 mg/m 3
28.4

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725 Problems with Solutions 393

This PEL assists in prevention of silicosis. However, it might not be suf-

ficiently low to prevent lung cancer. The formula is based on the 1968 TLV
adopted by OSHA to prevent silica pneumoconiosis. Silica has since been
identified as a pulmonary carcinogen. Industrial hygienists must be forever
mindful to exposures below OSHA PELs and other guidelines might be
regulatory compliant but remain as inhalation health hazards based on any
current clinical, toxicological, and/or epidemiological evidence.
We must also consider what the remaining respirable dust is: 23% +
1.1% + 0.6% = 24.7%. 100% − 24.7% = 75.3% (silicates? asbestos? heavy met-
als?, and so on). And do not forget we must also consider qualitatively and
quantitatively what total airborne dust is.

722. Stack exhaust gases from hot combustion processes typically contain much
water vapor. As the exhaust gas cools, water will condense as a fog and a
liquid film on cool surfaces. We easily notice this during the winter in cold
climates where water in a car or truck exhaust forms a plume of visible
water fog and mist. The vehicle’s exhaust is just as hot in summer, but since
warmer ambient summer air can hold more moisture than in cold winter air,
a visible water vapor cloud does not form.
The amount of water vapor can be highly variable between different
combustion processes and other moisture-containing gases. Failure to
account for the water vapor content can lead to significant reporting errors.
Therefore, air-sampling data from various degrees of “wet air” are con-
verted into a standard “dry air” as the following calculations will demon-
strate. Breathing zone ambient air samples obtained for industrial hygiene
purposes are not typically corrected for water vapor content because the
water content is much less than from a combustion process. An air-sam-
pling device placed extremely close to the nostrils and mouth could mislead
because (1) exhaled breath at body temperature is 100% saturated by water
vapor, and (2) exhaled air could be sampled along with contaminated air
diluting mixture and giving false-negative results.
350 mL of water was condensed from 50.0 cubic feet of flue gas (as indicated
at the dry gas meter conditions) drawn from a duct through a water condensation
train. The gas temperature at both the meter and the last condensing stage was
70°F. Dry gas meter vacuum was a5.0 inches of mercury. Barometric pressure
was 29.92 inches of mercury. Calculate the moisture content of the flue gas.

Observed: Tm = 70° + 460°R = 530°R

Pm = 29.92" − 5.00" = 24.92: Hg
(Pw)m = 0.39" Hg at 70°F)

T 
Condensed water volume : Vc = 2.67 × 10 −3 ×  m  × Lc
 Pm 
 530 
= 2.67 × 10 −3 ×   × 350 = 19.85 ft
3

 24.92 

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394 Air Contaminants, Ventilation, and Industrial Hygiene Economics

( Pw )m 0.739
Water vapor volume = Vc = × Vm = × 50.0 = 1.48 ft 3
Pm 24.92

Total water volume = Vc + Vw = 19.85 + 1.48 = 21.33 ft 3

Total volume = VT = Vc + Vm = 19.85 + 50.0 = 69.85 ft 3

Vw 21.33
Moisture content = × 100 = × 100
VT 69.85
= 30.5% H 2 O vapor by volume

723. A chemical plant maintenance worker had the following TWAEs to organic
solvent vapors (acceptable exposure limits within parentheses): 9 ppmv A
(50 ppmv), 45 ppmv B (200 ppmv), 2 ppmv C (75 ppmv), and 13 ppmv D (100
ppmv). Calculate his additive mixture exposure and comment appropriately.

 9 ppm v 45 ppm v 2 ppm v 13 ppm v 

8 hour TWAE ppm v =  + + +
 50 ppm v 200 ppm v 75 ppm v 1 00 ppm v 
= 0.18 + 0.23 + 0.03 + 0.13 = 0.58 (unitless)

This exposure does not exceed 1.0 unity—the TLV for the solvent vapor
mixture. However, 0.58 exceeds a 0.5 action level. Moreover, this worker,
in maintenance activities, would most likely have highly variable exposures
from day to day. More thorough investigation of his most likely highest (not
low or average!) exposures is required. During interim, after being medi-
cally qualified, require use of acceptable respirator with fitting training.
Ask the worker and his supervisor what contributes to his greatest vapor
exposure, and focus on control of highest peak exposures as indicated.

724. The worker as in the previous problem (723) was not exposed to the same
solvent vapors on another day. He was, however, exposed (8-hour time-
weighted averages) to methyl cellosolve at 1.6 ppmv (limit = 25 ppmv) and
methyl cellosolve acetate at 1.1 ppmv (limit = 25 ppmv). Calculate his addi-
tive mixture exposure.

 1.6 ppm v 1.1 ppm v 

8-hour TWAE ppm v =  + = 0.064 + 0.044
 25 ppm v 25 ppm v 
= 0.108 (unitless)

Exposure is 10.8% of the worst acceptable exposure and (0.108/0.5) 21.6%

of the action level. However, because he had frequent unprotected hand con-
tact with these skin-absorbed solvents, the industrial hygienist immediately

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725 Problems with Solutions 395

intervened by providing acceptable impervious gloves. Regular skin pro-

tection, improving the local exhaust ventilation, hazard communication
education and training, enclosure of vapor-emitting processes, and medical
surveillance were implemented. Follow-up studies revealed nondetectable
vapor exposures and regular compliance with industrial hygiene recom-
mendations—especially prevention of all skin contact.

725. The industrial hygienist becomes involved in the education and training of
workers. This, by nature, involves several cryptic terms and unfamiliar con-
cepts for trainees. Now and then, the author encounters some workers who
have a hard time coming to grips with notions of TWAEs and short-term
exposure limits.
The following example has been used as a reasonably apt analogy.
Consider a person who travels nonstop on a highway for eight straight
hours. Four highway sections have a speed limit of 60 mph which, at this
speed, covers 15 minutes of driving for each section—comparable to four
STEL exposures separated by an hour or so for each. The remainder of the
highway has a speed limit of 50 mph.
The driver races at 80 mph through the 60 mph sections. He drives at
35 mph for the remainder of the highway. What is his time-weighted aver-
age velocity? On an average, is he compliant with the posted speed limits?

80 mph × 1 hours = 80 mph-hours

35 mph × 7 hours = 245 mph-hours

(80 mph-hours + 245 mph-hours)/8 hours = 40.625 mph

average driving speed

So, we see this driver is speed limit-compliant—on average, but his high
velocity bursts place him over the STEL. He’s at risk of harm (ticket or
disease). Do you believe the Federales Polizia will buy his average veloc-
ity argument if he is radar zapped at 80 mph anywhere on his trek? “But,
officer, on average, I am a very careful driver.” Close, but no cigar. “Driver’s
license, registration, and insurance record, please.”

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librosdelpobre.blogspot.com
Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety

Air Contaminants, Ventilation,

and Industrial Hygiene
Economics
The Practitioner's Toolbox and Desktop Handbook

“Professor Roger Wabeke has provided the industrial hygiene profession

with an excellent resource. This book provides not only an excellent
overview of the topic; it also provides a large volume of worked example
problems. The diligent student of the art and science of industrial hygiene
will be well prepared to provide opinions backed by numbers rather than
conjecture after reading and studying this book. Professor Wabeke’s late
father was correct, there is nothing more devastating to an unscientific
opinion than a good number. This book helps us to provide good numbers.
Every industrial hygienist should have this book on his shelf.”
—Ernest P. Chiodo, MD, JD, MPH, M5, MBA, CLH, Past President of the
Michigan Industrial Hygiene Society and Former Medical Director of the City
of Detroit

“… a companion for practicing industrial hygienists at the workplace. …

Moreover, candidates wishing to master the CIH examination (especially
on the quantitative sections) might also find the book very useful. Yet,
they must plan it carefully because sufficient time is required to browse
through it topic by topic and page by page before the date for the
examination.”
—TSIN, Tai Wa, MH, MSc, CChem (MRSC), CIH, RPH, RSO, RSA,
Consultant, WINCO & Associates Limited, and Adjunct Assistant Professor
of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, and Honorary Research Associate,
Hong Kong University

“… must have for those professionals who work in the comprehensive

practice of industrial hygiene. In addition, for those planning to take a
certification exam, it provides a multitude of sample problems to work
through in preparation.”
—Rodney Handy, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

K16817
ISBN: 978-1-4665-7790-9
90000

9 781466 577909
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