CHAPTER 6

SAMPLE DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

What is sampling?
Sampling- is the process of using a small number of items or parts of a larger population to make
conclusions about the whole population. It enables the researchers to estimate unknown
characteristics of the population.
Data is collected from target population using survey. If a survey covers all population, the
survey is called census and if the survey covers part of the population, the survey is called
sampling.
Why sampling?
 Cheaper than census
 Takes smaller time as compared to census
 Economy of efforts as relatively fewer staffs are needed
 More detailed information can be collected using sample
 Better quality of interviewing, supervision and other related activities

Sampling Techniques/Procedures (Steps in Sampling Design)

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample
design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample, i.e. the size of the
sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are a number of sample
design forms which you as a researcher can choose. Therefore, a researcher must select/prepare
a sample design that should reliable and appropriate for his research study.
There are four major steps that are applied in the process of sample selection. These include the
following:
1) Defining the population
2) Listing the population
3) Selecting a representative sample, and
4) Obtaining an adequate sample
1. Defining the Population: - the first step in the process of sampling is specifying the
population of the study. The population needs to be properly defined so that there is no
ambiguity as to whether a given unit belongs to the population. On the other hand, if a
population is not properly defined, a researcher faces a difficulty in knowing what units to
consider when selecting the sample. Furthermore, inferences concerning a population cannot
be drawn in the absence of clearly defined population. Therefore, a researcher should pay due
attention right at the beginning of sampling.
2. Listing the Population: - After defining the population of interest for a given study, it is quite
necessary to prepare the list of names of all items of the universe (for finite universe only).

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 The complete list of the members of a population is known as sampling frame or source list.
The complete list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is absolutely
essential for the source list to be representative of the universe as possible. For example if
you are interested in studying about gender differences in mathematics achievements of
freshman students at Addis Ababa University, the sampling frame is the list of the names of
all freshman male and female students at the university in a given academic year. In this case,
you are ready to identify the sample units for your study.
3. Selecting a Representative Sample: - After defining a population and preparing a sample
frame, researcher selects a sample of units form the source list by using appropriate
techniques. The process of such a selection is known as sampling. To serve a useful purpose,
sampling should be unbiased or representative. A good sample must be as nearly
representative of the entire population as possible and ideally it must provide the whole of
information about the population from which the sample has been drawn.
4. Obtaining an Adequate Sample: - The size of sample should be optimum, which is neither
excessively large nor too small. An optimum or adequate sample is one, which fulfills the
requirements of efficiency, representatives, reliability and flexibility. In principle, a small
sample is sufficient for homogenous group population, but a much larger sample is necessary
if there is greater variability in the units of the population. The determination of the size of a
sample should be seen in view of the degree of the precision of the investigation, the size of
the population, the type of the research used, the parameters of interest in a research study,
the size of the population variance, and the costs of the research.

Probability (Random) and Non-Probability (non-random) Sampling

There are several alternative ways of taking a sample. The major alternative sampling plans may
be grouped into probability techniques and non-probability techniques.

In probability sampling every element in the population has a known nonzero probability of
selection. Probability sampling designs are used when the representativeness of the sample is of
importance in the interest of wider generalisability. When time or other factors, rather than
generalisability, become critical, non-probability sampling is generally used.

In non-probability sampling the probability of any particular element of the population being
chosen is unknown. The selection of units in non-probability sampling is quite arbitrary, as
researchers rely heavily on personal judgment. It should be noted that there are no appropriate
statistical techniques for measuring random sampling error from a non-probability sample.

In non-probability sampling designs, the elements in the population do not have any
probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects. This means that the findings
from the study of the sample cannot be confidently generalized to the population. However the

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researchers may at times be less concerned about generalisability than obtaining some
preliminary information in a quick and inexpensive way.

Advantages of non-probability methods:

 Cheaper than census

 Used when sampling frame is not available
 Useful when population is so widely dispersed that cluster sampling would not be
efficient
 Some research not interested in working out what proportion of population gives a
particular response but rather in obtaining an idea of the range of responses on ideas that
people have.
Types of non-probability sampling:
Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling (also called haphazard or accidental sampling) refers to sampling by

obtaining units or people who are most conveniently available. For example, it may be
convenient and economical to sample employees in companies in a nearby area, sample from a
pool of friends and neighbors. The person-on-the street interview conducted by TV programs is
another example. TV interviewers go on the street with camera and microphone to talk to few
people who are convenient to interview. The people walking past a TV studio in the middle of
the day do not represent everyone (homemakers, people in the rural areas). Likewise, TV
interviewers select people who look “normal” to them and avoid people who are unattractive,
poor, very old, or inarticulate.

Purposive Sampling

Depending upon the type of topic, the researcher lays down the criteria for the subjects to be
included in the sample. Whoever meets that criteria could be selected in the sample. The
researcher might select such cases or might provide the criteria to somebody else and leave it to
his/her judgment for the actual selection of the subjects. That is why such a sample is also called
as judgmental or expert opinion sample. For example a researcher is interested in studying
students who are enrolled in a course on research methods, are highly regular, are frequent
participants in the class discussions, and often come with new ideas. The criteria has been laid
down, the researcher may do this job himself/herself, or may ask the teacher of this class to
select the students by using the said criteria. In the latter situation we are leaving it to the
judgment of the teacher to select the subjects.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling (also called network, chain referral, or reputational sampling) is a method
for identifying and sampling (or selecting) cases in the network.

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refers to a variety of procedure in which initial respondents are not selected through probability
methods, but in which additional respondents are then obtained from information provided by
initial respondents.
For example, a researcher examines friendship networks among teenagers in a community. He
or she begins with three teenagers who do not know each other. Each teen names four close
friends. The researcher then goes to the four friends and asks each to name four close friends, then
goes to those four and does the same thing again, and so forth. Before long, a large number of
people are involved. Each person in the sample is directly or indirectly tied to the original
teenagers, and several people may have named the same person. The researcher eventually
stops, either because no new names are given, indicating a closed network, or because the
network is so large that it is at the limit of what he or she can study.

TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Simple Random Sampling – is one in which each member (person) in the total
population has an equal chance of being picked for the sample.
In simple random sampling, a research develops an accurate sampling frame, selects elements
from sampling frame according to mathematically random procedure, then locates the exact
element that was selected for inclusion in the sample.
To be a random sampling method, two conditions must be met. If both are met, the resulting
sample is random. If not, it is a nonrandom sampling technique:
 every member in the population must have an equal opportunity of being selected,
 the selection of any member of the population must have no influence on the selection of
any other member
 Systematic Random Sample- This is a technique which in which an initial starting point
is selected by a random process, after which every nth number on the list is selected to
constitute part of the sample. Instead of using a list of random numbers, researcher
calculates a sampling interval, and the interval becomes his or her own quasi random
selection method. The sampling interval (i.e. 1 in n where n is some number) tells the
researcher how to select elements from a sampling frame by skipping elements in the
frame before one for the sample. For example, if you need 100 members in your sample
and the population consists of 1000 people, you need to sample every 1000/100 (or 10th)
member of the population.
Stratified Sampling

All people in sampling frame are divided into "strata" (groups or categories). Within each
stratum, a simple random sample or systematic sample is selected.

Example - If we want to ensure that a sample of 5 students from a group of 50 contains both
male and female students in same proportions as in the full population (i.e. the group of 50), we

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first divide that population into male and female. In this case, there are 22 male students and 28
females. To work out the number of males and females in the sample........

No. of males in sample = (5 / 50) x 22 = 2.2

No. of females in sample = (5 / 50) x 28 = 2.8

We obviously can't interview .2 of a person or .8 of a person, and have to "round" the numbers.
Therefore we choose 2 males and 3 females in the sample. These would be selected using simple
random or systematic sample methods.

 Proportionate versus Disproportionate strata

If the number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in proportion to the relative
population size of the stratum, the sample is proportionate stratified sampling. In a
disproportionate, sample size for each stratum is not allocated in proportion to the population
size, but is dictated by analytical considerations.
Cluster Sampling- Divide population into a large number of groups, called clusters and then
sample among clusters. Finally select all individuals within those clusters. Groups or chunks of
elements that, ideally, would have heterogeneity among the members within each group are
chosen for study in cluster sampling.