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Well-Being Science for Teaching and the General Public

Article  in  Perspectives on Psychological Science · December 2021

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Running head: WELL-BEING SCIENCE 1

Well-Being Science for Teaching and the General Public

William Tov

Singapore Management University

Derrick Wirtz

University of British Columbia

Kostadin Kushlev

Georgetown University

Robert Biswas-Diener

Noba, Portland, Oregon

Ed Diener

University of Utah and the Gallup Organization

Citation:
Tov, W., Wirtz, D., Kushlev, K., Biswas-Diener, R., & Diener, E. (in press). Well-being
science for teaching and the general public. Perspectives in Psychological Science.

Author Note

William Tov, School of Social Sciences, Singapore Management University; Derrick

Wirtz, Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Okanagan; Kostadin Kushlev,

Department of Psychology, Georgetown University; Robert Biswas-Diener, Positive Acorn,

Portland, Oregon; Ed Diener, Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, and

the Gallup Organization.

We thank Rebecca Maniates and her team at the SMU Li Ka Shing Library for assistance

in locating and acquiring textbooks. We also thank Jonathan Louis Chia, Jun Sheng Keh, Rachel

Kok Chian Yee, Gloria Lai Junyan, Clement Lau Yong Hao, Elizabeth Lim Xiao Pei, Madeeha
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 2

Shanaaz binte Mohammed Yousoff, Remee Rose Quintana Ocampo, and Wynn Tan for their

assistance extracting and coding excerpts.

Ed Diener passed away before the final version of this article was completed. He

conceptualized the original idea for the paper, contributed significantly to the initial submission,

and suggested several revisions in response to reviewer comments, many of which were

incorporated into the final article. His co-authors express their gratitude for his contributions to

this article and to the field more generally through his life’s work in subjective well-being.

Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Will Tov, School of Social

Sciences, Singapore Management University. Email: [email protected].

WELL-BEING SCIENCE 3

Abstract

Research on well-being has exploded in recent years, with over 55,000 relevant publications

annually, making it difficult for psychologists—including key communicators such as textbook

authors—to stay current with this field. Moreover, well-being is a daily concern among

policymakers and members of the general public. It is relevant to the lives of students—

illustrating the diverse methods used in the behavioral sciences, presenting highly-replicated

findings, and demonstrating the diversity of individuals and cultures. Therefore, five experts

present eight major findings that teachers and authors should seriously consider in their coverage

of this field. These topics range from processes such as adaptation, to influences such as income,

to the benefits of well-being, to cultural and societal diversity in well-being and its causes. We

also examined how much these topics were covered in fifteen of the most popular introductory

psychology textbooks. Although some topics such as social relationships and well-being were

discussed in nearly all textbooks, others were less frequently covered including the validity of

self-reported well-being, the effects of spending on happiness, and the impact of culture and

society on well-being. We aim to ensure more complete coverage of this important area in

psychology courses.

Keywords: Well-Being, Happiness, Subjective Well-Being, Teaching of Psychology

WELL-BEING SCIENCE 4

Well-Being Science for Teaching and the General Public

Subjective well-being (or happiness) is a topic that is worthy of consideration as a major

addition to the canon of content taught in psychology. This is partly because the science of

subjective well-being is now well-established and partly because it is a topic of nearly universal

interest. Indeed, Yale’s course on happiness was the highest-enrolled in that institution’s three-

century history (Shimer, 2018), reflecting student appetite for this topic. Similarly, of 15

common topics found in introductory psychology courses, students from regional, community,

and technical colleges rated “stress/health psychology” as the second most important topic

(McCann, Immel, Kadah-Ammeter, & Adelson, 2016). Perhaps, in response to trends in student

interest, some publishers have begun including short sections on well-being in textbooks (e.g.,

Myers & DeWall, 2016).

Coverage of well-being science is especially important in the context of the American

Psychological Association’s (2013) guidelines for learning objectives in the teaching of

undergraduate psychology. These include: A) knowledge base, B) scientific inquiry and critical

thinking, C) ethical and social responsibility in a diverse world, D) communication, and E)

professional development. Teaching subjective well-being offers an opportunity to promote each

of these. For example, the “professional development” category, includes building career skills

that overlap with core well-being topics such as self-regulation and adaptability (Richmond et

al., 2021). Further, well-being is a cross-cutting theme that is consistent with the APA’s

Introductory Psychology Initiative in that it is about applying psychological principles to create

positive change at the individual and community levels (Gurung & Neufeld, 2021).

What’s more, there appears to be a need for well-being education. In a sample of 123

course syllabi from 95 institutions, researchers found that sociocultural awareness, values, and
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 5

personal development, accounted for 15% or less of the stated course learning objectives,

respectively (Homa et al., 2013). This is especially worrisome in an era marked by concerns over

academic engagement and rising levels of student ill-being (Lipson, Lattie, & Eisenberg, 2019).

This presents a critical opportunity for the teaching of psychology. In one survey, people who

took psychology courses had significantly better knowledge of the field than did those who had

not taken such courses (Landrum, Gurung, & Amsel, 2019). This suggests the real possibility

that teaching about happiness in particular can improve people’s knowledge and sophistication of

thinking about the topic.

At its heart, well-being is a field that spans psychology. It includes the study of emotion,

personality, cognition, development, social relationships, and virtually every other area of

psychology. As a result, it can be woven into existing course material or treated as a stand-alone

topic. It can be used to teach scientific literacy and the importance of cultural diversity while

being deeply relevant to learners regardless of their background. By learners, we are referring

not only to traditional university students, but also to members of the general public who are

increasingly gaining access to psychology content through new platforms such as massive open

online courses (MOOCs). For example, approximately 112,000 people from over 200 countries

enrolled in a MOOC on the “Science of Happiness” at UC Berkeley (Clay, 2015). Though the

specific reasons why large numbers of learners have enrolled in happiness courses deserves more

study, the popularity of the topic is difficult to deny and further heightens the importance of

communicating reliable findings. Public understanding of well-being science is critical for efforts

by local and national governments to integrate well-being indicators into the policymaking

process (Dolan & White, 2007; Exton & Shinwell, 2018). Such measures can help identify

groups that require policy intervention and to evaluate the effectiveness of new and existing
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 6

policies. However, the legitimacy of such policy uses requires not only a strong scientific

foundation, but also support from the very people at whom those policies are directed.

Textbook authors and psychology instructors choose what coverage to give topics, but

they typically have neither the time nor the sweep of expertise to critically evaluate what

findings are important in each area. This is certainly true of well-being, with its growth

expanding from fewer than 100 articles annually in the 1980s to extremely large numbers of

publications now. As of June 30, 2021, the terms happiness or subjective well-being were

mentioned in over 2.9 million publications, with 55,000 annually since 1990.1 This literature

includes multiple fronts of inquiry across different areas of psychology and other disciplines

from economics to anthropology. As noted by Kaslow (2015), those who communicate

psychology research to a wider audience are sometimes accused of highlighting findings that are

provocative but not necessarily supported by rigorous research.

Here we present a possible solution for navigating this academic territory: The authors of

this paper are five experts on the topic of well-being who have, collectively, published 600

academic articles, more than a dozen books, and have been cited a quarter of a million times. We

describe a list of topics related to well-being that we believe should be considered for coverage

in a wide range of psychology courses. We also suggest that this approach to coverage of

subjective well-being might be a model for groups of experts to recommend coverage of other

fields as well.

Overview of Eight Well-Being Research Findings

We present eight major findings from the field of subjective well-being, evaluate their

level of support, and provide recommendations for where and how these findings can be

1
Based on Google Scholar.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 7

included in textbooks and taught in a psychology curriculum. We used several criteria to select

these topics: A) Research evidence: We preference findings that have been replicated across

laboratories, methods, and cultures. As much as possible, we rely on meta-analyses, existing

reviews, and large-scale international studies to establish the broad support and replicability of a

finding; B) Interest and relevance: The topics we cover relate in important ways to people’s

lives; and C) Deep understanding: The topics give a broader understanding of human experience

and diversity as well as the diverse methods used in the behavioral sciences. The major findings

we present are:

(1) Well-being involves more than happy feelings

(2) Well-being can be validly measured

(3) Income influences well-being, up to a point

(4) High-quality relationships are essential for well-being

(5) Genes and personality influence well-being

(6) People adapt to many circumstances, but it takes time

(7) Culture and society influence well-being

(8) There are benefits to experiencing well-being (beyond feeling good)

We believe these broad findings about well-being are important and should be covered in

psychology courses. Some instructors might want more nuance and depth than we have provided

here, or want to include other findings on well-being. We refer them to the Handbook of Well-

Being at Nobascholar.com (Diener, Oishi, & Tay, 2018) and to an in-depth review by Diener,

Lucas, and Oishi (2018). We also include a list of discussion questions and activities that

instructors may consider to deepen learners’ understanding of these findings (see Supplemental

Materials).
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 8

Well-Being Is More Than Feeling Happy

Feeling happy is a basic state that is commonly understood across many languages,

cultures, and age groups. Because of this, well-being scholars often find it difficult not to use the

term happiness when introducing research in this area to a broader audience (Diener & Biswas-

Diener, 2008; Layard, 2005; Lyubomirsky, 2007; Seligman, 2002). Every year, the media

follows suit, reporting on the happiest countries in the world, thanks in part to the annual World

Happiness Report. Referring to well-being as happiness is a powerful communication tool that

draws interest from the public, but it also risks a narrow view of how scientists think about and

study well-being. Some may think of happiness primarily as a short-term mood or emotion (e.g.,

“Happiness is fleeting”). However, a large body of research indicates that there are many ways

that people can experience and evaluate their lives positively; that the various components of

well-being are empirically distinct (Tov, 2018).

Feelings are one element of well-being. Researchers are interested in a wide range of

pleasant emotions but also in the experience of unpleasant emotions. In daily life, people tend to

experience some mixture of positive and negative affect (Tov & Lee, 2016). Large-scale

analyses across many countries suggest that pleasant and unpleasant feelings are consistently

distinguishable from each other (Busseri, 2018; Fors & Kulin, 2016; Kuppens, Ceulemans,

Timmerman, Diener, & Kim-Prieto, 2006). Moreover, they have distinct correlates. For example,

failing to meet basic needs (for food and shelter) strongly correlates with negative but not

positive affect in most regions around the world (Tay & Diener, 2011). An important implication

is that pleasant and unpleasant feelings capture different aspects of a person’s well-being.

Well-being also consists of judgments about how satisfied a person is with their life.

Such evaluations are referred to as cognitive well-being because they rely on mental information
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 9

such as standards for comparison. The closer a person’s life is to their ideal, for example, the

more likely they are to be satisfied. Though correlated, affect and cognitive evaluations of one’s

life are distinct (Busseri, 2018; Fors & Kulin, 2016; Lucas, Diener, & Suh, 1996). There is

emerging evidence that judgments such as life satisfaction tend to be associated with the broad

conditions of one’s life, whereas affective well-being tends to be associated with reactions to

specific daily events (Eid & Diener, 2004; Luhmann, Hawkley, Eid, & Cacioppo, 2012;

Schimmack, Schupp, & Wagner, 2008). This may partly explain why the top countries in life

satisfaction tend to be the wealthiest; but the top countries on affective well-being are more

diverse in terms of region and wealth (Tov & Au, 2013). Later, we discuss cultural variation in

the correlates of well-being under the theme of cultural and societal influences.

Some scholars make a further distinction between hedonic well-being and eudemonic

well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Whereas hedonic well-being comprises pleasure and positive

feelings, eudemonic well-being refers to a variety of experiences such as meaning, growth, and

authenticity (Huta & Waterman, 2014; Vittersø, 2016). A central theme of eudemonic well-being

is the fulfillment of one’s potential—which can involve challenging oneself or developing one’s

talents. The contrast between eudemonic and hedonic well-being highlights the fact that people

do not always choose to do what “feels good” in the moment but, instead, sometimes choose

worthwhile pursuits such as contributing to society or completing unpleasant but important tasks.

Hedonic and eudemonic well-being are strongly correlated with each other (Disabato,

Goodman, Kashdan, Short, & Jarden, 2016; Joshanloo, 2016; Linley, Maltby, Wood, Osborne, &

Hurling, 2009; Longo, Coyne, Joseph, & Gustavsson, 2016) and may have a bi-directional causal

relationship. Leading a meaningful life, for example, can be a source of positive emotions, but

positive emotions can also make life feel more meaningful (King, Heintzelman, & Ward, 2016).
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 10

In sum, one need not choose between hedonic and eudemonic well-being, and strongly favoring

one or the other might be a philosophical rather than empirical matter.

Importance to Learners

Understanding that well-being involves more than feeling happy has important

implications for learners. First, because there are different components of well-being, there is not

a single resource or activity that makes people “happy” in the broad sense of well-being. Some

experiences may enhance pleasure, while others enhance judgments of life or eudemonic well-

being. Second, many people who are satisfied with their lives or experience frequent positive

affect may still experience negative affect to varying degrees. Thus, being “happy” does not

entail eliminating negative experiences from one’s life. There is also an opportunity to build

scientific literacy: when the popular media reports on the happiest countries or the latest research

on what makes people happy, learners can be more critical of such reports by asking exactly how

“happiness” was assessed. In seeking to understand others, learners can appreciate that

individuals may experience happiness in differing ways.

Well-Being Can be Validly Measured

The notion that a person can accurately report their own level of well-being, and that this

topic can be understood numerically, may seem doubtful to many. Schwarz and Strack (1999)

suggested that judgments of global well-being are largely constructed from information that

happens to be on a person’s mind and is deemed relevant. If so, how could we trust people’s

evaluation of their lives when it might fluctuate from one moment to the next?

Subsequent research suggests that self-reports of well-being may not be as fickle as

previously argued. For example, life satisfaction judgments have very high test-retest

correlations (r > .79) over short intervals (less than one month; Schimmack & Oishi, 2005).
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 11

Moreover, although self-reported well-being can be influenced by a person’s current mood or

other items in a survey, these effects are small and often inconsistent across studies (Eid &

Diener, 2004; Schimmack & Oishi, 2005; Yap et al., 2017). Other studies suggest that well-being

ratings do reflect a person’s life circumstances and experiences. For example, the life satisfaction

of students is closely related to their satisfaction in important areas such as academics, health,

and social relationships (Schimmack & Oishi, 2005). A large number of studies conducted in

Asia, Europe, and the Americas find that self-reported well-being measures correlate strongly

with each other and with theoretically relevant constructs (Diener, Inglehart, & Tay, 2013; Tov,

Keh, Tan, Tan, & Indra Alam Syah, in press).

Scientists have also gone beyond self-report when measuring well-being. For example,

informant reports of a person’s well-being (made by their friends or family members) correlate

significantly with self-reports (Schneider & Schimmack, 2009). The memory of positive

experiences (how many are recalled and how interconnected they are) is associated with self-

reported well-being (Robinson & Kirkeby, 2005; Sandvik, Diener, & Seidlitz, 1993; Seidlitz &

Diener, 1993). Other non-self-report measures show some convergence with self-reports

(Scollon, 2018) and this helps us have confidence in the validity of these measures. Thus,

although well-being measures are imperfect, they are valid enough to yield useful and consistent

information.

Importance to Learners

The question about how to best assess well-being is a potential opportunity to teach

learners about research methods and basic psychometrics. They can experience survey research

by taking any number of widely available well-being measures (e.g., see eddiener.com). In

addition, learners should be aware of real-world applications of such measures. For example,
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 12

well-being indicators are collected by governments around the world to inform and evaluate

policy (Exton & Shinwell, 2018). Leaders of organizations can examine well-being at work, as

one metric of organizational success and productivity. Awareness of practical applications of

well-being measures underscores the importance of scrutinizing their validity.

Income Influences Well-Being, but Only Up to a Point

A common debate is whether money makes people happy. The question arises because

there are contrasting beliefs about this issue, ranging from “money can’t buy happiness,” to

“money is the key to happiness.” Although people might prefer a yes-no answer to the question,

extensive reviews of this literature suggest that such a simple response is impossible (Diener &

Biswas-Diener, 2002; Tay, Zyphur, & Batz, 2018).

There is strong evidence that money can boost subjective well-being. Differences in

average happiness between rich and poor nations are large (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2002)

Indeed, Diener, Kahneman, Tov, and Arora (2010) reported that the correlation between per

capita income in countries and their average levels of life satisfaction was r = .83! Beyond cross-

sectional correlations, Stevenson and Wolfers (2008) reported that as nations’ incomes increased,

their well-being tended to do so as well. At the societal level, richer nations are better able to

provide freedom, transparent and non-corrupt services, and relative peace to their citizens

(Helliwell, Layard, & Sachs, 2019). At the individual level, these findings may reflect the fact

that money helps people obtain things they need, such as food and shelter, but it also can help

people cope with problems (Diener, Tay, & Oishi, 2013). For example, Kahneman and Deaton

(2010) report in a representative sample of almost ½ million Americans that low income

exacerbated the negative effects of misfortunes such as divorce, ill health, and loneliness. The

COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the vulnerabilities faced by low-income individuals—

WELL-BEING SCIENCE 13

many of whom are marginalized and lack access to decent work (Blustein, Kenny, Di Fabio, &

Guichard, 2019; Kantamneni, 2020), have low-paying jobs that do not allow them to work from

home, and live in crowded environments—all factors that make physical distancing difficult and

increase the risk of infection (Mena et al., 2021).

Revealing the causal connection of more money to well-being are large lottery studies

showing that lottery winners are happier than similar individuals who bought lottery tickets but

did not win (Gardner & Oswald, 2007; Lindqvist, Östling, & Cesarini, 2020; Smith & Razzell,

1975). These studies notwithstanding, there are also data showing that more money does not

invariably equal more happiness. An important and replicated finding is that there is a “declining

marginal utility” of more money for happiness. As a person earns higher and higher incomes, it

often requires more and more money to impact happiness (Diener, Sandvik, Seidlitz, & Diener,

1993). In Figure 1, we present the declining effects of income on three types of subjective well-

being. These data are based on the Gallup representative poll of the USA from 2008 to 2016 of

about 1.5 million respondents. Most people seem to be able to achieve happy experiences with a

moderate income, and not much improvement is evident after earning about 40,000 dollars a

year, although specific income thresholds vary by geography. The incomes shown in the figure

do not indicate as much declining marginal utility for life satisfaction; however, Jebb and

colleagues (2018) show that at some point in many world regions, people do not get a boost in

life satisfaction from more income. Indeed, in several regions, income beyond the point of

satiation is related to less well-being.

Aside from the amount of income, how it is spent also influences well-being. Spending

money on others can enhance positive affect (Aknin, Dunn, Proulx, Lok, & Norton, in press;

Dunn, Aknin, & Norton, 2008) as can spending money on experiences rather than materials (Lee,
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 14

Hall, & Wood, 2018; Van Boven & Gilovich, 2003). On the other hand, materialism—placing

higher importance on money than on other values such as relationships—tends to relate to less

well-being (Dittmar, Bond, Hurst, & Kasser, 2014).

Importance to Learners

Students are generally fascinated by this topic. Issues such as income, income equality,

meaningful work, and how money is spent are all relevant to daily student life. Learners might

also ask themselves whether pursuing a career that will be unpleasant but earns a high income is

truly the road to happiness. They can also learn that income aspirations can outstrip even rising

income so that people are dissatisfied even though they have more than ever before (Graham &

Pettinato, 2006). One issue that may concern learners is how student debt affects happiness.

Although declining marginal utility illustrates how well-being does not always rise at high

income levels, it consistently declines at lower income levels. Debt repayment reduces

discretionary income; and higher levels of debt are associated with greater financial worry during

college (Tay, Batz, Parrigon, & Kuykendall, 2017) and lower well-being after graduating from

college (Walsemann, Gee, & Gentile, 2015). The majority of U.S. graduates believe their college

education was worth the cost except among those with over US$50,000 in debt (Gallup, Inc.,

2015).

Students do not have control over the cost of their college tuition, but they may benefit

from learning how spending money can influence their happiness. For example, although

experiential purchases tend to promote happiness more than material purchases, this difference

may apply only when people feel they have adequate resources and not when they feel like their

resources are limited (Lee et al., 2018). In contrast, even small amounts of prosocial spending

can boost happiness and the effects are observed in cultures as diverse as Canada and Uganda
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 15

(Aknin et al., 2013; Dunn et al., 2008). In addition, people whose purchases are more aligned

with their personality tend to report higher life satisfaction (Matz, Gladstone, & Stillwell, 2016).

Instructors can engage students in deeper discussions of these findings to motivate them to think

more about their purchase decisions. That said, it is important to note that the problem of rising

student debt is complex and requires action from government, education, and business sectors.

The negative effects that student debt has on long-term well-being brings its human impact into

sharper focus and adds to the urgency of finding solutions. Hence, it is not only students who can

benefit from learning about the science of well-being – but administrators, business leaders, and

other members of the public.

High-Quality Relationships are Essential for Well-Being

If there is a “secret to happiness,” some argue that it can be found in social relationships

(Argyle, 2001). This is because social relationships have myriad benefits—from producing

positive feelings to offering social support in times of need. The desire to socially connect with

others may be a basic human need. When this need for relatedness is met, feelings of happiness

result (Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000). In a study of the happiest and least happy

university students, for example, having high-quality relationships appeared to distinguish the

two groups, with nearly all of the high-happiness students reporting better relationships with

family, friends, and romantic partners (Diener & Seligman, 2002). Even peers of the students

agreed that the very happy group had good relationships, providing convergent support for this

conclusion.

In every major world region, perceived social support is associated with subjective well-

being (Tay & Diener, 2011). Those who report the greatest happiness feel respected by others

and that there are people they can count on in times of need, according to a global sample
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 16

(Diener, Seligman, Choi, & Oishi, 2018). Very happy individuals also spend more hours of their

day with friends or family. Socializing with others is among those daily activities that bring

people the most positive feelings (Kahneman, Krueger, Schkade, Schwarz, & Stone, 2004) —but

only up to a point; beyond three hours a day of social contact, there are no additional benefits in

terms of happiness (Kushlev, Heintzelman, Oishi, & Diener, 2018). The generally pleasant

experience of socializing and the rewards of social support occur for those in a variety of

relational contexts: among married (Coombs, 1991; Diener et al., 2000; Jebb et al., 2020) and

among single people, who may even develop more diverse social networks (DePaulo, 2018). In

other words, feelings of support and social connection may underlie the benefits of social

relationships for subjective well-being and can be enjoyed by people of any relationship status.

Moreover, while high-quality social relationships can be enduring sources of well-being, even

interactions we have with casual acquaintances and strangers can boost our well-being in the

short term (Epley & Schroeder, 2014; Sandstrom & Dunn, 2014).

Other people can offer us support in times of need, buffer the adverse effects of negative

experiences, and provide social capital (Helliwell, Aknin, Shiplett, Huang, & Wang, 2018).

However, the sheer number of other people in one’s life is not a precise indicator that one’s

social needs are met (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Greitemeyer, Mügge, & Bollermann, 2014).

Instead, it is the experience of one’s relationships that is most predictive of well-being. In other

words, it is more important for a person to have a few close and supportive relationships than it

is to have many superficial relationships.

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of social relationships for well-

being, because controlling the spread of COVID-19 involved behaviors such as physically

distancing from others and reducing one’s number of social contacts for extended periods of
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 17

time. Those with larger social networks during the pandemic’s initial lockdown period reported

less stress and worry (Nitschke et al., 2021), and those who felt high levels of social support

reported fewer symptoms of depression (Sommerlad et al., 2021).

Importance to Learners

This aspect of well-being research will feel very relevant to learners. Everyone has

relationships of one type or another and so will have personal experience and insight into the

ways that their social ties affect their own happiness. This area of research is a fruitful

springboard for discussing loneliness, social networking technologies, bullying, divorce, and

other social topics. For example, learners can consider whether interactions on social network

sites are similar to or different from those that occur offline, and how this affects their well-

being. Learners can also explore the differences in the types and numbers of relationships that

fulfill their needs. Another topic for discussion is why it is that many relationships are among the

most rewarding aspects of life, but some relationships can be quite aversive. While the

conclusion that social relationships enhance well-being may be intuitive, considering the reasons

for the reverse direction, in which quality relationships follow from happiness, offers additional

grounds for reflection.

Genes and Personality Influence Well-Being

Are people simply born happy or unhappy? To what extent do genes influence well-

being? One way scientists have attempted to investigate this issue is by comparing identical

twins (who share 100% of their genes) with fraternal twins (who share only about 50%). If there

are genetic influences on well-being, identical twins should have more similar levels of well-

being than fraternal twins. Early studies provided support for this (Tellegen et al., 1988), even

showing that identical twins raised apart were more similar to each other than fraternal twins
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 18

who were raised together (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Recent meta-analyses suggest substantial

heritability effects; as much as 30-41% of the variation in well-being is attributable to genetic

sources (Bartels, 2015; Nes & Røysamb, 2015). This might suggest that each person has a

baseline level of well-being and that daily events influence shifts above and below this baseline.

However, this does not imply that a single “happiness gene” confers happiness to those who

possess it or that happiness is unchangeable. The extent to which genes influence well-being can

depend on life circumstances such as age, finances, or marital status (Bartels, 2015; Røysamb &

Nes, 2018).

There is evidence that the genetic components underlying well-being are also linked to

personality traits such as extraversion and neuroticism (Hahn, Johnson, & Spinath, 2013;

Røysamb, Nes, Czajkowski, & Vassend, 2018; Weiss, Bates, & Luciano, 2008). This may partly

account for the robust finding that people who are extraverted and/or low on neuroticism often

report higher levels of well-being (Anglim, Horwood, Smillie, Marrero, & Wood, 2020; DeNeve

& Cooper, 1998; Steel, Schmidt, & Shultz, 2008). An important limitation is that genetic studies

of well-being have primarily been conducted on North American and European populations.

Even among this limited set of countries, heritability estimates of well-being show significant

heterogeneity across samples (Nes & Røysamb, 2015). This could be due to differences among

well-being measures and respondent characteristics; in addition, societal and cultural factors

could influence how genes are expressed. More diverse samples would enable a better

understanding of cross-national variation in heritability estimates in the future.

Importance to Learners

This topic is important to a general understanding of psychology because it focuses on

the fundamental question of personality stability and change. It is a starting point for discussing
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 19

individual differences in well-being and cultivating an awareness that people can differ in the

situations and experiences that make them happy. It is also an opportunity to discuss the relative

influences of genetics, environmental conditions, and personal choices and behaviors as they

influence well-being. Concepts such as gene-environment interaction (Røysamb & Nes, 2018)

can help students think more critically about genetic influences on well-being and personality

more generally.

People Adapt to Many Circumstances but It Takes Time

People want a good income, supportive social relationships, health, meaningful work, and

enjoyable pastimes. There is a general assumption that having these will yield happiness. One

reason to believe that life circumstances may not adequately explain happy lives is a

phenomenon known as adaptation: although new good things might make us happy, and new

bad things might make us unhappy, these immediate reactions wear off rather quickly.

Many longitudinal studies have now followed people’s well-being over years and

examined their adaptation after good and bad events occur. People usually react more strongly

when events first occur, but over time, their well-being returns toward previous levels (Diener,

Lucas, & Scollon, 2006; Frederick & Loewenstein, 1999; Lucas, 2007; Luhmann, Hofmann, Eid,

& Lucas, 2012; Sheldon & Lucas, 2014). This adaptation appears to be partial in some

circumstances and complete in others. For example, when people are fired from their jobs they

often have lower life satisfaction for many years to come and even after they obtain another job

(Clark, Georgellis, & Sanfey, 2001; Lucas, Clark, Georgellis, & Diener, 2004). Similarly,

widowhood, divorce, or a severe disability are often followed by long-term declines in life

satisfaction. Nonetheless, in most of these cases, people do show resilience – they tend to bounce

back toward earlier levels of well-being (Lucas, 2007; Oswald & Powdthavee, 2008). Adaptation
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 20

also applies to positive events. Married people, for example, show a boost in happiness around

the time of their wedding, but then on average return over time to their former levels of well-

being (Anusic, Yap, & Lucas, 2014a, 2014b; Lucas, Clark, Georgellis, & Diener, 2003; Yap,

Anusic, & Lucas, 2012).

The process of adaptation presents two challenges: how to speed adjustment to bad

events and how to slow or stop adaptation to good events. According to a new perspective with

growing empirical support, people may be able to overcome their predispositions, combat

adaptation, and become happier through intentional behavior—how people choose to spend their

time and resources each day (Lyubomirsky & Layous, 2013; White, Uttl, & Holder, 2019). Three

meta-analyses with thousands of participants across dozens of interventions have concluded that

people’s well-being can be raised through the practice of positive activities, though effect sizes

vary (Bolier et al., 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009; White et al., 2019). The strongest evidence

for beneficial effects exists for positive activities, such as engaging in acts of kindness, writing

and delivering a letter of gratitude to someone, and imagining and writing about one’s best

possible self (for a review, see Quoidbach, Mikolajczak, & Gross, 2015)

Importance to Learners

The natural process of adaptation can help learners understand reactions to many daily

life events. Adaptation is what allows us to take risks such as getting a job, moving across the

country, or moving in with a romantic partner. Because of adaptation to good events, we never

have maximum happiness for a long time, and new events and undertakings can thus boost our

current happiness. Adaptation is also the psychological mechanism that helps us bounce back

from tough times. Despite the helpfulness of adaptation for effective functioning, it also limits

the happiness we get from simply obtaining the life circumstances that we desire. This topic is a
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 21

natural point of entry to discuss happiness interventions, folk theories of happiness, and

aspirations and expectations for the future.

Culture and Society Influence Well-Being

Countries differ substantially in their levels of well-being. For example, the average life

satisfaction of Denmark is 2.5 standard deviations higher than that of Togo (Geerling & Diener,

2018). This could be due to objective living conditions, sociopolitical and economic systems, and

cultural values and practices. As mentioned previously, income can exert a strong influence on

well-being, especially as nations move out of poverty. In addition, cross-national studies suggest

that life satisfaction is higher in countries that enact stronger income redistribution policies

(Cheung, 2018; Oishi, Schimmack, & Diener, 2012). Relatedly, gender differences in job

satisfaction are smaller in countries with greater gender equality (Batz-Barbarich, Tay,

Kuykendall, & Cheung, 2018). Other systemic factors such as corruption and perceived

discrimination can reduce well-being over time (Helliwell et al., 2019; Schmitt, Branscombe,

Postmes, & Garcia, 2014; Tay, Herian, & Diener, 2014); whereas increases in social tolerance

and freedom at the nation level predict increases in well-being (Inglehart, Foa, Peterson, &

Welzel, 2008). Impressive evidence that national conditions affect well-being is the finding that

immigrants to Canada and the UK from nations with very low well-being attain similarly high

levels of life satisfaction as those in their new countries of residence (Helliwell, Huang, Wang, &

Shiplett, 2018).

Cultural norms are an important influence on well-being. Culture can affect overall levels

of happiness, how it is defined and experienced, and the factors that shape it. One cultural

dimension that has been commonly studied is individualism-collectivism (Hofstede, 2001;

Triandis, 1995). Individualist societies (e.g., Canada, Australia, Germany) tend to value
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 22

independence and personal freedom. Collectivist societies (e.g., Japan, Taiwan, Colombia) tend

to value conformity and obligation to others. On average, individualist societies report higher

levels of national well-being than collectivist societies (Diener, Diener, & Diener, 1995; Fischer

& Boer, 2011; Steel, Taras, Uggerslev, & Bosco, 2018). These effects are independent of

economic development, suggesting a unique role of cultural values and beliefs in shaping well-

being.

The specific correlates of well-being vary by culture. For example, self-esteem tends to

be more predictive of well-being in individualist than in collectivist cultures (Diener & Diener,

1995; Kang, Shaver, Sue, Min, & Jing, 2003; Kwan, Bond, & Singelis, 1997; Park & Huebner,

2005). Another variable that shows distinct cultural patterns is self-consistency. In individualist

cultures, self-consistency is valued as a sign that one is authentic (Church et al., 2014; English &

Chen, 2011; Suh, 2002). By contrast, collectivist cultures emphasize a self that is defined by

relationships; a person’s feelings and behaviors are expected to shift based on the social context

(Tsai, Miao, Seppala, Fung, & Yeung, 2007). Thus, self-inconsistency is less of a threat to well-

being in collectivist cultures.

The importance of social context for collectivists means that they are more likely to use

cultural norms when determining their own well-being, asking, in essence, “should I feel happy

given my current situation?” (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Tsai, 2007). Individualists, by contrast,

are more likely to pay attention to their feelings and to weigh these in their satisfaction

judgments (Kuppens, Realo, & Diener, 2008; Suh, Diener, Oishi, & Triandis, 1998). Moreover,

people who endorse individualistic values are more likely to also value high arousal positive

emotions such as joy, pride, and enthusiasm (Tamir et al., 2016; Tsai, Knutson, & Fung, 2006).

These emotions tend to be emphasized on commonly-used measures of affective well-being

WELL-BEING SCIENCE 23

(e.g., Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and so researchers must be careful that non-Western

norms for emotions such as feeling calm and at peace are also measured.

A close fit between one’s personality and one’s social environment is associated with

greater well-being (Assouline & Meir, 1987). Imagine an extravert living in an “introverted

country”—where her compatriots are generally perceived to be low on extraversion. Such a

person might find it difficult to socialize when others are less receptive to their behavior. In two

cross-national data sets, Fulmer and her colleagues (2010) found that extraverts living in

extraverted countries reported higher levels of life satisfaction and positive emotion than those

living in less extraverted countries. Similarly, religious people tend to be happier in religious

societies, but this advantage is not apparent in more secular societies (Diener, Tay, & Myers,

2011; Gebauer et al., 2020). Thus, fitting in with one’s culture can be helpful to a person’s well-

being.

Though cultures vary in the factors that contribute to happiness, most people are in fact

above neutral in emotional well-being – they tend to experience more positive than negative

affect (Diener & Diener, 1996). Researchers have extended these findings to other populations.

For example, Biswas-Diener, Vittersø, and Diener (2005) found that the American Amish, the

Kenyan Masai, and the Greenlandic Inuit were all above neutral in their levels of subjective well-

being. However, in a large sample from 166 nations, Diener, Diener, Choi, and Oishi (2018)

found that for people who had multiple difficult conditions in their lives—for example, having

recently been assaulted or having gone hungry—most were not happy. Thus, people do tend to

be at least mildly happy unless something clearly negative is happening in their lives.

Importance to Learners

Culture- and societal-level effects suggest that well-being judgments are not strictly
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 24

personal but are influenced by societal norms. Greater awareness of the systemic factors that

influence well-being can help students connect current events and social issues to the welfare of

other people in their own society and around the world. Learners can also reflect on how their

own cultural upbringing and identity influences the factors they consider important for their own

well-being. This is also an opportunity for learners to develop increased cultural literacy and to

discuss issues of cultural sensitivity, diversity, and inclusivity. This topic has the unique potential

to be applied to cultural aspects of clinical psychology and to cultural issues as they relate to

measurement and research methods. Apart from cultural differences, the finding that most people

are happy in terms of emotional well-being can lead to a discussion of what universals there

might be in the causes of happiness versus culture-specific causes. Another topic relevant to

current political debates is the amount of immigration that is desirable as immigrants can become

happier if they move to a happier society.

There Are Benefits to Experiencing Well-Being

One of the most unexpected findings of the science of happiness is that subjective well-

being is beneficial for other important outcomes. A growing body of research now suggests that

being happy not only feels good, but that it may also be beneficial for outcomes such as health

and longevity (Diener, Pressman, Hunter, & Delgadillo‐Chase, 2017), work engagement and

career success (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005; Walsh, Boehm, & Lyubomirsky, 2018),

and supportive social relationships (Kansky & Diener, 2017). These findings further highlight

how critical it is to tackle the systemic and structural factors that impede well-being discussed

above. Though individuals can take steps to improve their well-being on their own (Heintzelman

et al., 2020; Lyubomirsky & Layous, 2013; Quoidbach et al., 2015), individual action must be

combined with policies that tackle inequities and inequality at the societal level (cf. Diener,
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 25

Lucas, et al., 2018; Oishi, Kushlev, & Schimmack, 2018). The policy relevance of well-being is

thus bolstered by recognizing the role that it plays in the health, work life, and social

relationships of individuals and the communities of which they are part.

Physical Health

Well-being is associated—often causally—with better health (Boehm, 2018; Diener,

Pressman, et al., 2017). In one study, participants were exposed to a virus and those with a more

positive emotional style were half as likely to develop cold or flu symptoms (Cohen, Alper,

Doyle, Treanor, & Turner, 2006). By measuring well-being before infecting participants, the

researchers in this study ensured that the observed association between well-being and health

could not be due to the effect of getting sick on well-being. Beyond short-term immune function,

meta-analyses of longitudinal studies suggest that well-being predicts long-term cardiovascular

health (Howell, Kern, & Lyubomirsky, 2007) and even longevity (Chida & Steptoe, 2008).

Indeed, well-being influences health through multiple mechanisms—from the more proximal,

physiological mechanisms, such as immune, endocrine, and cardiovascular function, to more

distal, behavioral mechanisms, such as exercise and nutrition (Diener, Heintzelman, et al., 2017).

Experimental evidence from randomized controlled trials suggests that treatment for depression

modestly improved self-rated physical health (O’Neil, Sanderson, Oldenburg, & Taylor, 2011).

Another source of evidence suggestive of a long-term causal effect of well-being on health

comes from prospective longitudinal studies (Diener & Chan, 2011). In the famous nun study

(Danner, Snowdon, & Friesen, 2001), for example, nuns who expressed the most positive

emotions in essays written when they were in their early 20s had half the rate of mortality of the

unhappiest nuns at age 85. By assessing well-being in early life—before most nuns had

developed health issues that can impact their well-being—this study again suggests a causal
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 26

effect of well-being on health.

Work Success

Although it makes intuitive sense that happiness might follow work success, it is less

obvious that happiness can cause work success. In one longitudinal study, people who were more

cheerful at the beginning of college earned more money 19 years later than did their less cheerful

counterparts (Diener, Nickerson, Lucas, & Sandvik, 2002). These findings have been replicated

several times (e.g., Graham, Eggers, & Sukhtankar, 2004; Marks & Fleming, 1999). One reason

happy people might be better poised for career success is that they work harder (Krekel et al.,

2019; Oswald, Proto, & Sgroi, 2015). Happier people also receive higher customer and

supervisor evaluations, take fewer sick days, and are more likely to engage in positive

organizational citizenship behaviors (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). An intervention designed to

raise subjective well-being has been shown to reduce sick days (Kushlev, Heintzelman, et al.,

2020).

Supportive Social Relationships

Longitudinal, experimental, experience-sampling, and cross-cultural evidence suggests

that positive affect leads to better relationships (Moore et al., 2018). In one longitudinal study,

for example, positive affect at age 14 predicted lower conflict with one’s romantic partner a

decade later—as reported by the participants and their partners alike (Kansky, Allen, & Diener,

2016). A person’s life satisfaction while still single predicts how likely they are to get married

(Lucas et al., 2003) and how likely they are to become divorced (Luhmann & Eid, 2009). In an

experience sampling study following 30,000 participants over a month, feeling happy predicted

investing time in social interactions (Elmer, 2021; Quoidbach, Taquet, Desseilles, de Montjoye,

& Gross, 2019).

WELL-BEING SCIENCE 27

In addition to the beneficial outcomes of well-being described above, there is also

evidence for other desirable effects of well-being on outcomes, such as resilience (bouncing back

from stress and bad events; Ong, Bergeman, Bisconti, & Wallace, 2006; Shen, Arkes, & Lester,

2017; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004) and better citizenship (Kushlev, Drummond, Heintzelman,

& Diener, 2020).

Importance to Learners

Teaching about the benefits of happiness is sure to disabuse learners of misconceptions of

happiness as a self-centered and selfish pursuit. Learners may be surprised to discover that in

most jobs that they will end up having, their well-being can make the organization more

productive and profitable (Krekel et al., 2019). Learners can thus benefit from realizing that

happiness can be beneficial to themselves and others. This topic is also a good opportunity to

teach students about the difficulty of establishing causality over the long term. Indeed, the

benefits of well-being are still subject to controversy—in part, because the direction of causality

goes both ways. If better health leads to more happiness, how can we know if happiness leads to

better health? To complicate matters, it is difficult to experimentally manipulate subjective well-

being to isolate its long-term effects on happiness. No single study, therefore, can control for all

third factors. Thus, we must rely on convergent evidence across multiple studies, samples, and

methodologies to infer whether subjective well-being has causal benefits.

Content Analysis of Introductory Psychology Textbooks

To what extent are students of psychology already learning about the findings that we

have highlighted? We identified the top 15 introductory psychology textbooks based on rankings

from Open Syllabus and Amazon.com. Whereas Amazon.com rankings are based primarily on

U.S. sales, the Open Syllabus 2.5 database contains 7.2 million syllabi (Karaganis, 2021) from
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 28

universities around the world (largely from 1996 to 2018). To strengthen the currency of our

analysis, we obtained the most recent edition of each textbook available. Ten of the fifteen books

we analyzed were published in 2018 or later. A list of the 15 textbooks appears in the Appendix.

(For more details on our methodology, please refer to the Supplemental Materials).

We developed a coding scheme by decomposing the eight thematic well-being findings

into more specific subcategories (see Table 1). For each book, three research assistants skimmed

any sections on health, stress, and well-being and extracted relevant excerpts. All textbooks were

digitized, and additional excerpts were extracted by searching for specific terms (e.g., well-being,

happiness, satisfaction, etc). Because our emphasis was on everyday subjective well-being, we

did not examine chapters on psychopathology. However, excerpts from these chapters were

included if they emerged through our search procedure. Three coders rated the relevance of each

excerpt to the findings in Table 1 and those with an average score of 3 or higher (on a 4-point

scale) were classified as at least “somewhat relevant” to the given finding. Interrater agreement

was acceptable for most subcategories (intraclass correlation coefficients > .70) and those that

were lower tended to be for categories with few relevant excerpts.

Table 1 presents the average number of excerpts that were relevant to each finding and

the percentage of textbooks that mentioned the finding at least once. Several findings were

covered by all textbooks including empirical distinctions between positive and negative affect,

links between personality traits and well-being, the importance of social support for well-being,

the effects of activities on reducing ill-being and enhancing happiness, and the impact of

negative affect and stress on physical health. Other findings were seldom emphasized. For

example, textbooks rarely discussed the validity of self-reported well-being measures. In

actuality, many of the well-being findings already reported in textbooks bear on the validity of
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 29

these measures—but explicit discussions were extremely rare.2

The positive relationship between income and well-being was reported in the majority of

textbooks (80%). However, other key aspects of the money-happiness relationship such as

declining marginal utility at higher levels of income (53.33%) and spending effects (40%) were

less frequently covered. Broader societal (73.33%) and cultural influences (53.33%) on well-

being were also covered less frequently. This is interesting, particularly when contrasted with the

coverage of personality and well-being (100%). In some ways, this is not surprising given

psychology’s historical focus on the individual. Still, most textbooks include discussions of

culture and social psychology that could include these topics. In addition, links between

personality and well-being could be expanded by discussing the phenomenon of person-culture

fit effects on well-being—another topic that was rarely covered (26.67%).

Most textbooks discussed potential benefits of well-being. The effects of positive and

negative affect on health were mentioned by 80-100% of textbooks, but coverage was uneven

with excerpts discussing the impact of negative affect (M = 11.13) outnumbering those that

discuss the impact of positive affect (M = 1.87) by a ratio of 6 to 1. Other possible benefits of

well-being such as relationship outcomes were mentioned less often. We note that interrater

agreement was lower for this subcategory. One possible reason is that much of the literature

covered in textbooks is correlational, making it difficult for coders to determine whether a

finding illustrates the effects of well-being on social relationships or vice versa. Finally, we note

that the percentage of these findings that are discussed in textbooks varies greatly from 42.3% to

88.5% (see Table S3).

2
Some authors discussed limitations of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) which assigns points to a list
of 43 life events and measures stress levels by asking respondents to report which events they experienced recently.
We did not include the SRRS in our coding of self-report findings because the validity of the scale depends on the
weightage of life events as well as the accuracy of respondents’ self-report.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 30

General Discussion

We described eight broad findings that we believe are important and replicable enough to

warrant coverage in introductory and other psychology textbooks. We then examined the top 15

introductory psychology textbooks to evaluate the extent to which these well-being findings were

currently covered. Our analysis revealed that coverage was uneven across the different findings.

On a positive note, current textbooks may teach learners to appreciate the value of their social

relationships and provide insights into behaviors that manage stress and enhance their well-

being. However, other important topics were not discussed as often.

First, the validity of self-reported well-being measures was seldom discussed. To be fair,

some authors discussed validity and measurement issues more broadly as they pertain to

psychological research. However, the validity of well-being measures deserves special treatment

because of the interest and attention that such measures have attracted from policymakers and the

general public. As governments become interested in measuring well-being and using such

measures to inform policy decisions, it will be essential for citizens to understand what the

current science says about their validity as well as empirical distinctions among different

components of well-being. A lack of understanding may undermine the perceived legitimacy of

policymaking that relies on well-being indexes. It is also important that citizens appreciate the

role that societal conditions and cultural norms play in shaping well-being—two other topics that

deserve more coverage. Indeed, the topic of culture and well-being (either happiness, positive

affect, or subjective well-being) has been included in over 2 million publications, and touches on

diversity issues that have become pivotal!

Most textbooks acknowledge that wealthier individuals do tend to be happier than those

who are less wealthy. The majority of texts (53.33%) also note the declining marginal utility of
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 31

high income though many texts did not. Fewer still discussed the role that spending can play in

promoting happiness. This is a missed opportunity given the pertinence of this topic for many

learners. Although declining marginal utility can be used to illustrate that more money does not

always equal more happiness, it also illustrates how money does matter for incomes below the

satiation point. For students concerned with debt, this may resonate more with their experience.

Skepticism about the impact of money on well-being should be qualified by an understanding of

how spending can influence happiness.

The detrimental effects of negative affect on health were mentioned much more often

than the health benefits of positive affect. This likely reflects a longer history of research on

stress and physical health, and therefore a more established canon of theoretical models and

research studies for textbook authors to draw upon. By comparison, theoretical models linking

positive affect to health are more recent and continue to be developed (Boehm & Kubzansky,

2012; Pressman & Cohen, 2005). That said, the potential benefits of positive well-being for

health deserve more attention from learners because stress management alone is not likely to be

sufficient for maintaining good health. This may present an opportunity for instructors to expand

on discussions of well-being and health beyond what textbooks currently offer.

Other topics that were discussed by all textbooks might be better organized. For example,

empirical distinctions between positive and negative affect, and links among hedonic and

eudemonic well-being concepts were often scattered across different sections of textbooks.

Learners might appreciate these concepts more if they were organized within a single section on
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 32

well-being. Several of the textbooks we examined already include dedicated sections on well-

being and happiness.

Are there additional topics that textbook writers and professors should cover? We

debated several topics, and also found other topics in textbooks we perused, that might be

covered, although we decided not to include them in our list for a variety of reasons. These

topics include: optimal levels of well-being and ill-being for effective functioning; spirituality,

religion, and well-being; affective forecasting; age, gender, ethnicity, and well-being; children

and well-being; leisure and well-being; and helping others and well-being. The evidence on some

of these topics is mixed or preliminary, but professors might choose some of them for coverage

and are referred to Nobascholar.com for chapters on these and other well-being topics.

The psychological study of happiness and well-being has emerged as a vibrant and

rapidly expanding area of psychological inquiry. With its quickly accumulating findings come

the challenge of whether—and how—to feature its findings within psychology textbooks and to

teach its findings in psychology curricula. On the former question, “Should we teach well-being

findings?” we believe the answer is an enthusiastic yes. First, the study of well-being is grounded

in sophisticated, methodologically sound research. In the present article, we have identified

findings supported by large and representative samples, by experimental and longitudinal data,

and through meta-analyses. Second, the study of well-being informs our understanding of human

thought and behavior. Well-being transcends areas such as personality, social, cognitive, and

developmental psychology, and provides a potential narrative theme for linking these topics.

Third, well-being findings are of interest and relevance to students. Happiness and well-being are

overwhelmingly a goal that people seek, and students are no exception. Beyond this point, we

note that concern for the well-being of students has become a priority at colleges and
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 33

universities, and the psychological science of well-being has much to contribute to our

understanding of student well-being.

We have argued that the task of textbook writers and teachers in broad, introductory-level

survey courses in psychology is particularly challenging. Underscoring this challenge is the goal

of summarizing the entire field of psychology—raising questions of what to include, in what

depth, and how to organize many seemingly disparate findings at biological, psychological, and

social levels of analysis. Our goal—as researchers and teachers of well-being—was to outline

well-supported, major findings from the study of happiness and well-being, to facilitate their

integration into foundational psychology texts and courses. The teaching of disordered states, as

well as therapeutic approaches to alleviating maladaptive, personally distressful thoughts and

behavior, receive significant attention within the teaching of psychology—as we believe they

should. Yet, as the study of human thought and behavior, psychology naturally also includes

within its scope the study of happiness and well-being, of flourishing and optimal functioning.

A few limitations of these findings and our suggested approach are worth considering. An

important point in the teaching of well-being is to recognize that the science of well-being is

excellent at identifying average results and that these will not apply to every individual. Further,

although many of the findings we report are supported by a wide range of evidence, it remains

important to note that long-term investigation of the causes and consequences of well-being are

relatively few—and more are needed. And, finally, the present article aims to facilitate the

inclusion of well-being findings throughout psychology texts and curricula by presenting a broad

synopsis of major findings. There are more nuanced aspects of many of the findings we present

here and we encourage instructors to think critically and to access reputable research databases

on well-being, such as Noba Scholar, for a more sophisticated review.

WELL-BEING SCIENCE 34

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Table 1.

Coverage of Key Well-Being Findings in Top Introductory Psychology Textbooks

Number of Excerpts
%
(Theme) Finding ICC M SD Books
(1) PA and NA are empirically distinct .81 3.27 2.05 100.00
(1) Affective and cognitive WB are empirically distinct .62 0.27 1.03 6.67
(1) Hedonic WB is associated with eudemonic WB .72 4.67 2.44 100.00
(2) Self-reports of WB are fairly stable. .45 0.13 0.35 13.33
(2) Mood effects on self-reports are small. .73 0.07 0.26 6.67
(2) Order effects on self-reports are small. .00 0.00 0.00 0.00
(2) Self-reports correlate with non-self-report measures. -.02 0.33 0.90 13.33
(3) Income is associated with greater WB. .88 2.60 1.88 80.00
(3) Declining marginal utility at higher income levels. .96 0.73 0.88 53.33
(3) How money is spent influences WB. .97 0.93 1.33 40.00
(4) Social support reduces stress and NA. .87 3.33 1.63 100.00
(4) Social relationships contribute to happiness and PA. .83 4.33 3.98 100.00
(5) WB is heritable .89 1.27 1.28 66.67
(5) WB is associated with personality traits. .87 7.60 3.79 100.00
(6) People adapt to many circumstances. .91 2.13 2.17 73.33
(6) Major life events can have long-term effects on WB. .73 1.33 0.98 80.00
(6) Activities that can increase PA. .85 8.20 6.19 100.00
(6) Activities that can reduce NA. .91 7.67 4.17 100.00
(7) Societal conditions influence WB. .85 2.27 2.22 73.33
(7) The correlates of WB vary across cultures. .79 0.60 0.63 53.33
(7) Personality-culture fit enhances WB. .84 0.33 0.62 26.67
(7) Most people are happy. .76 0.67 0.90 46.67
(8) PA predicts better health and longevity. .85 1.87 1.36 80.00
(8) NA predicts worse health and longevity. .91 11.13 4.70 100.00
(8) WB contributes to work-relevant outcomes. .78 1.93 1.44 80.00
(8) WB contributes to relationship outcomes. .64 1.40 1.55 66.67
Note. Percentages reflect the number of textbooks (out of 15 total) that mentioned each finding at
least once. PA = positive affect; NA = negative affect; WB = well-being.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 58

Figure 1. Declining marginal effects of income on subjective well-being.

WELL-BEING SCIENCE 59

Appendix

Textbooks included in the content analysis of well-being findings.

Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2019). Psychology (6th ed. / Global Edition). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson.

Coon, D., Mitterer, J. O., & Martini, T. (2022). Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind

and behavior (16th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage.

Gazzaniga, M. S. (2017). Psychological science (6th ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton &

Company.

Gross, R. D. (2020). Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour (8th ed.). London, UK:

Hodder Education.

Hockenbury, S. E., & Nolan, S. A. (2019). Discovering psychology (8th ed.). [Kindle for Mac

version]. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. Retrieved from Amazon.com.

Huffman, K., Dowdell, K., & Sanderson, C. A. (2017). Psychology in action (12th ed.).

Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Kalat, J. W. (2022). Introduction to psychology (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage.

King, L. A. (2020). The science of psychology: An appreciative view (5th ed. / International

Student Edition). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., & Namy, L. L. (2017). Psychology: From inquiry to understanding

(4th ed.). Pearson. Retrieved from Amazon.com.

Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2018). Exploring psychology (11th ed.). [Kindle for Mac

version]. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. Retrieved from Amazon.com.

Nairne, J. S. (2014). Psychology (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE 60

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. (2020). Psychology (2nd ed.). Retrieved from

Retrieved from OpenStax.com

Weiten, W. (2022). Psychology: Themes and variations (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. R. G., & Boyd, D. R. (2018). Mastering the world of psychology (6th

ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Zimbardo, P. G., Johnson, R. L., & McCann, V. (2016). Psychology: Core concepts (8th ed.).

Hoboken, NJ: Pearson.

WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 1

Supplemental Materials for

“Well-Being Science for Teaching and the General Public”

1. Methodology for Content Analysis of Introductory Psychology Textbooks (p.2)

2. Discussion Questions for Teaching Well-Being Science (p. 19).
3. Learning Activities (p.25)
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 2

Methodology for Content Analysis of Introductory Psychology Textbooks

Our content analysis of introductory psychology textbooks focused on the extent to which

each text discussed the key findings highlighted in “Well-Being Science for Teaching and the

General Public.” The analysis consisted of four stages. First, the top introductory psychology

textbooks were identified. Second, a coding scheme was developed from the specific findings in

the “Well-Being Science” article. Third, potentially relevant excerpts were extracted from each

textbook. Fourth, each excerpt was rated by three coders for its relevance to the key findings.

These stages are further described below.

Identifying Top Introductory Psychology Textbooks

A preliminary list of introductory psychology textbooks was compiled from various

sources. We began with a list of 20 textbooks presented in the appendix of Griggs and

Christopher (2016). This list was further supplemented with a search for psychology textbooks in

Google Books (April 16, 2021). The key search term was introductory psychology, with results

limited to English language books published between 2010 and 2020. Textbooks that were

specific to subdisciplines of psychology (e.g., social psychology) were excluded. This resulted in

six additional texts beyond those already in the Griggs and Christopher list. Three of these

(Dobson, Malim, and Stanovich) were excluded because they were either reprints of older

editions or were not proper introductory textbooks upon closer inspection.

Open Syllabus Search

To supplement the initial list, we conducted a search on Open Syllabus (May 20, 2021).

This site contains a large corpus of syllabi that have been extracted from publicly-accessible

university websites or contributed by instructors from universities around the world. Most syllabi

were dated from 1996 to 2018. The earliest date is unknown as 22.4% (approximately 1.54
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 3

million syllabi) could not be dated at the time of the search. We examined the first 200

psychology textbooks in the Open Syllabus search, ranked by the number of syllabi those texts

were cited in. We excluded texts that did not present a general introduction to psychology,

resulting in a list of 23 textbooks, of which 13 were not found in previous sources. At this point,

we had identified a total of 39 textbooks from three sources: Griggs and Christopher (2016),

Google Books, and Open Syllabus. Not all the texts previously identified through Griggs and

Google were cited in Open Syllabus.

Amazon Rankings

To supplement the Open Syllabus rankings, we obtained the ranking of each textbook on

Amazon.com (May 22, 2021). Both rankings have strengths and limitations. Amazon provides an

overall rank for each book in its catalogue based largely on U.S. sales. In contrast, Open Syllabus

includes syllabi from several countries. Although the majority of syllabi are from U.S.

universities (62.8%), another 19.2% are from other English-speaking countries such as the UK,

Canada, and Australia, with the rest from other regions (Europe, Asia, South America). Second,

Open Syllabus is more likely to reflect textbooks that have been selected by instructors and

coordinators of psychology courses. Amazon sales, in contrast, might reflect a broader audience

including both students and lifelong learners. Third, Amazon rankings tend to fluctuate from day

to day as sales information is updated in its database. In contrast, Open Syllabus rankings are

more stable because they are based on syllabi from the past 20 years and thus may provide some

indication of textbooks that have traditionally been very popular.

One challenge created by the differences between Open Syllabus and Amazon is that the

former tended to contain older editions of a text that might rank lower on Amazon because more

recent editions of the text have since become available. On the other hand, newer editions of a
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 4

text could have low rankings because they were available for purchase only recently. Therefore

we examined the rankings of both the previous and most recent versions of a text. If the most

recent edition of the text had a lower rank than the previous edition, we ranked the text based on

its previous edition. Our assumption is that past popularity is likely to influence current

popularity. For example, we assume that instructors who have used a particular edition of a

textbook are more likely than not to assign the latest edition of the text when it becomes

available. Following this procedure, the Spearman correlation of 25 textbooks that were ranked

in both Amazon and Open Syllabus was moderate, rho = .413, p = .04. Thus, books that have

traditionally been very popular (i.e., cited by a large number of syllabi) tended to remain popular

in Amazon rankings.

Multiple Textbooks by the Same Author

In some cases, there were multiple textbooks by the same author. These multiple versions

were largely similar in content but differed in length (e.g., excluding certain chapters). We

reduced the list further by selecting only one textbook from each author or team of authors. This

procedure ensured that no author contributed more than one textbook to our analysis. Allowing

the same author to contribute multiple textbooks to our analysis could misrepresent how well-

being research is covered more broadly in the field.

In selecting a single textbook from each author or team of authors, we were guided by the

following considerations. First, if one version of the text was ranked more highly than another in

terms of both Open Syllabus and Amazon rankings, we selected that text. In a few cases, one

version ranked higher in Open Syllabus, but the other ranked higher in Amazon. In that case, we

selected the text with the higher Open Syllabus ranking because they are more stable than

Amazon rankings (which can fluctuate from day to day). We made an exception in the case of
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 5

Coon’s texts. His Psychology: A Journey text ranked slightly higher than his Introduction to

Psychology text but had not been updated since 2013. Therefore, we selected his Introduction

text, which continues to be updated. This procedure resulted in a list of 30 textbooks written by

different authors or teams of authors.

Final Selection of Textbooks

We selected the top ten books in our list as ranked by Open Syllabus, and acquired the

most recent edition of these texts (Ciccarelli & White, 2019; Gazzaniga, 2017; Gross, 2020;

Hockenbury & Nolan, 2019; Huffman et al., 2017; King, 2020; Myers & DeWall, 2018; Nairne,

2014; Weiten, 2022; Wood et al., 2018).

However, since not all textbooks were ranked in Open Syllabus, we also selected the top

ten books as ranked by Amazon (Ciccarelli & White, 2019; Coon et al., 2022; Gazzaniga, 2017;

Hockenbury & Nolan, 2019; Kalat, 2022; Lilienfeld et al., 2017; Myers & DeWall, 2018;

Spielman et al., 2020; Weiten, 2022; Zimbardo et al., 2016).

Five textbooks appeared in the top ten of both rankings (Ciccarelli & White, 2019;

Gazzaniga, 2017; Hockenbury & Nolan, 2019; Myers & DeWall, 2018; Weiten, 2022), leaving a

final list of 15 textbooks.

Coding Scheme Development

The eight themes highlighted in the “Well-Being Science” article were quite broad.

Therefore, to better identify and assess the coverage of each finding, we focused on more

specific findings within each theme. For example, under Theme 1 (“Well-being is more than

happy feelings”), we emphasized three empirical findings: (i) that positive affect (PA) and

negative affect (NA) are empirically distinct; (ii) that affective well-being (i.e., PA and NA) is

empirically distinct from cognitive well-being (e.g., life satisfaction, life evaluation); and (iii)
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 6

that hedonic well-being concepts (PA, NA, and life satisfaction) are strongly associated with

concepts of eudemonic well-being. In defining eudemonic well-being, we drew on a

classification of major eudemonic concepts developed by Huta and Waterman (2014). These

concepts included growth, self-actualization, meaning, purpose, coherence, authenticity,

autonomy, virtue, character strengths, competence, mastery, and engagement/flow. We did not

code relatedness or social well-being as a eudemonic concept as many findings that might be

relevant to this aspect of eudemonic well-being were also relevant to Theme 4 (“Social

relationships are essential to well-being”).

In developing the coding scheme, we separated findings relating to positive well-being

(e.g., positive emotions, happiness, life satisfaction) from those relating to negative well-being

(e.g., stress, depression, anxiety, and other negative affects). Thus, under Theme 4, instead of

examining links between social support and well-being in general, we specifically coded for

whether a finding links social support to reduced stress (negative well-being) or enhanced mood

and happiness (positive well-being). Similarly, we considered whether intentional activities

(Theme 6: Adaptation) were found to boost positive mood versus reduce stress and negative

mood. Finally, under Theme 8 (Benefits), we separated findings on the negative effects of stress

on health from those suggesting that positive affect predicts better health outcomes.

In total, we coded for 26 findings related to the eight themes (see Table S1). In addition,

13 extra categories were also coded. Eight of these categories were essentially, “catch-all”

categories to code for other themes such as “counter-findings.” For example, under Theme 3

(Income), a counter-finding might be research suggesting that there is no effect of money on

happiness. The catch-all categories also included other types of findings that did not exactly fit

the main themes of the article. For example, some findings referred to eudemonic well-being
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 7

alone, with no connection to hedonic well-being. Counter-findings were generally rare and were

most likely in relation to Theme 4 (e.g., findings that emphasize social relationships as a source

of stress and conflict).

Three of the extra categories were concerned with definitions of well-being—whether the

textbook author presented or discussed an explicit conceptualization of well-being and its

components. Specifically, category [1E] concerns whether PA and NA are presented as distinct

components of well-being; [1F] concerns whether affect or emotional experience and life

satisfaction are presented as distinct components; and [1G] concerns whether hedonic well-being

concepts and eudemonic well-being concepts are both presented as distinct components. These

tended not to be empirical findings per se but were typically definitional or theoretical

statements. Other definitions of well-being were coded in the catch-all category [1X].

Two other extra categories involved specific findings that were related to Themes 1 and 5

(Genetics/Personality). Category [1D] refers to findings that suggest an inverse correlation of PA

and NA with other variables (e.g., meditation reduces stress and induces relaxation and calm).

We introduced this category to help coders differentiate such findings from those that emphasize

how PA and NA have distinct correlates and effects [1A]. Category [5C] concerns genetic links

between well-being and personality. We did not include this in the main article because the focus

of Theme 5 was primarily that genes and personality influence well-being and less so on the

genetic correlation between well-being and personality itself.

Extracting Excerpts

After developing the coding scheme, three research assistants (RAs) and the first author

(WT) skimmed through each textbook to extract excerpts that were relevant to any of the 26

findings or 13 extra categories. First, if the textbook had a chapter or section on stress, health, or
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 8

well-being, that chapter was skimmed from beginning to end and any relevant excerpts were

compiled into a document. Second, the RAs searched each textbook for the following terms:

well-being, happi*, happy, satisfied, and satisfaction. If a search result was deemed to be

relevant, it was included in our compilation. For this purpose, we obtained electronic versions of

each text. The first author conducted an additional search using the terms positive or negative,

paired with either emotion, mood, affect, or feelings (e.g., positive mood). Because our emphasis

was on everyday subjective well-being, we did not examine chapters on psychopathology.

However, excerpts from these chapters were included if they emerged through our search

procedure.

To reduce redundancy, we consolidated excerpts from the same paragraph if they were

judged to be relevant to the same theme. We also considered consolidating excerpts from the

same page (if they were related to the same theme) but decided this was more difficult because

electronic textbooks with flowable text (e.g., Kindle versions) did not paginate the same way as

portable document files (PDF). Thus, paragraphs were the main level at which we differentiated

excerpts sharing the same theme. In total, we extracted 1,205 unique excerpts.

Relevance Ratings

A team of six coders were trained to judge the relevance of the excerpt to the 39

categories (26 findings plus 13 extra categories). To minimize burden, each coder focused only

on half of the categories so that each category was judged by three coders. Moreover, excerpts

were shortened whenever possible, retaining only as much content as needed to judge their

relevance to a category. However, additional information was sometimes added to the excerpt to

provide context for coders (e.g, defining certain terms). The relevance of an excerpt to a given

category was rated on a 4-point scale (1 = definitely not relevant; 2 = not sure; 3 = somewhat
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 9

relevant; 4 = definitely relevant). With this procedure, a single excerpt could be relevant to

several categories. Each coder began with a practice set of 104 excerpts. They received feedback

on their codings and then proceeded to code all excerpts, with intermittent feedback as needed.

To assess interrater agreement (three coders per category), the intraclass correlation

coefficient (ICC) for each category was computed based on a two-way random-effects model for

absolute agreement for the average coder. Most ICCs were acceptable (> .70) and those that were

lower tended to be for categories with few relevant excerpts (see Tables 1 and S2). We computed

the average rating for each excerpt and those with a mean score of 3 or higher were classified as

relevant to the category. However, in a minority of cases (0.8% of all codings), there were large

disagreements where one coder judged the excerpt to be definitely relevant and another judged it

to be definitely not relevant. In these cases, the first author made the final determination of

relevance. The number of excerpts coded into each category for each textbook is presented in

Tables S3 and S4. The final codings and R code can be found at https://osf.io/rpkzu/.

References

Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2019). Psychology (6th ed. / Global Edition). Pearson.

Coon, D., Mitterer, J. O., & Martini, T. (2022). Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind

and behavior (16th ed.). Cengage.

Gazzaniga, M. S. (2017). Psychological science (6th ed.). W. W. Norton & Company.

Griggs, R. A., & Christopher, A. N. (2016). Who’s who in introductory psychology textbooks: A

citation analysis redux. Teaching of Psychology, 43(2), 108–119.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628316636276
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 10

Gross, R. D. (2020). Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour (8th ed.). Hodder

Education.

Hockenbury, S. E., & Nolan, S. A. (2019). Discovering psychology (8th ed.). Worth Publishers.

Retrieved from Amazon.com.

Huffman, K., Dowdell, K., & Sanderson, C. A. (2017). Psychology in action (12th ed.). John

Wiley & Sons.

Huta, V., & Waterman, A. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a

classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions.

Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(6), 1425–1456. psyh. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-

013-9485-0

Kalat, J. W. (2022). Introduction to psychology (12th ed.). Cengage.

King, L. A. (2020). The science of psychology: An appreciative view (5th ed. / International

Student Edition). McGraw-Hill.

Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., & Namy, L. L. (2017). Psychology: From inquiry to understanding

(4th ed.). Pearson. Retrieved from Amazon.com.

Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2018). Exploring psychology (11th ed.). Worth Publishers.

Retrieved from Amazon.com.

Nairne, J. S. (2014). Psychology (6th ed.). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. (2020). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax.

Retrieved from OpenStax.com

Weiten, W. (2022). Psychology: Themes and variations (11th ed.). Cengage.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. R. G., & Boyd, D. R. (2018). Mastering the world of psychology (6th

ed.). Pearson Education.

WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 11

Zimbardo, P. G., Johnson, R. L., & McCann, V. (2016). Psychology: Core concepts (8th ed.).

Pearson.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 12

Table S1.

Definitions for Subcategories of Major Well-Being Findings and Additional Themes

Theme Code Finding/Topic Category Definition and Coding Considerations

1 1A PA and NA are empirically Emphasizes distinct correlates, effects, or influences on PA
distinct. versus NA; that one is not merely the opposite of the other.

1 1B Affective and cognitive WB Emphasizes distinct correlates, effects, or influences on

are empirically distinct. AWB (PA or NA) versus CWB (e.g., satisfaction, life
evaluations).
1 1C Hedonic WB is associated Reports associations between an HWB concept (e.g., AWB,
with eudemonic WB. CWB) and an EWB concept (e.g., meaning, purpose,
coherence, growth, self-actualization, authenticity, mastery,
competence, autonomy, perceived control, flow, virtues, or
character strengths).
2 2A Self-reports of WB are fairly Mentions the stability of self-reported well-being over time.
stable.
2 2B Mood effects on self-reports Discusses how mood effects on self-reports may be weak.
are small.
2 2C Order effects on self-reports Discusses how item order effects on self-reports may be
are small. weak.
2 2D Self-reports correlate with Discusses links between self-reported WB and non-self-
non-self-report measures. report outcomes (e.g., health outcomes).
3 3A Income is associated with Notes that income is generally positively associated with
greater WB. WB.
3 3B Declining marginal utility at Notes that the relationship between income and WB is
higher income levels. smaller at higher levels of income or once enough money for
basic needs is attained.
3 3C How money is spent Discusses various ways that spending (e.g., prosocial,
influences WB. experiences, time saving purchases) influence happiness.
4 4A Social support reduces stress Mentions how social support can relieve stress and NA.
and NA.
4 4B Social relationships contribute Mentions how social relationships and social interactions are
to happiness and PA. positively associated with happiness or can boost positive
mood. Research comparing married versus nonmarried
people or parents versus nonparents was not included in this
category but were coded under 5X.

5 5A WB is heritable. Mentions that WB is genetically influenced or heritable.

5 5B WB is associated with Discusses relationships between a personality trait (e.g.,
personality traits. extraversion, neuroticism, optimism, etc.) and a WB
construct.
6 6A People adapt to many Discusses the process of adaptation, the hedonic treadmill, or
circumstances. shifting baselines for neutrality.
6 6B Major life events can have Discusses how various major life events can have a long-term
long-term effects on WB. impact on WB.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 13

Theme Code Finding/Topic Category Definition and Coding Considerations

6 6C Activities that can increase Mentions various activities that have been shown to increase
PA. PA or positive WB.
6 6D Activities that can reduce NA. Mentions various activities that have been shown to relieve
stress or reduce NA/negative WB.
7 7A Societal conditions influence Mentions links between WB and societal conditions such as
WB. national wealth, inequality, corruption, discrimination,
prejudice, war, crime, etc.)
7 7B The correlates of WB vary Discusses cultural variation in levels of WB or in the
across cultures. correlates of WB.
7 7C Personality-culture fit Mentions how the match between an individual characteristic
enhances WB. and the characteristics of broader society is associated with
higher levels of WB for the individual.
7 7D Most people are happy. Mentions that most people around the world tend to rate
themselves as happy or "above neutral" on a WB scale.
8 8A PA predicts better health and Discusses how PA can contribute to better health (e.g., health
longevity. behaviors, better immune system functioning, lower risk of
disease, reduced physiological symptoms of stress, longevity,
etc.). Coders were instructed not to code findings that
appeared to be largely correlational.

8 8B NA predicts worse health and Discusses how NA and stress can contribute to better health
longevity. (e.g., health behaviors, better immune system functioning,
lower risk of disease, reduced physiological symptoms of
stress, longevity, etc.). Coders were instructed not to code
findings that appeared to be largely correlational.

8 8C WB contributes to work- Mentions how job satisfaction or other indicators of WB

relevant outcomes. predict work-relevant outcomes including higher pay,
organizational citizenship behavior, reduced absenteeism and
turn-over, better task performance and productivity, and
better judgment/decision making/creativity. Coders were
instructed to exclude findings that appeared to be largely
correlational.
8 8D WB contributes to relationship Mentions how WB can contribute to positive relationship-
outcomes. relevant outcomes such as increasing interest in social
activity, greater likelihood of making friends or getting
married, and greater likelihood of helping others. Also
included were findings that people with low WB are more
likely to foster relationship conflict and social rejection.
Coders were instructed to exclude findings that appeared to
be largely correlational.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 14

Theme Code Finding/Topic Category Definition and Coding Considerations

Additional Categories
1 1D PA and NA have opposing Emphasizes how PA and NA are inversely related to other
associations. variables (e.g., PA is associated with decreased risk and NA
with increased risk of disease). Also included were findings
that suggest how PA and NA have opposing effects on
various outcomes.

1 1E Concept of WB includes PA Presents a definition or discusses a concept of WB that

and NA. includes PA and NA as separate components.
1 1F Concept of WB includes AWB Presents a definition or discusses a concept of WB that
and CWB. includes AWB (e.g., PA, NA) and CWB (e.g., life
satisfaction) as separate components.
1 1G Concept of WB includes HWB Presents a definition or discusses a concept of WB that
and EWB includes HWB (e.g., AWB, CWB) and EWB (see list
presented under 1C) as separate components.
1 1X Other topics related to WB Other definitions of WB that did not fit 1E, 1F, or 1G
concepts and components including definitions that emphasized EWB alone (instead of
both EWB and HWB). Also coded here was research on
facial expressions of basic emotions.

2 2X Other topics related to the Included here were discussions that emphasized mood effects
validity of self-reported WB. on WB without noting the size of the effect, as well as
challenges to the validity of self-reported WB. Some findings
on affective forecasting were coded here if the rating scale
was mentioned explicitly. Research on the Social
Readjustment Rating Scale was coded here as well.

3 3X Other topics related to income Discusses how money has little or no effect on happiness.
and WB.
4 4X Other topics related to social Emphasizes links between relationship status and WB (e.g.,
relationships and WB. married vs nonmarried, parents vs nonparents). Also included
are findings that emphasize social relationships or social
interactions as sources of stress and conflict rather than WB.

5 5C WB and personality traits Findings that discuss how genes may influence both WB and
share common genetic sources. personality traits, or how traits that are strongly associated
with WB (e.g., optimism) are genetically influenced.
5 5X Other topics related to Links between WB and other individual differences that are
individual differences in WB. not typically considered personality traits (e.g., height,
weight, physical attractiveness). Other topics coded here
were links between psychological disorders and WB, and
research that finds no individual differences in WB.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 15

Theme Code Finding/Topic Category Definition and Coding Considerations

6 6X Other topics related to Discussions about how WB can change across the life span,
adaptation and changeability effects of daily hassles on long-term WB, and research
of WB. findings that focus on the impact of specific historical events
(e.g., the Great Depression) rather than classes of major
events (e.g., unemployment, marriage, catastrophes, etc).

7 7X Other topics related to society, Links between cultural identity and WB, and any research
culture, and WB. comparing cultural/ethnic groups or societal conditions that
find no effect on WB.
8 8X Other topics related to Other outcomes of WB that were not clearly related to health,
outcomes of WB. work, or relationships including effects of WB on memory.
Note. PA = positive affecti; NA = negative affect; WB = well-being; AWB = affective well-
being; CWB = cognitive well-being; HWB = hedonic well-being; EWB = eudemonic well-being.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 16

Table S2.

Interrater Agreement and Coverage of Additional Well-Being Themes

Number of Excerpts
Theme Code Finding/Topic ICC M SD % Books
1 1D PA and NA have opposing associations .65 2.73 2.55 93.33
1 1E Concept of WB includes PA and NA .75 0.33 0.62 26.67
1 1F Concept of WB includes AWB and CWB .48 0.53 0.83 40.00
1 1G Concept of WB includes HWB and EWB .18 0.40 0.83 26.67
1 1X Other topics related to WB concepts and components .73 4.27 3.53 100.00
2 2X Other topics related to the validity of self-reported WB .87 1.20 0.56 93.33
3 3X Other topics related to income and WB .85 1.07 0.96 66.67
4 4X Other topics related to social relationships and WB .82 4.20 2.91 86.67
5 5C WB and personality traits share common genetic sources .46 0.33 0.49 33.33
5 5X Other topics related to individual differences in WB .81 3.93 3.22 93.33
6 6X Other topics related to adaptation and changeability of WB .77 2.13 1.51 86.67
7 7X Other topics related to society, culture, and WB. .67 1.73 1.49 80.00
8 8X Other topics related to outcomes of WB .38 2.40 1.59 93.33
Note. PA = positive affect; NA = negative affect; WB = well-being; AWB = affective well-being; CWB = cognitive well-being; HWB = hedonic well-being;
EWB = eudemonic well-being.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 17

Table S3.
Number of Excerpts Coded by Category and Textbook (Major Findings)
Code Finding/Topic Cic Coo Gaz Gro Hoc Huf Kal Kin Lil Mye Nai Spi Wei Woo Zim
1A PA and NA are empirically distinct. 4 1 7 5 4 2 2 7 1 4 2 1 1 4 4
1B Affective and cognitive WB are empirically distinct. 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1C Hedonic WB is associated with eudemonic WB. 5 5 3 1 6 5 3 9 5 9 4 6 2 1 6
2A Self-reports of WB are fairly stable. 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
2B Mood effects on self-reports are small. 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2C Order effects on self-reports are small. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2D Self-reports correlate with non-self-report measures. 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
3A Income is associated with greater WB. 1 0 5 1 3 4 5 4 3 4 0 5 2 0 2
3B Declining marginal utility at higher income levels. 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 3 0 1 1 0 1
3C How money is spent influences WB. 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 2 4 0 0 1 0 0
4A Social support reduces stress and NA. 3 4 4 1 7 3 1 2 2 5 3 4 4 2 5
4B Social relationships contribute to happiness and PA. 2 5 3 1 5 7 3 4 6 17 1 5 3 1 2
5A WB is heritable. 1 0 1 0 0 0 4 2 3 3 1 2 1 0 1
5B WB is associated with personality traits. 4 6 13 4 4 9 4 14 9 9 5 6 11 3 13
6A People adapt to many circumstances. 0 0 3 1 0 3 1 2 8 5 2 3 2 0 2
6B Major life events can have long-term effects on WB. 1 3 0 0 1 2 1 1 2 3 0 2 1 1 2
6C Activities that can increase PA. 4 10 6 1 8 22 9 18 10 15 3 2 9 2 4
6D Activities that can reduce NA. 4 13 8 2 7 11 8 6 10 18 8 4 8 3 5
7A Societal conditions influence WB. 0 4 2 2 1 1 4 0 1 6 0 7 3 0 3
7B The correlates of WB vary across cultures. 2 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
7C Personality-culture fit enhances WB. 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0
7D Most people are happy. 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 2 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
8A PA predicts better health and longevity. 3 1 2 0 2 2 1 4 3 3 0 1 4 0 2
8B NA predicts worse health and longevity. 10 12 16 8 12 12 4 10 7 18 7 21 15 7 8
8C WB contributes to work-relevant outcomes. 0 4 2 0 1 4 0 3 2 4 2 1 1 2 3
8D WB contributes to relationship outcomes. 0 3 0 0 1 0 1 5 2 4 1 1 2 1 0

Percentage of Major Findings Covered (1A to 8D) 53.8 53.8 57.7 50.0 57.7 61.5 88.5 69.2 73.1 76.9 50.0 76.9 80.8 42.3 65.4
Note. PA = positive affect; NA = negative affect; WB = well-being; AWB = affective well-being; CWB = cognitive well-being; HWB = hedonic well-being; EWB =
eudemonic well-being; Cic = Ciccarelli; Coo = Coon; Gaz = Gazzaniga; Gro = Gross; Hoc = Hockenbury; Huf = Huffman; Kal = Kalat; Kin = King; Lil = Lilienfeld; Mye =
Myers; Nai = Nairne; Spi = Spielman.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 18

Table S4.
Number of Excerpts Coded by Category and Textbook (Additional Themes)

Code Finding/Topic Cic Coo Gaz Gro Hoc Huf Kal Kin Lil Mye Nai Spi Wei Woo Zim
1D PA and NA have opposing associations. 2 0 6 1 4 2 1 3 10 3 1 1 2 1 4
1E Concept of WB includes PA and NA. 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 1
1F Concept of WB includes AWB and CWB. 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 3 0 0 1 0 1
1G Concept of WB includes HWB and EWB 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0
1X Other topics related to WB concepts and components 2 9 5 3 6 1 1 14 3 5 1 2 4 2 6
2X Other topics related to the validity of self-reported WB. 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 2 1 2
3X Other topics related to income and WB. 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 3 1 1 2 0 1
4X Other topics related to social relationships and WB. 0 0 9 3 3 5 5 2 6 7 3 8 8 2 2
5C WB and personality traits share common genetic sources. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
5X Other topics related to individual differences in WB. 1 2 11 5 1 0 3 2 7 7 1 6 8 3 2
6X Other topics related to adaptation and changeability of WB. 0 1 2 5 2 3 1 2 3 3 0 2 5 2 1
7X Other topics related to society, culture, and WB. 0 0 1 0 2 2 3 3 2 5 1 1 4 1 1
8X Other topics related to outcomes of WB. 2 2 4 0 5 2 6 2 2 3 1 1 2 3 1
Note. PA = positive affect; NA = negative affect; WB = well-being; AWB = affective well-being; CWB = cognitive well-being; HWB = hedonic
well-being; EWB = eudemonic well-being; Cic = Ciccarelli; Coo = Coon; Gaz = Gazzaniga; Gro = Gross; Hoc = Hockenbury; Huf = Huffman;
Kal = Kalat; Kin = King; Lil = Lilienfeld; Mye = Myers; Nai = Nairne; Spi = Spielman.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 19

Discussion Questions & Exercises

Theme #1: Well-Being Involves More than Happy Feelings

1. Think of things that cause misery and negative emotion. If a person is able to avoid these
things in their daily life, will they feel high levels of happiness and positive emotion?

2. Think of two people. One person experiences high levels of positive and negative
emotion in their daily life. The other person experiences low levels of both. Which person
might be more satisfied with their life?

3. What does it mean to experience personal growth and meaning? Do these experiences
always come with feelings of happiness? Does happiness get in the way of these
experiences?

Self-Reflection and Exercises

4. Rate how often you felt happy yesterday from 1 (very rarely or never) to 5 (very often or
always). What sort of things did you think about as you made your rating? Write these
down. Now rate how satisfied you are with your life in general on a scale from 1
(extremely dissatisfied) to 10 (extremely satisfied). Again, write down what you thought
about as you made this writing. Compare the two lists you made (one for happiness, one
for satisfaction). Are they largely the same, or are they different in some ways?

Theme #2: Well-Being Can Be Validly Measured

1. When judging how satisfied they are with life, should a person’s current mood be part of
that judgment? Why or why not?

2. Some scholars have suggested that people do not really know how happy they are. If
asked to rate their happiness, they essentially make up their judgment on the spot. Do you
agree with this perspective? Why or why not?

Self-Reflection and Exercises

3. Think about specific people that you see often (friends, family, classmates, co-workers,
etc.). How confident are you in your ability to judge how happy and satisfied they are
with their lives? What specific information do you know about each person that makes
you more or less confident in your judgment of their well-being?

4. Rate how happy you are feeling right now using the following scale: 1 = not at all, 2 =
very slightly, 3 = slightly, 4 = moderately, 5 = much, 6 = very much, 7 = extremely). Now
rate how happy you feel in general. Is there a difference in the two ratings? Why might
there be a difference? If they are the same, why do you think that is?
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 20

Theme #3: Income Influences Well-Being Up to a Point

1. Why might people in wealthier nations experience higher life satisfaction than people in
economically poorer nations?

2. Is it wise to make high income a top priority in life? Why might materialists tend to be
less happy than less materialistic individuals?

3. People can earn high incomes and still be dissatisfied and unhappy with their material
lives. Does it make sense to control and dampen material desires? Why do many people
want more than they have, even at times when they are objectively well off?

4. Why might the effects of income on well-being level off at some point? Why might the
effects even turn down at some point so that more income equates to less happiness?

Self-Reflection and Exercises

5. Make a list of all the activities that you enjoy. Which of them can be experienced for little
or no money? Which of them requires significant money?

6. Take some time to think about how materialistic you are? Does your level of materialism
serve your major life goals? Might it interfere or conflict with some of your other goals?
Is a high income so important to you that you are willing to sacrifice to some degree
other goals such as strong relationships, leisure time, or accepting an unpleasant
occupation?

Theme #4: High Quality Relationships are Essential for Well-Being

1. There is some evidence that loneliness is detrimental not only for our mental health, but
for our physical health as well. For example, people who are lonely are more likely to
experience high blood pressure and weakened immune systems. Why do you think
loneliness has an impact on physical health?

2. When something good happens to a person, they may share the good news with other
people. Is sharing good news with other people helpful or harmful? Does it matter whom
we share the good news with?

3. Research suggests that perceived support (whether you have people you can count on) is
more consistently related to well-being then actual support (the help that you actually
receive from someone). Why might it be that actually receiving support does not always
make people feel happy?
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 21

Self-Reflection and Exercises

4. Think about your social interactions on social media or social networking sites (e.g.,
Facebook, Instagram, etc.). How do your social interactions on these platforms differ
from your offline, face-to-face interactions? How do you benefit from your social
interactions online versus offline?

5. Which is more important to you—to have many friends or to have only a few close
friends? Are there specific advantages to having many friends even if they are not all
very close to you?

Theme #5: Genes and Personality Influence Well-Being

1. There is some evidence that the twins share similar levels of well-being even when they
have been separated at birth (e.g., Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Does this suggest that well-
being is strictly caused by genetics? Why or why not?

2. Suppose there are two identical twins reared apart. One is very wealthy and is able to
afford many luxuries of life – a large house, cars, trips to almost anywhere in the world.
The other is considerably less wealthy and struggles to pay the bills and rent from month
to month. How similar do you expect their well-being to be? What if the twins were
fraternal (not genetically identical)—how does this change your expectation that their
well-being levels will be similar?

Self-Reflection and Exercises

3. Think of individuals that you know who seem to be happy and others that seem less
happy. What do you know about their family background, parents, and life
circumstances? How much do you think their happiness is influenced by an innate
disposition to be happy? How confident would you be in that judgment and why?

4. The Del Rubio Triplets (Eadie, Elena, and Milly) were identical triplets born in 1921 and
gained fame for their musical performances. All three lived to be over 70 years old.
However, Eadie died in 1996; Elena died in 2001, and Milly died in 2011. Conduct a
Google search to see what you can learn about them. Why do you think they lived to
different ages despite being identical triplets? Does this example illustrate the importance
of genetic influences, environmental influences, or both?

Theme #6: People Adapt to Many Circumstances, But It Takes Time

1. Discuss events that have had a big impact on your well-being. How long did the reactions
last? Are there any changes in circumstances in your life that have had a lasting
influence on your well-being
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 22

2. When something good happens to you, how long does it take you to adapt? If you did not
adapt, and remained at a higher level of happiness, how might this interfere with future
functioning?

3. In your life what methods of coping do you find to be effective in fending off
unhappiness after bad events? What methods seem to be ineffective?

4. It appears that people largely adapt to some new circumstances and yet do not fully adapt
to others? Why might this be? What circumstances do you think can resist adaptation,
and which types of conditions are highly subject to adaptation? What are the
characteristics of people who are able to adapt to negative circumstances? Who is least
likely to fully adapt to positive circumstances?

Self-Reflection and Exercises

5. Observe people who vary in how long they have had certain circumstances, for example
how long they have been dating or married, or how long they have had a good job. Do
you notice any differences in their general mood or happiness?

6. In the coming week track events that influence your feelings of well-being – events that
make you a bit happier or less happy. These might be getting a good or a bad grade; or
even a win by your favorite sports team.

7. Note how long it takes for the effects to wear off. To what extent does sleeping the night
erase the moods from the evening before? What other factors seem to influence how
quickly the mood wears off?

Theme #7. Culture and Society Influence Well-Being

1. Do you think there are cultural differences in how often people smile or what smiling
means? Why might there be such differences?

2. Culture can refer to the shared values, beliefs, and practices of a group of people. Not
only might this include geographical regions (e.g., countries) but smaller settings such as
workplaces as well. How might the culture of a workplace or school influence the kind of
emotions people feel?

3. High arousal positive emotions (e.g., enthusiasm, excitement, cheerfulness) are valued in
some cultures, whereas low arousal positive emotions (e.g., feeling calm, relaxed) are
valued in others. How might these different positive emotions be helpful (or harmful) in
different social settings?
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 23

Self-Reflection and Exercises

4. Do you ever try to control your happiness or attempt not to appear too happy in front
others? If so, what are some factors that influence your decision to control your
happiness? Are any of these factors related to the rules or norms of a particular setting?

5. Think about social media and how people express themselves on these platforms. What
are the norms and values of the various social networks that you observe on these
platforms?

Theme #8. There are Benefits to Experiencing Well-Being

1. There is no doubt that being healthy is good for happiness. How, then, can we establish
whether happiness also leads to better health? Can you design a study that can provide
evidence for the causal effect of happiness on health?

2. To be happy is to be satisfied and content. Why, then, are happy people more likely to
help others and engage in action for social change? What could be the mechanisms that
explain why being happy predicts prosocial behavior?

3. It is well established that stress and negative emotions could wreak havoc on our bodies.
And being stressed is also not good for happiness. How can we be sure, then, that it is
positive emotions, rather than the lack of negative emotions, that explain why happier
people are healthier?

4. Most people report being mostly happy despite the fact that they encounter problems and
stressors. How negative do you think things must be to make people chronically
unhappy?

Self-Reflection and Exercises

5. In a stressful time of the semester (e.g., midterms or finals), make a concerted effort to
spend at least 20 minutes a day doing something that brings you great joy and happiness.
Can you notice any effects on your stress? What about your health?

6. There are many established techniques to boost our positive emotions. In a technique
called “Behavioral Activation,” you first spend 10-20 minutes writing about what is most
important to you, such as being a good friend, being kind to others, or contributing to
your community. You then decide on how you can live by this core principle in the next
seven days, doing at least one activity a day in accordance with this value. As you move
through this exercise, track your daily mood as well as your physical health (e.g., pain,
headaches, stuffed nose, vitality). Do you see any relationship between your mood and
your health?
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 24

7. Our smartphones can be a source of social connection and happiness, but they can also be
black holes where hours disappear every day. Use one of the functions on your phone to
limit the time you spend on your most used apps or to lock your phone screen for a period
of time every day. Then, use the extra time to do something that makes you happy—
perhaps talking to friends or family or taking a picturesque walk. Can you notice any
effect on your happiness? How about your health? Do you feel more socially connected
or less socially connected?
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 25

Learning Activities

The activities below were developed by Renee Berger, B.Sc., and Derrick Wirtz, Ph.D, at the
University of British Columbia.

1. Theme #1: Well-Being Involves More than Happy Feelings (p. 8-11)
2. Theme #2: Well-Being Can Be Validly Measured (p.12-17)
3. Theme #5: Our Genes Influence Our Well-Being (p. 18)
4. Theme #6: People Adapt to Many Circumstances, But It Takes Time (p. 19-22)
5. Theme #7. Cultural Culture and Society and Values Influence Well-Being (p. 23-26)
6. Theme #8. There are Important Benefits to Experiencing Well-Being (p. 27-30)
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 26

Subjective Well-Being Activity: Part One

Well-being is a term frequently used interchangeably with happiness. Achieving happiness is

something that motivates many of our actions and is sought after by most people. There are
many ways to define happiness, but a typical image of a happy person is someone who
experiences a lot of positive emotions as well as pleasurable events and is content with their life
on the whole. Simply stated, happiness is considered to be a positive evaluation of the quality of
one’s life. Considering that the feeling of happiness can easily be recognized and evaluated, it
can therefore be subjectively measured using an array of psychometric instruments. The
following is an example of one instrument used to measure happiness:

Below are some statements that you may agree or disagree with. Using the 1 - 7 scale below,
indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number on the line preceding
that item. Please base your answers on what you have been doing and experiencing during the
past four weeks. Please be open and honest in your responding.

 7 - Strongly agree
 6 - Agree
 5 - Slightly agree
 4 - Neither agree nor disagree
 3 - Slightly disagree
 2 - Disagree
 1 - Strongly disagree

____ In most ways my life is close to my ideal.

____ I often feel good

____ I often feel sad

____ So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.

____ I often feel angry

____ If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.

____ I often experience positive emotions

____ I often feel content

____ The conditions of my life are excellent.

____ I often feel bad

____ I often feel pleasant

WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 27

____ I am satisfied with my life.

____ I often feel happy

____ I often feel joyful

____ I often experience negative emotions

____ I often feel afraid

Please note that normally your responses would be scored, but for the purpose of this exercise, it
is not necessary to score your results.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 28

Subjective Well-Being Activity: Part Two

In the scientific study of happiness, happiness is defined as subjective well-being and is more
complex than described above. The subjective feeling of happiness involves the interplay of a
number of different components. Your task is going to be to try and identify these components.
Now that you have completed the measurement scale for well-being, please answer the following
questions and then form groups of 3-4 to discuss your responses.

1. Label which items on the scale should be grouped together, i.e. identify which items are
assessing the same component of well-being. List your final groupings in the space
provided below.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. What do the items in each of your groupings have in common?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. Which component of well-being do you think each group assesses?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 29

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. Do you think there are any other components of well-being not covered by this
measurement scale?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 30

Validity Assignment: Part 1

One method of measurement that is often used in psychological research is the self-report
measure. Self-reports rely on the participant directly reporting on their own behaviours, thoughts,
attitudes, feelings, and so on. In the study of subjective well-being, the dominant method used is
the self-report measure. Considering that self-reports are so frequently used in this type of
research, the validity of the research findings depends on the validity of the self-reports. Validity
refers to whether an instrument actually measures what it claims to measure. Therefore, it is
important to determine that self-reports are a valid method of measurement in order to have
confidence in the research findings. One way to determine the validity of self-reports is to
compare the results from a self-report with the results from another method of measurement, for
example, an observer report.

For the first part of this activity, you will fill out two well-being self-reports. Afterwards, you
will have a close friend or family member fill out the same reports about you.

Satisfaction with Life Scale

Below are five statements that you may agree or disagree with. Using the 1 - 7 scale below,
indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number on the line preceding
that item. Please be open and honest in your responding.

 7 - Strongly agree
 6 - Agree
 5 - Slightly agree
 4 - Neither agree nor disagree
 3 - Slightly disagree
 2 - Disagree
 1 - Strongly disagree

____ In most ways my life is close to my ideal.

____ The conditions of my life are excellent.

____ I am satisfied with my life.

____ So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.

____ If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.

 31 - 35 Extremely satisfied
 26 - 30 Satisfied
 21 - 25 Slightly satisfied
 20 Neutral
 15 - 19 Slightly dissatisfied
 10 - 14 Dissatisfied
 5 - 9 Extremely dissatisfied
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 31

Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE)

Please think about what you have been doing and experiencing during the past four weeks. Then
report how much you experienced each of the following feelings, using the scale below. For each
item, select a number from 1 to 5, and indicate that number on your response sheet.

1. Very Rarely or Never

2. Rarely
3. Sometimes
4. Often
5. Very Often or Always

Positive
Negative
Good
Bad
Pleasant
Unpleasant
Happy
Sad
Afraid
Joyful
Angry
Contented

Scoring: The measure can be used to derive an overall affect balance score, but can also be
divided into positive and negative feelings scales.
Positive Feelings (SPANE-P): Add the scores, varying from 1 to 5, for the six items: positive,
good, pleasant, happy, joyful, and contented. The score can vary from 6 (lowest possible) to 30
(highest positive feelings score).
Negative Feelings (SPANE-N): Add the scores, varying from 1 to 5, for the six items: negative,
bad, unpleasant, sad, afraid, and angry. The score can vary from 6 (lowest possible) to 30
(highest negative feelings score).
Affect Balance (SPANE-B): The negative feelings score is subtracted from the positive feelings
score, and the resultant difference score can vary from -24 (unhappiest possible) to 24 (highest
affect balance possible). A respondent with a very high score of 24 reports that she or he rarely
or never experiences any
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 32

Validity Activity: Observer Report

Please fill out the following two questionnaires about the person who asked you to complete this
activity. Do not fill out the questions about your thoughts and feelings toward yourself.

Satisfaction with Life Scale

Below are five statements that may or may not apply to your loved one. Using the 1 - 7 scale
below, indicate how much each item describes your friend/family member by placing the
appropriate number on the line preceding that item. Please be open and honest in your
responding.

 7 - Strongly agree
 6 - Agree
 5 - Slightly agree
 4 - Neither agree nor disagree
 3 - Slightly disagree
 2 - Disagree
 1 - Strongly disagree

____ In most ways my life is close to my ideal.

____ The conditions of my life are excellent.

____ I am satisfied with my life.

____ So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.

____ If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.

 31 - 35 Extremely satisfied
 26 - 30 Satisfied
 21 - 25 Slightly satisfied
 20 Neutral
 15 - 19 Slightly dissatisfied
 10 - 14 Dissatisfied
 5 - 9 Extremely dissatisfied
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 33

Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE)

Please think about what your friend/family member has been doing and experiencing during the
past four weeks. Then report how much you believe they have experienced each of the following
feelings, using the scale below. Please select your responses based on the behaviour you have
observed in your friend/family member. For each item, select a number from 1 to 5, and indicate
that number on your response sheet.

1. Very Rarely or Never

2. Rarely
3. Sometimes
4. Often
5. Very Often or Always

Positive
Negative
Good
Bad
Pleasant
Unpleasant
Happy
Sad
Afraid
Joyful
Angry
Contented

Scoring: The measure can be used to derive an overall affect balance score, but can also be
divided into positive and negative feelings scales.
Positive Feelings (SPANE-P): Add the scores, varying from 1 to 5, for the six items: positive,
good, pleasant, happy, joyful, and contented. The score can vary from 6 (lowest possible) to 30
(highest positive feelings score).
Negative Feelings (SPANE-N): Add the scores, varying from 1 to 5, for the six items: negative,
bad, unpleasant, sad, afraid, and angry. The score can vary from 6 (lowest possible) to 30
(highest negative feelings score).
Affect Balance (SPANE-B): The negative feelings score is subtracted from the positive feelings
score, and the resultant difference score can vary from -24 (unhappiest possible) to 24 (highest
affect balance possible). A respondent with a very high score of 24 reports that she or he rarely
or never experiences any
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 34

Validity Activity: Part 3

Now that you have completed the questionnaires and have had someone close to you fill out the
questionnaires, you should compare the scores on your self-report with your friend/family
member’s report to see how similar they are.

1. How similar are the scores you gave yourself to the scores your friend or family gave
you?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. If the two reports produced markedly different scores, what are some possible
explanations for the difference?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. What do the similarities and differences between the self-report and observer report
scores tell you about the validity of self-reports?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 35

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. What are some factors that could undermine the validity of your ratings of yourself?
What could undermine the validity of the observer’s ratings of you?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5. Why do you think is it important to make sure a measurement tool is valid?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

6. What are some other ways you can think of to test the validity of self-reports?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 36

Personality Activity

Our well-being is influenced by a number of factors, both internal and external. One internal
influence on well-being is personality. Personality effects are of particular interest because they
may reflect the role of genes on our well-being set-point. Well-being is also influenced by
environmental factors but today we will be focusing on the genetic component.
Some personality traits that have been studied extensively and have been shown to be
significantly genetically influenced are the Big 5. The Big 5 personality traits include openness
to experience, conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, and neuroticism. There is evidence
that these traits can influence our perceptions and how we react to certain situations, which can
in turn affect our well-being. A close examination of these traits can help us think about the role
that genetics might play in our overall well-being.

In this activity, you will pair up with a partner and take turns interviewing each other. Some
topics/questions to discuss in your interviews include:
 Where do you fall on the scale for each of the five Big 5 personality traits (i.e. are you
highly conscientiousness or only a little, are you introverted or extraverted, etc.)
 How do you think your specific personality traits influence your well-being?
 Can you think of a specific example in which your personality traits had a significant
impact on how you interpreted and reacted to a situation?
 Pick one personality trait – if this trait were to be altered, how do you think it would
affect your well-being?
 Which of the Big 5 (if any) do you think has the biggest impact on well-being? Which do
you think has the least impact?
If you think of any other related questions during your interview, feel free to discuss those as
well.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 37

Adaptation Activity

This worksheet has been designed to help you understand the process of adaptation. When
anticipating significant future events and while experiencing positive or negative events, we tend
to overestimate the lasting impact these events will have on our overall well-being. This
phenomenon can be explained by hedonic adaptation, which is the concept that despite
experiencing ups and downs in life, people’s happiness tends to return to a baseline level.
Following situations that elicit strong emotional reactions, the knowledge of how we adapt to
life’s events can grant us a better understanding of our overall well-being.

1. On a separate sheet of paper, provide a detailed description of a meaningful positive

event that you have recently experienced. A recent event can include anything that has
occurred within the past 2 weeks. Try to include the following details in your description:
a. What the event was and why it is emotionally relevant to you
b. A thorough description of your current feelings surrounding the event
c. A prediction of how you are going to feel about this event 2 months from now

Make sure to thoroughly describe each aspect, as your description will be important for
the second part of the activity.

2. Repeat step 1, this time providing a detailed description of a meaningful negative event
that you have recently experienced. Try to pick a negative event with a similar level of
seriousness as the positive event you described. Remember to include details a-c in your
description.

3. Place your sheet(s) of paper containing your event descriptions into an envelope and seal
it. Write down the date and your full name on the front of the envelope and turn it in.3

3
After collecting the students’ completed assignments, the instructor will hold on to them. At a later date, they will
be returned to students in order to complete the second part of the activity.
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 38

Adaptation Activity Follow-Up

Note: Ideally the first part of the activity would be completed early in the semester and this part
would follow towards the end of the semester.

In front of you, you should have the envelope containing the written assignment you completed
earlier in the semester. You may now open the envelope and carefully read the event descriptions
you wrote. Once you are finished reading, reflect on the following questions:

1. When was the last time you thought about either of these events?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Do either of these events continue to play a significant role in your everyday life?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. Have your feelings surrounding these events changed since you wrote about them, and if
so, how?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 39

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. Does the prediction you made in your description about your future feelings regarding the
events match how you currently feel? If not, how do your current feelings differ from
your prediction?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5. Compare and contrast the ways in which your feelings surrounding the positive event
have changed with the changes in your feelings surrounding the negative event. Has your
overall outlook on the events changed more for the positive or negative event, or is the
degree of change relatively similar?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 40

6. Explain the process of adaptation based on your experience during this activity.

________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________
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WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 41

Culture Activity

Part 1

In a single day, one person can experience a range of various emotions. Emotions are of
particular importance because they often guide our behavior and motivations. Another important
organizing framework for our actions is values. Values reflect abstract goals and, similarly to
emotions, can guide our perceptions and behaviours. There are different types of values and each
person may find different types of values significant to their life, and the values a person finds
important influences the goals they pursue. The theory of basic values identifies four categories
of values: self-transcendence, self-enhancement, openness to change, and conservation. Each of
these values is associated with specific emotions, and the values a person endorses dictates
which emotions they find desirable, i.e. emotions that are consistent with a person’s values are
desirable emotions to experience for that person. We will discuss each of the values individually.

1. The first category of values is self-transcendence, which refers to values that reflect the
motivation to connect with others and transcend selfishness; these are prosocial values.
Self-transcendence values include universalism and benevolence. What emotions do you
think would be associated with self-transcendence values?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. The second category of values is self-enhancement, which refers to self-focused values.

Self-enhancement values lead a person to pursue self-interests, sometimes at the expense
of others. These values include achievement and power. What emotions do you think
would be associated with self-enhancement values?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 42

3. The third category of values is openness to change, which reflects a motivation to

explore, create, and make decisions. These values involve acting independently and
seeking novelty. These values include self-direction, stimulation, and hedonism. What
emotions do you think would be associated with openness to change values?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. The last category of values is conservation, which reflects the motivation to abide by
social expectations and maintain the status quo. These values involve acting in a way that
is consistent with one’s culture/environment. These values include security, conformity
and tradition. What emotions do you think would be associated with conservation values?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Part 2

Another factor that plays an important role when considering the value-emotion association is
culture. Culture can have a significant impact on the types of values that are considered
important and thus can have an influence on which emotions are desired and most often
expressed in a particular culture.

1. What types of values does your culture endorse?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Are there any emotions that are more prevalent in your culture than other cultures?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 43

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. Can you think of some examples of countries whose cultures endorse values different to
your own? What specific values do they endorse?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. Using the examples you provided in the previous question, are there any emotions that
are more prevalent in the cultures you listed?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5. How might the endorsement of specific values within a culture influence the range of
emotions accessible to that culture?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Part 3

The final component that relates to the value-emotion association is well-being. Well-being is
influenced by a number of factors, including values and emotions. Therefore, it is important to
consider what effect our values can have on our well-being.

1. In what way do you think cultural values can influence well-being?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 44

2. Considering the four types of values discussed, which type(s) of values do you think have
a positive effect on well-being? Why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. Considering the four types of values discussed, do you think any of the types of values
can have a negative effect on well-being? How so?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. Based on your answer to the previous questions, do you think there are certain cultures
that experience greater well-being due to the types of values they endorse?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5. How do you think the desired emotions that are associated with specific values influence
well-being?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 45

Well-Being Benefits Activity

Achieving high levels of well-being can have a positive effect on many areas of life. Some
factors that are positively impacted by greater well-being include physical health, social
relationships, work performance, and resilience. The area we will be focusing on today is
physical health. A common belief is that good health is maintained by eating well and exercising,
neglecting the impact of psychological health on physical health. Greater well-being can have
many direct and indirect impacts on physical health. In this activity, we will be examining a
short-term health impact of well-being.

Part 1: Resting Heart Rate

One aspect of physical health that can easily be measured is heart rate. Heart rate is important
because it indicates the functioning of the heart, and the heart is responsible for circulating
oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. If the heart isn’t working properly, many bodily
functions are affected, therefore, it’s important that the heart rate is maintained at a healthy level.
A resting heart rate is the heart rate of a person who is not currently engaged in any physical
activity, and in general, a lower resting heart rate is considered healthier because it indicates
more efficient heart functioning. In this activity we will examining how positive psychology
activities influence heart rate.

To begin, you will measure your resting heart rate by checking your pulse. To measure your
pulse, place your index and third fingers on your neck to either side of your windpipe or on the
underside of your wrist between the bone and tendon, which are located on the thumb side of
your wrist. Once you can feel your pulse, count the number of beats you feel in 15 seconds. After
you have the number of pulse beats in 15 seconds, multiply this number by 4 to get your heart
rate in beats per minute.
Take note of your resting heart rate:_________bpm

Part 2: Mindfulness Meditation

Now we will be observing how a relaxation focused positive psychology activity affects heart
rate. We will be doing a mindfulness mediation exercise, which is used to achieve a state of alert,
focused relaxation by paying attention to thoughts and feelings without judgement. The
mindfulness activity we will be completing today is a mindful breathing exercise.

Start by settling into a comfortable position and allow your eyes to close or keep them open with
a softened gaze. Begin by taking several long slow deep breaths breathing in fully and exhaling
fully. Breathe in through your nose and out through your nose or mouth. Allow your breath to
find its own natural rhythm. Bring your full attention to noticing each in-breath as it enters your
nostrils, travels down to your lungs and causes your belly to expand. And notice each out-breath
as your belly contracts and air moves up through the lungs back up through the nostrils or
mouth. Invite your full attention to flow with your breath.

Notice how the inhale is different from the exhale. You may experience the air as cool as it enters
your nose and warm as you exhale. As you turn more deeply inward, begin to let go of noises
around you. If you are distracted by sounds in the room, simply notice them and then bring your
intention back to your breath. Simply breathe as you breathe, not striving to change anything
WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 46

about your breath. Don't try to control your breath in any way. Observe and accept your
experience in this moment without judgment, paying attention to each inhale and exhale.

If your mind wanders to thoughts, plans or problems, simply notice your mind wandering. Watch
the thought as it enters your awareness as neutrally as possible. Then practice letting go of the
thought as if it were a leaf floating down a stream. In your mind, place each thought that arises
on a leaf and watch as it floats out of sight down the stream. Then bring your attention back to
your breath. Your breath is an anchor you can return to over and over again when you become
distracted by thoughts.

Notice when your mind has wandered. Observe the types of thoughts that hook or distract you.
Noticing is the richest part of learning. With this knowledge you can strengthen your ability to
detach from thoughts and mindfully focus your awareness back on the qualities of your breath.
Practice coming home to the breath with your full attention. Watching the gentle rise of your
stomach on the in-breath and the relaxing, letting go on the out-breath. Allow yourself to be
completely with your breath as it flows in and out.

You might become distracted by pain or discomfort in the body or twitching or itching sensations
that draw your attention away from the breath. You may also notice feelings arising, perhaps
sadness or happiness, frustration or contentment. Acknowledge whatever comes up including
thoughts or stories about your experience. Simply notice where your mind went without judging
it, pushing it away, clinging to it or wishing it were different and simply refocus your mind and
guide your attention back to your breath.

Breathe in and breathe out. Follow the air all the way in and all the way out. Mindfully be
present moment by moment with your breath. If your mind wanders away from your breath, just
notice without judging it – be it a thought, emotion, or sensation that hooks your attention and
gently guide your awareness back to your breathing.

As this practice comes to an end, slowly allow your attention to expand and notice your entire
body and then beyond your body to the room you are in. When you're ready, open your eyes and
come back fully alert and awake.

Take a moment now to measure your heart rate using the same method we used before.

Record your current heart rate:_____________bpm

1. How do you feel after completing the mindfulness activity?

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WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 47

2. How does your heart rate following the mindfulness activity compare to your resting
heart rate?

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3. What long-term benefits could arise from mindfulness meditation as a result of the
change in heart rate observed?
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Part 3
Positive psychology activities that focus on relaxation are only one type of activity used to
improve well-being. Well-being can also be improved by activities that are more physiologically
arousing. Next we will examine how a more arousing activity affects heart rate.

Please start by watching this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PK2939Jji3M

(please note, any video can be used here, this is just an example of a humorous video)

1. How do you feel after watching the video?

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2. How does your heart rate after watching the video compare to your resting heart rate?
How does it compare to your heart rate following the mindfulness activity?

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WELL-BEING SCIENCE – SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS 48

3. Did any of your observations during this activity surprise you?

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4. Compare and contrast relaxation activities and arousing activities in terms of benefits on
well-being. Do you think one type of activity is more beneficial? If yes, why?

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Part 4
This exercise could be repeated with various other positive psychology activities. For a
comprehensive list, refer to the Greater Good in Action website (https://ggia.berkeley.edu/).