A Brief Introduction to Philosophy

Learning Objectives:

1.   To know the meaning of philosophy

2.   To trace the beginning of philosophy
3.   To understand the historical development of philosophy
4.   To figure out the problem of philosophy
5.   To know the necessity of the study of philosophy
6.   To know why philosophy is a human activity
7.   To know the nature of philosophy
8.   To know the different branches of philosophy

ü   In a world that is beset with a multitude of important issues, there is a great need
for the students to have a critical mind in order to prevent them from adopting
opinions that are uninformed, poorly analyzed, biased, or simple minded.
ü   There is a need for students to develop critical thinking so as not to act on a
poorly-thought opinion as this may have a disastrous result.

Literal Definition of Philosophy

ü   “love of wisdom”
o   Greek words (philein) –means to love
o   Sophia – means wisdom
ü   Consequently philosophers are called “lovers of wisdom”.

Wisdom

ü   Deals with the principles of things, the first cause of all beings. It deals with the
understanding of the meaning of once existence and the importance of the things
around him/her.
o   Involves reflection
o   Insight
o   A capacity to learn from experience
o   Some plausible from human condition

Philosophy

ü   Inasmuch as philosophy deals with wisdom, it is, therefore, considered a search

for meaning – search for understanding on the importance of human life. It is a
search for understanding one’s lived experience.
ü   It is important part of the human person’s life whether he/she knows it or not.
This is because every human person is a rational being.
ü   It is the nature of every human person to ask for the meaning of life and to search
of fulfillment and happiness.
ü   Philosophy came about when human beings started to have a sense of wonder in
the world. It all started when people to have reflections on their everyday
experience.
ü   The sense of wonder lead him/her to ask the questions
Million-dollar questions in philosophy:

1.   What is the ultimate material of the universe?

2.   How can we explain the process of change in things?

The Beginning of Philosophy (How did philosophy came about?)

Miletus

ü   – the birthplace of philosophy was the seaport town of Miletus, located across
the Aegean Sea from Athens, on the western shores of Ionia in Asia Minor. The
first philosophers were called either Milesians or Ionians.
ü   It was the center of commerce around 585 BCE (Before Common Era). Merchants
also traded their ideas and beliefs brought about by their reflections. This caused
arts and philosophy to flourish

Questions of Milesians:

o   Where does everything come from?

o   What is the source of the existence of everything?

Thales (624-546 BCE)

ü   Everything must have come from water.

ü   Aristotle mentioned that Thales concluded the idea that the seeds of all things
have a moist nature, and water is the origin of the nature of moist things.

Anaximander (550 BCE)

ü   Agreed with his teacher Thales that there is a single basic stuff out of which
everything comes.
ü   He disagreed with Thales, if everything comes from water, then where could this
water come from?
ü   In this case, everything must have come from an original stuff, which he calls the
indeterminate boundless. Things are finite, the original stuff is infinite or
boundless.

Anaximenes (585-528 BCE)

ü   Made an attempt to reconcile the idea of his predecessors by designating air as

the primary substance from which all things originated.
ü   According to him “just as our soul, being air, hold us together, so do breath and
air encompasses the whole world

Pythagoras (570-497 BCE) – Across Miletus, Aegean Sea

ü   He promulgated the belief that everything comes from numbers.

ü   Everything is measurable and can be numbered, then everything must have
originated from numbers.

Heraclitus of Ephesus (570-480 BCE)

ü   Focused his attention to the problem of change.

ü   He held the belief that everything is in constant flux, “everything is on constant
change.”
ü   He expressed his concept of change by saying that “no one can step on the same
river twice”.
 ü   The only thing that is not changing is change itself.

Question to ponder: But what causes everything to change?

ü   He observed that everything passes through fire changes, then there is fire in
everything.
ü   He therefore, held that everything must have come from fire.
ü   He provide an answer regarding the question about changes in things.

Parmenides of Elea (510 BCE)

ü   Disagreed with Heraclitus regarding the concept of change.

ü   Parmenides would hold the exact opposite view by saying that change is an
illusion.
ü   Everything, according to him is permanent. The world consists of one indivisible
thing.
ü   The One is motionless and in a perfect sphere. We are just being deceived by our
sense. This is the basic idea of unchangeability influenced by Plato, the
distinction between the intelligible world of forms and the visible world of
opinion.

Empedocles (495-435 BCE) – a pluralist from Sicily

ü   Change and motion are made possible because objects are composed of many
particles, which are in themselves changeless.
ü   Being is uncreated and indestructible and that it simply is.

The four changeless elements which everything was made

1.   Earth
2.   Air
3.   Fire
4.   Water

Leucippus (490-430 BCE) – the founder of the atomist

Democritus of Abdera (460-360 BCE)
ü   Everything is made up of atoms moving in the empty space
ü   Everything was the product of the collision of atoms moving in space

Different philosophers provided different views as regards the question “where did
everything come from? The question therefore who holds the right answer?
ü   Pythagoras believed that every human person is capable of knowing the whole
truth.
ü   Pythagoras believed that only God is truly wise and the wisdom of the human
person is only derivative from the wisdom of God.
ü   Pythagoras held that God is Wisdom. Human beings, on the other hand, can only
be friends or lovers of wisdom, hence the term philosophy.
Assignment:
1.   What is the importance of the study of philosophy in your chosen profession?

Historical Development of Philosophy

Pre Socratic

ü   Philosophy is concerned with the acquisition of truth. Basically, it is a search for

meaning.
ü   The Pre-Socratic philosophers were primarily concerned with nature and origin
of the world.
ü   They were known to be early metaphysicians
ü   Ancient philosophy is considered as Cosmocentric

Medieval

ü   Philosophy became religious in nature

ü   The medieval philosophers, were also trying to formulate an answer regarding
the origin of things.
ü   The beginning of everything must be something that has no beginning but is the
source of existence of all things.
ü   The source of existence of all things must be an infinite being.
ü   Philosophers called this infinite being God.
ü   The classical mind is secular, the medieval mind is chiefly theological.
ü   Medieval philosophy is identified as Theocentric
ü   Making the act of faith is the conclusion for logical process and negating the
supra-rational character of faith.
ü   Medieval philosophers studied church doctrines and biblical theology in order to
explain what God chose to reveal.

Modern (17th Century)

ü   The result of these changes was a shift away from metaphysics toward
epistemology
ü   Spearheaded by Rene Descartes, Frances Bacon, John Locke
ü   Descartes studied the process of thinking itself. (epistemological turn) Father of
Modern Philosophy
ü   Devoted themselves acquiring knowledge about knowledge
ü   Modern period identified as Ideocentric as tried to focus on the certitude of
knowledge.
ü   Is the human mind capable of obtaining truth?

Contemporary Period

ü   Focused the attention from human mind to human person. It is considered

Anthropocentric
ü   They were aiming to have social reformations and economic improvements thus
it leads to Industrial Revolution.
ü   The main problem that was prevalent at this period was how to ground human
value, making the rediscovery of human dignity as the main goal of philosophy.
ü   Philosopher tries to reflect the mystery of human existence

The Problem of Philosophy

ü   The rise of science and technology brought a different perspective in the human
person’s approach to philosophy.
ü   It provides him instant satisfaction, makes the mind set aside reasoning.
ü   Technology inclined the human person to focus a great deal on the material
world.
 ü   In approaching life’s problems, people no longer look at philosophy as method
since they believed that science is capable of producing more practical answers to
certain questions in life.
ü   Philosophy does not have a proper object. Philosophy appears not to focus on the
true and real problems.
ü   Then why do we need to study philosophy?

The Necessity of the Study of Philosophy

ü   People are asking questions which only philosophy can provide an explanation.
Some of the questions that are hunting the human mind are:
o   What is the meaning of human life?
o   Why is there death?
o   What is the meaning of good and evil? If there is good, why there is
evil?
o   What is the dignity of human person?
o   What is the nature and law of love?
o   Is there really freedom?
o   Is there a God?

What is Philosophy?

1.   As a human activity
ü   It is only human being can philosophize
2.   As a social activity
ü   Because the human being is a social being
3.   As perennial
ü   It is a never ending search for truth
4.   As a disinterested search
ü   It does not offer practical answers
5.   As search for the intelligible structure
ü   It is searching for the truth, it is therefore, using reason
6.   As a search for the totality of being
ü   Philosophy deals with whole creation

The Nature of Philosophy

ü   All sciences rooted in philosophy. Aristotle for instance wrote about

biology, zoology, physics, literature, astronomy, psychology as well as
other philosophical topics.
ü   Plato founded the Academy in Athens, “Let no one who enters here be
ignorant of Geometry.”
ü   Philosophy, as a super subject, sought to provide, if not all answers, then,
the answers to at least most ultimate and fundamental questions.

The Different Branches of Philosophy

1.   Metaphysics- deals with the nature of beings

2.   Epistemology – study of knowledge
3.   Ethics – philosophical study of moral judgment
4.   Social Philosophy – deals with the philosophical study of society and its
institutions
 5.   Political Philosophy – focuses on one social institution, the state that
determines its proper organization.
6.   Aesthetics – deals with beauty, harmony; hence philosophy of art.
7.   Logic – theory of correct reasoning, investigate the criteria of valid inference

Philosophies of Discipline

1.   Philosophy of Science – deals with scientific investigation

2.   Philosophy of Mathematics – provide account on the nature and methodology of
mathematics
3.   Philosophy of Law –
4.   Philosophy of Education
5.   Philosophy of Biology
6.   Philosophy of Psychology
7.   Philosophy of Mind
8.   Philosophy of Religion
9.   Philosophy of History
10.  Philosophy of Sport
11.  Philosophy of Love
12.  Philosophy of Culture
13.  Philosophy of Women
14.  Analytic Philosophy
15.  Existentialism
16.  Phenomenology
 Chapter 2
Introduction to Logic

Objectives

1.   To know the definition of Logic

2.   To know the importance of the study of Logic
3.   To know the historical development of Logic

Logic

ü   The science and art of correct thinking which helps our mind to distinguish
between the correct from the incorrect.

Purpose

ü   To attain clarity in our thoughts and validity in our process of inference.

Focus of Attention

§   Reasoning
§   Arguments
§   Drawing of inference

Task

ü   To distinguish between good and bad reasoning and between correct and
incorrect arguments.
ü   Attainment of truth and validity in reasoning

Distinctive Activities

§   Analysis
§   Classification
§   Assessment

1)   Analysis
ü   The determination between an argument and a non-argument
ü   It should be free from irrelevant language, i.e., from rhetoric – which is
incapable of attaining the truth
ü   Rhetoric – persuade the listener and not to disseminate truth.
ü   Logic should be free from flowery language – from the use of pretentious
terms
2)   Classification
ü   Includes the distinction between deductive and inductive arguments
3)   Assessment
ü   To determine the correctness and incorrectness of certain arguments
ü   Principles and creation of methods

Importance of the Study of Logic

ü   Knowledge of the methods and principles of logic is very important to obtain the
truth and validity of any arguments.
o   Faulty arguments of others will be reduced
o   Subject of deception in the newspapers, televisions, public speeches, in
private conversation, in business transactions, etc., are always around us.
 ü   Enhances our ability to clarify our beliefs
o   Fides quaerens intellectum – faith follows reason so much that our beliefs
will be of greater value because we are capable of providing reason for the
said beliefs.

Historical Development of Logic

ü   Changes in in the metaphysical, as well as, in the psychological aspect would

always produce changes in logical theory and practice.

A)   The Nyaya Philosophy

o   The system of philosophy, which was studied in India during the 5th
Century BCE.
o   This philosophy is said to have been zauthored by Siddharta Gautama
called “Buddha” founder of Buddhism.
o   Nyaya which means logical argument or syllogism.
o   The focus of philosophy is the attainment of knowledge in order to
liberate the soul from the bondage of sin
o   Nyaya agrees that ignorance of reality is bondage. To liberate the human
person from this bondage of ignorance is the attainment of right
knowledge, which is obtained through the use of logical arguments.

Four Means to obtain knowledge

1.   Perception (prayyaksa)
§   It is a complex process and does not always involve a clear contact
between sense and object.
2.   Inference (anumana)
§   By the use of implications.
§   The Nyaya syllogism is composed of five constantives (pratijna) i.e., can
either be true or false
(1)   The hills is on fire (first assertion)
(2)  For it smokes. (reason)
(3)  Like the kitchen fire (instance)
(4)  So also hill smokes (application)
(5)  Therefore, the hill is on fire (conclusion)
3.   Analogy or Comparison (upamana)
§   Much of what we know is not obtained by direct perception. But rather by
the use of analogy.
§   Experience is very much necessary in order to be able to use this method.
4.   Verbal Testimony (sabda)
§   Large percentage of knowledge is due to authority and not by direct
experience.
§   What we read in newspapers and history books can be considered as
logically acceptable only because of the authority of the one who wrote it
and due to direct perception of the occurrences
§   In this case the authority should be trustworthy person who will be the
source of knowledge
a.   The person has no intention to deceive;
 b.   The statement of such person is not a gross contradiction to
what is already accepted as true and;
c.   The person has established his trustworthiness in other domains
of life.

B)   Pre-Aristotelian Logic in Greece

  The Eleatics, especially Zeno of Elea, the Sophists
  Zeno became the founder of dialectics
  Socrates and Plato further develop the dialectic method- gave stress on
definition and induction.

C)   Aristotelian Logic

  Aristotle was the first thinker to devise a logical system.

  He developed the syllogistic method that is still being used today; hence,
making him earn the title Father of Logic
  He founded the school Lyceum.
  Organon – treatises on reasoning and syllogistic methods later on called Logic.

D)  Post-Aristotelian Logicians Among the Greeks

  Theophrastus and Eudemus were among the immediate disciples of Aristotle

who devoted special attention to logic.
  Theophrastus – attributed to hypothetical syllogism.
  Epicureans - rivals of the followers of Aristotle, treated logic as adjunct to
physics. They maintained that knowledge of physical phenomena acquired
through the senses is the only knowledge that is of value in the pursuit of
knowledge.
  Eudemus held that knowledge is innate and therefore, not acquired to sense
but in terms of reflections.
  Logic helps human person acquire knowledge and is using critical analysis in
order to acquire its object.
  The followers of Aristotle busied themselves in searching for the answers as
regards to the criterion of truth. This science later on called epistemology,
which actually improved Aristotle’s logic.

E)   The Greek and Latin Commentators

  Did actually nothing but merely explained and defended the text of the
Aristotelian works on logic.
  Galen – introduced the fourth syllogistic figure and wrote a special work
entitled “On Fallacies of Diction”
  The Latin Commentators were ones responsible for introducing Aristotle’s
logic to Romans
  Cicero – wrote the first logical treatise in Latin

F)   The Scholastic and the Crusaders

  Advocates of Aristotelian philosophy, devised mnemonic names for the valid
moods canvassed in the Prior Analytics such as BARBARA and CELARENT.
  Boethius –responsible in coining the term Logic. He wrote the original
treatises on “Categorical Syllogism,” “On Division,” and “On Topical
Difference”
   Peter Abelard composed an independent treatise in Logic, the Dialectica. In
this treatise, he wrote discussions regarding certain topics on logic like
conversion, opposition, quantity, quality, and tense logic.
  Crusaders who where responsible in bringing Christian Europe into closer
contact with the Arabian scholars.
  During scholastic period, scholars made clear the nature of logic and its place
in the whole archetype of sciences.

G)   The Modern Logic

  Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716) – envisioned the development of a
universal language to be specified with mathematical precision. His purpose
was to reduce scientific and philosophical speculation into mathematical
language. He was known to be the father of Symbolic Logic.
  Algebraic School – focused on the relationship between correct reasoning and
operations like addition and multiplication. Originated from George Boole,
Charles Peirce and John Venn.
  Logicist School – which aimed to codify the underlying logic of all rational,
scientific discourse into single system. Major logicians in this school were
(Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Gottlob Frege.
  Gottlob Frege – was considered as the greatest logicians since Aristotle by his
contemporaries. It was Frege who held that arithmetic and analysis are parts
of Logic.
  Mathematical School – the aim of this school was the axiomatization of
particular branches of mathematics like geometry, arithmetic, analysis, and
set theory.
  The modern period marks the development of the inductive method way of
reasoning and the symbolic logic.
  Francis Bacon – was the one responsible for the development of the inductive
method; thereby making him be considered as the father of modern logic by
the logicians.
  The symbolic logic or mathematical logic became a useful tool in
philosophizing according to the different schools of philosophy like
Positivism, Neo-positivism, Language Analysis and Structuralism.

 
LOGIC
Voice of Reasoning
Objectives
1. Understand the meaning of logic
2. Explain the methods of logical thought
3. Distinguish formal and material logic
4. Determine the practical use of logic
The Meaning of Logic
Logic – “logos” means reason.
- concern with methods and rules of
reasoning.
- employs rules and principles that
guarantee the soundness of arguments.
- it ensures the accuracy of thought.
Science & Art of Reasoning
Logic as an art
 It guides man’s reason to proceed with order and
precision in the search for meaning.

Logic as a science
 It investigates, discovers, expresses, systematizes,
demonstrates, and explain the laws of correct
thinking.
 It is concerned with analysis of thought.
 Distinguish between evidence and conclusions and
advancing the structure of arguments.
“The purpose of logic is to determine
whether our proofs and evidences are able
to justify our conclusion.”
Formal & Material Object of Logic
MATERIAL OBJECT FORMAL OBJECT FORMAL OBJECT
(Deals With) (Knows Thru)
Empirical Immediate causes,
Sciences Reasons, and
principles Reasoning
Philosophy All
Science things
Theology Ultimate causes,
reasons and principles
Faith and Reasoning
Formal & Material Object of Logic

Material
 refer to the entity a particular scientific field deals
with in its investigations in order to achieve its
formal object

Formal
 pertains to the immediate goal of that particular
scientific discipline
Acts of the Mind (Material Object)/Divisions of
Logic

1. Simple Apprehension
2. Judgment
3. Reasoning
Simple Apprehension
 It is the act by which the intellect grasps or
apprehends the essence of particular thing
(Glenn, 1957). This act produces concepts or
ideas which are materialized through terms.
Judgment
 It is the act by which the intellect pronounces
upon the agreement or disagreement between
two ideas, which the mind has formed and
compared (Glenn, 1957). Judgment produces
enunciation and is externalized through a
proposition (a statement expressing truth).
Reasoning
 It is the act by which the intellect relates several
judgments arrive at a new judgment that
necessarily follows from the relationships
established (Rivas & Nael, 2006). The product is
argument/inference and its material expression
is syllogism.
The Acts of Intellect
Composition Faculties Operations Products Expressions
or
MAN Powers

BODY
Memory Remembering

Simple Idea Term

SOUL Intellect Apprehension

Judgment Enunciation Proposition

Reasoning Argument Syllogism

Will Choosing
Methods in Logic

1. Deductive Method
2. Inductive Method
Deductive Method
E.g.
All mammals have backbones.
Humans are mammals.
Thus, humans have backbones.
E.g.
All bald men are grandfathers.
Harold is bald.
Ergo, Harold is a grandfather
Inductive Method
E.g.
Data: I see fireflies in my backyard every summer.
Hypothesis: This summer, I will probably see
fireflies in my backyard.

Data: I tend to catch colds when people around me

are sick.
Hypothesis: Colds are infectious.
Practical Use of Logic
 Help us think in a systematic way
 Enables us to set criteria for what is
meaningful
 Science proceeds following the logical rules
 Logical framework helps participants plan,
evaluate and execute the aims or goals of a
project
Summary
 Logic is a science and art of correct thinking.
 The material object of logic is thinking.
 The formal object of logic is the correctness of the
thinking process.
 The acts of the mind are simple apprehension,
judgment and reasoning.
 Methods of logic are deductive and inductive
 Practical use of logic: systematic thinking,
determine valid ground of arguments, set criteria
for meaning and applied in scientific discipline.
`

THANK YOU!
Terms/Simple Apprehension
Objectives

To know the basic functions of logic

To discuss concepts, simple apprehension and
terms
To explain the classification of terms
To explain the properties of terms
To know the rule of good definition
What is Language?
Basic function of Language

HEAD COGNITIVE
HEART AFFECTIVE

GUTS ACTIVE

Irving Copi lists three basic functions of languages. These are

informative, expressive and directive which are based on
the three integral parts of man: head, heart and guts.
Basic Functions of Language
1) INFORMATIVE
 This is the most common function of
language wherein we inform about
things we know and ask about things
we do not know yet.
 When a person asks for your name
(he wants to be informed) and you tell
him: “I am Peter”, then what you used
is informative discourse.
 In Logic, we see this function at work
in propositions and arguments, where
something is either denied or affirmed.
Basic Functions of Language
2) EXPRESSIVE
 This kind of discourse is best illustrated in
poetry where emotions and attitudes are
expressed beautifully.
 This function is not only seen in poetry.
Common exclamations like “Oh, no!, right!,
Look out!” and others are expressions of
different moods and are mere expressions of
feelings and emotions.
Basic Function of Language
3) Directive
 This function of language is most easily seen
in commands or request that which lets go or
prevents an action to be done.
Examples:
• Kindly arrange all the requirements before
leaving.
• Do not mess me now.
 One can say that this is either true or false.
Whether the command or request is obeyed or
not is irrelevant to its truth-value, which is
non-existent in the first place.
Exercise 1
What functions of language are seen in the following
passages? Give a short explanation for your answer.

_______ 1. Many countries expressed concern over the

outbreak of bird flu.
_______ 2. Oh, my God! Twin Towers!
_______ 3. Get me a piece of paper on which I can write your
name on.
_______ 4. “To be or not to be! That is the question!”
_______ 5. Cartoon characters are like humans.
_______ 6. Let us do it.
_______ 7. Who among you is not afraid of AIDS?
CONCEPTS AND TERMS
What is a concept?
 A concept is a representation of an object by the
intellect through which man comprehends a thing.
It is also considered a mental image of an object
or an idea about something.
 Ideas are formed by simple apprehension which
may be in the form of the following operations.
Simple Apprehension

Attention
Abstraction
Reflection
Comparison
Analysis
Synthesis
Simple Apprehension
Attention
 It is the mental act by which the mind
fixes its consideration upon one particular
object after having sensed it.

o Abstraction
 It is a mental act by which the mind
studies the physical characteristics or the
individualizing notes of the particular
object with regard to its color, size, style,
material, then goes on to think of the
purpose of the object.
Simple Apprehension
Reflection/Reflex Mental Activity
 It is a mental act of becoming aware of
itself, of its act or of its state so as to look at
these things objectively.

Comparison
 It is a mental act by which the mind notices
the likeness and differences in the objects
having the same essence or belonging to
the same class.
Simple Apprehension
Analysis
 It is a mental act by which the mind gives
direct attention to the essentials or the
basic similarities of an idea.

Ex. Man is a living organism who is sentient

and rational.

Synthesis
 It is an act by which the mind puts together
two or more ideas to form a single idea.

Ex. Blue Water

Types of Concepts
Based on Subject and Form
 Form is that which makes an object exist as it is. It is the
perfection or the attribute of the subject.
 Subject is that which has or which is looked upon as
having a perfection or attribute embodied in itself.
Example:
Form – Beauty makes a thing beautiful.
Animality is the perfection that makes an
animal a real animal.
Subject – White having white’ness
Based on Subject and Form
Concrete Concept
 It is a concept that expresses a form and a subject.

Example: body, spirit, woman

Abstract Concept
 It is a concept which expresses form only.

Example: kindness, holiness, beauty, simplicity

Types of Concepts
Based on Substance and Accident
 Substance is that which exists in itself without requiring
another being as subject of its inherence.

Example: Man, tree, and angel

 Accident is that which cannot exist in itself but only as a

perfection or modification of the subject.

Example: White, honest, and beautiful

Types of Concepts
Based on Existence and Possession

 Positive Concept – it signifies the existence or possession of

something.
Ex. War, beautiful, happy love

 Negative Concept – it signifies the non-existence or non-

possession of something.
Ex. Non-war, non-beautiful, unhappy, loveless
What is a term?
Term – is an external sign of a concept and the ultimate
structural element of a proposition. It is a
conventional tool of expressing an idea.

As an Ultimate Element of a Proposition

 Subject - it is that which is being spoken of in a
proposition.
Example: A woman is female
 Predicate – it is that which speaks about the subject.
Example: All roses are flowers.
Classification of Terms

1)On the basis of meaning

2)On the basis of quality
3)On the basis of quantity
4)On the basis of incompatibility with
other terms
Classification of Terms
1) On the basis of meaning
A. Univocal Terms
 These are terms with exactly the same meaning in at
least two occurrences.
Ex. Every monkey eats bananas.
Banana is a tropical fruit.

B. Equivocal Terms
 These are terms that have completely different
meanings in at least two occurrences.
Ex. Pens are used for writing.
The pigs are in the pens.
Classification of Terms
C. Analogous Terms
 These are terms that have partly the same and partly
different meanings in at least two occurrences.
Ex. Peter stands with one foot at the foot of the mountain.

Note: It is important to make clear at this point that the

inferior (the term to which the analogous term applies)
is called an analogue or analogate. It is classified into
the following.
Analogue or Analogate
Primary Analogues/Analogates
 If the terms apply to them primarily and absolutely, these
are known as primary analogues/analogates.
Ex: The bright light has blinded the man.
The primary meaning of the word “light” is stimulus to
sight; hence, it is a primary analogue.
Secondary Analogues/Analogates
 If the terms apply to them secondarily and relatively,
these are known as secondary analogues/analogates.
Ex: You are the light of my heart.
 Here, “light” means the splendor of love that makes a
person happy.
Classification of Terms
2) On the basis of quality
A. Positive
 When they express what is real, true or essential of a
thing such as life, health, courage.
 When they signify or affirm the existence or presence
of desirable qualities such as beauty, honesty,
cooperation and persistence.
B. Negative
 When they indicate the absence or lack of form,
ability or quality such as disorder, blindness, death,
awkward, dishonest and sickly.
Classification of Terms
3) On the basis of quantity
A. Singular Term – a term that stands for a single definite
individual or group.
 A term is singular if it is a:
a) Proper noun (e.g., Raul, Manila, St. Alexius College)
b) Noun modified by a superlative pronoun ( highest honor,
biggest city)
c) Noun modified by demonstrative pronoun (this book,
those girls)
d) Collective noun (audience, orchestra, flock, army)
e) Noun preceded by the article (the man, the red car)
f) Personal pronoun (I, you, it, he, she, we, they and
others)
Classification of Terms
B) Particular Term – a term that stands for an indefinite
individual.
A term is particular if it is a:
a) Noun modified by an indefinite pronoun (many roses, some
men, not all heroes)
b) Noun modified by the use of numbers (eight sacks of rice,
twelve angry man)
c) Subject of a general proposition – a statement commonly
accepted most of the time but not all the times (Filipinos are
hospitable, Apples are expensive)
d) Noun preceded by the articles “a” or “an” (A yellow mango is
sweet)
Classification of Terms
C) Universal Term – a term that stands for every subject
signified.
A term is universal if it is a:
a) Noun modified by universal expressions such as every,
each, whatever, anybody, all and others. (all students, every
citizen)
b) Universal idea – statement of reality based on factual notion
(Man is a rational animal.)
c) Noun preceded by the articles “the”, “an” if it is conveys a
universal idea (A snake is dangerous. An alligator is an
amphibian.)
Classification of Terms
4) On the basis of incompatibility with other terms
A. Contradictory terms are those which are so opposed
to each other in terms of their meanings that when one
(of the terms) is accepted, the other has to be rejected.
Contradictory terms do not allow for a middle ground or
a possibility of occurring together.

True or false
Living and dead
Innocent and guilty
Absent and present
Classification of Terms
4) On the basis of incompatibility with other term
Contrary terms are opposite in meaning, but admit middle
possibilities or intermediaries. e.g.
Rich and poor
Black and white
Hot and cold
Small and large
Properties of Terms
1) Comprehension – refers to the totality of the essential
notes, qualities, characteristics, or
attributes which the idea implies.
ex. Sentient, rational, living, corporeal

2) Extension – refers to the totality of all objects which the

idea represents or to which the idea extends
its application.
ex. Man, plant, mineral, brute
Properties of Terms

Rules Governing Comprehension and Extension

1)As comprehension increase, extension decreases,
and vice- versa.
2)The extension of an idea can be increased or
diminished by retaining or without destroying the
idea.
3)The comprehension of an idea always remains as it
is, while the extension of the idea may change
continually.
Properties of Terms
The distinction between the comprehension and the
extension terms is further illustrated by the following series
of terms:
Increasing comprehension: animal, men, Asian, Filipino,
Pedro
Increasing extension: Pedro, Filipino, Asian, men, animal

Decreasing comprehension: Pedro, Filipino, Asian, men,

animal
Decreasing extension: animal, men, Asian, Filipino, Pedro
Table of Quantifiers
UNIVERSAL PARTICULAR SINGULAR
All, any, anything, anyone Some, something, All common nouns (flower,
Anybody, always someone, Somebody, table, man, etc.)
sometimes
Each, every, everything, Few, several, plenty, most, All collective nouns
Everybody, everyone several, majority (group, family, band, flock)
Almost all, almost every,
No, nothing, no one, Almost everything, almost All superlatives (best,
Nobody, never everyone, almost worst, excellent, etc)
everybody, very many,
Whatever, whoever, very few All demonstrative
whichever Practically all, practically pronouns (that, this,
everyone, not all, not those)
Articles like the, a, and an many, not every
(for universal idea) The use of article the (for
The use of numbers like specific object)
ten percent or 800 or 1
kilo
DEFINITION AND ITS LAWS

Nature of Definition
The term ‘definition’ was derived from a Latin
word definire which is translated to mean to assign
limits. Words are defined for the purpose of
knowing their meanings. Dictionary, Thesaurus and
encyclopedias are common sources of knowledge
in relation to the definition of terms.
What is definition?

According, it is defined as a statement which

explains the meaning of a term.
Ex. Man as an intelligent social being.
 This definition naturally explains something about
the term being defined.
 This term can be considered good because it
follows the laws of definition.
Supposition &
Definitions of Terms

LESSON 5
 Objectives
• Meaning of Supposition
• Nature of Definitions
• Kinds of Definitions
• Other types of definitions
• Rules for a good definitions
 Supposition of Terms
 Latin word sub, which means
“under” and ponere, which means “to
put” or “to place”.
 A supposition is a term with a
definition and a specific meaning
within a proposition.
It is functional since its meaning
depends on how it is used.
 Supposition of Terms
 It is classified under the division of
Logic called Semantics – is the
science of meaning of words.
Semantics is contrasted with
Phonetics – the science of sounds of
words (Santiago 2002, 25).
 Nature of Definitions
 derived from the latin word defenire
“to state the limits of” or “to enclose with
limits”
Thus to define a thing is to limit it.
Definitions marks off the thing defined and
differentiates it from other things.
 Elements of Definitions
1. Definiendum – a term to be defined.
2. Definiens – is a word or phrase that explains
or describes the defining property of the
definiendum.
1. Proximate genus – is the nearest general class to
which a thing belongs.
2. Specific differentia – the essential characteristics that
differentiates a thing from the rest of the group.
 Elements of Definitions
3. Denotata – provides concrete examples of the
extension of the definiendum.
 E.g.
• A bird is an animal with feathers, such as
chicken, owl, and ostrich.

– Bird –definiendum
– Animal –proximate genus
– Feathers – specific differentia
– Chicken, ostrich and owl - denotata
 Kinds of Definitions
1. Nominal Definition – a thing is defined or
limited according to its terms or name.
1. Etymology
2. Synonym
3. Description
4. By example
 Etymology
 states the origin or root word of a symbol.
e.g. philosophy – comes from the Greek word s philo
(love) and sophia (wisdom) – philosophy is love of
wisdom
 Synonym
 presents another word, more popular or
easily recognizable, to clarify a given term.

E.g. female (woman, lady, girl, babe, shiela)

 Description
 talks of a thing in terms of its physical
appearance.

e.g. A tree – a living being having roots, a trunk,

several branches and leaves.
 Example
 explains the meaning of a word by
mentioning some instances of it..

E.g. trusting – disclosing personal secrets or

allowing oneself to be vulnerable
Wealth – having a number of bank accounts.
Illustrations, diagrams, and graphs are methods of
definition by example.
2. Real Definition – it explains what a thing is
and how it is different from another.
 it is called an essential definition since it explains
a nature of thing.
It can limit according to genus
It can limit according to species
 Other types of definitions
1. Definition by property
2. Definition by logical accident
3. Definition by cause
1. Final cause
2. Efficient cause
3. Material cause
4. Formal cause
 Rules for a good definitions
1. Avoid circular definitions
2. Avoid too broad or too narrow definitions
3. Avoid vague, obscure, or metaphorical
language
4. Avoid loaded definitions
5. Avoid negative term
6. ]States essential attributes
 Avoid circular definitions

E.g.,
1. A cook book as a book used to cook.
2. Up is that which is above down, and
down is that which is below.
3. A cause is that which produces an
effect
4. An effect is that which results from
cause.
 Avoid too broad or too narrow
definitions
1. A book is a rectangular object.
2. Lion is a feline.
 Avoid vague, obscure, or
metaphorical language
1. Maturity is the stage of psychological
development in which a person
becomes well-adjusted. -vague
2. Death is the cessation of one’s
participation in finitude. –obscure
3. Knowledge is antidote to fear. -
metaphysical
 Avoid loaded definitions

1. A professor is someone who

professes that someone else suffer.
2. An intellectual is someone who
knows everything except how to
make money.
 Avoid negative term

1. A good is not bad.

 States essential attributes

1. A beating heart makes a certain

thumping noise.
2. Heart is the organ that goes lub-lub,
lub-lub.
 Implication!
 Providing a good definition may seem
trivial, but it must be done conscientiously
because it may be the basis of important
decisions.
E.g.
 meaning of person in abortion.
 In immigration who is an alien, a resident
and a citizen.
 Narcotic and controlled substance
 Minorities, temporary insanity, fit parent
 “Not all things can be given
definition.”
1. Proper Nouns/Individuals.
E.g. Jose Rizal, Apolinario Mabini
2. Transcendental Ideas
E.g. being, extent, equity and object
3. Ultimate Metaphysical Categories
E.g. substance or property
4. Sense Data
E.g. colors
Thank You!
 Propositions

I. Introduction

As with terms, knowledge on proposition, particularly categorical type, is a requisite to the

study and understanding of inference. In the preceding discussion, it was made clear that the mind
forms ideas through simple apprehension (the first mental operation). However, the mind does not
just form ideas; it also compares ideas. As we compare mentally one idea with another idea and
enunciate their agreement or disagreement, we are judging. Hence, a discussion of the second
mental operation, called judgment, which is expressed through a proposition, is required.
Propositions, we shall say, are the sharable objects of the attitudes and the primary bearers
of truth and falsity. Truth and falsity reside or lie in the judgment. A judgment is either true or
false. If a judgment agrees with realty, it is true; otherwise, it is false. Truth then is the agreement
of a judgment with reality; falsity, the disagreement. The mind does not make the judgment true;
it simply discovers the agreement (or disagreement) of the judgment with reality.

II. Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. define and distinguish propositions from sentences;

2. compare true and false propositions;
3. discuss the nature of propositions;
4. identify the elements of a proposition;
5. discuss the logical form of a proposition;
6. know the different types of proposition;
7. learn the basic forms of the categorical propositions;
8. learn the distinctions among the four types of categorical propositions using
Venn diagram;
9. distinguish the different kinds of hypothetical propositions

III. Motivational Activity

Divide the class into groups of three to five students. Ask each group to make a convincing
argument for or against a statement. Each group should write their argument on manila paper. You
may provide the following example. Keep the manila paper for the group work at the end of the
lesson.
  Ask each group to present their arguments in class.
 Remark that this is one of the many ways we use logic in everyday life????to convince
other people that our beliefs or opinions are correct.
 Ask the class whether the arguments are convincing.
 Remark further that, at the end of the chapter, the students will know how to determine
whether a given argument is valid or not.

IV. Lesson Presentation

It takes two ideas for the mind to form judgment. As the mind draws a judgment, it makes
comparison between these two ideas. In comparing these ideas, the mind enunciates their relation
whether they are in agreement or disagreement with each other. Take for example the ideas Rafa
and Spaniard. In drawing a judgment, the mind compares these ideas, then it enunciates or declares
whether they agree or disagree with each other. If the mind judges that the term Rafa is in
agreement with the term Spaniard, the mind declares “Rafa is a Spaniard.”. On the other hand, if
the mind declares “Rafa is not a Spaniard,” its judgment is that the two terms are in disagreement
with each other.
Based on the foregoing illustration, it can be said that a judgment is a mental operation
though which the mind compares two ideas so that the mind enunciates or declares their relation
of either affirmation or negation. If the mind judges that the ideas are in agreement, the mind
affirms their relation. On the contrary, if the mind judges that the ideas are in disagreement with
each other, it draws a negative judgment. Simply put, a judgment is a mental operation through
which pronounces, enunciates, or declares the agreement of two ideas.
The questions that arise now are: How is judgment expressed? And, how is proposition
related to judgment?

A. Propositions as expression of judgment

The proposition expresses verbally or in writing what attained in the mental act is called
judgment. A judgment is an act of the mind which unites two ideas by affirmation or separates by
negation. To assert that “COVID-19 is a virus” is to make a judgment of affirmation. To say that
“Man is not spirit” is to make a judgment of negation. The ideas in the judgment constitute its
material elements or matter. The act of affirming or negating is its formal element or form.

All propositions are sentences (or statement), but not all sentences (or statements) are
propositions (Montemayor, 1993). In as much as the proposition is expressive of a judgment it
must also be expressive of a truth or a falsity. Hence, we describe the proposition as a sentence
that is either true or false. Since there are sentences that express neither a truth nor a falsity, then
not all sentences are propositions. Such are sentences like “What is the truth?” (a question),
“Kindly close the door!” (a command), and “May you find peace and happiness!” (a wish).

A.1 Nature of Propositions

A proposition is a statement that can be either true or false (Articulo, 2006). It is a statement
which either denies or affirms something (De Leon, 2003). Propositions are the sort of things that
can be known, believed, and reasoned from and to. True propositions are called facts of truths,
while false propositions are called errors of facts or untruths (Wu, 1994). Take these statements:
“All whales are mammals” and “some women are not mothers.” The first statement affirms
something about the subject “whales,” and the second statement denies something about the
subject “women.”

A.2 Elements of Proposition

A proposition has three elements, namely: 1) (S) subject; 2) (P) predicate; and 3) (C)
copula.

Subject

The subject of a proposition is the term which is either denied or affirmed. It has to be
noted, however, that the logical subject of a proposition is not always the same as its grammatical
subject. For example, in the statement “We hate corrupt government officials,” the grammatical
subject is we. But in logic, the subject (logical subject0 is those we hate, i.e., corrupt government
officials. The reason why the term we cannot be taken for a logical subject is that there is nothing
about it to either affirm or negate (deny). Thus, in the given example, it is the corrupt government
officials that qualifies for a logical subject, since it is the one that is affirmed – “We hate,”

Predicate

The predicate of a proposition is that which is either denied or affirmed of the subject. For
example, we say: “All Filipinos are Asians.” In this proposition, the predicate is Asians. Such is
the case because the term Asians is the one affirmed of the term (subject) Filipinos.
Copula

The copula of the proposition normally appears in the present tense in the indicative mood
of the verb to be, e.g., am, is, are, am not, is not, and are not, is not, are not; although they can
also be in the past tense. It is that part of the proposition that expresses the affirmation or denial of
the predicate term of the subject term.

A.3 The Logical Form of the Proposition

A proposition is in the logical form when its elements are arranged as follows “S c P”.
Moreover, the copula (c) must be expressed in the present tense, indicative mood of the verb “to
be”. The copula must be a linking verb because its function is to connect the subject and the
predicate; and it must be in the present tense because the proposition is the expression of the
judgment which is a present act of the mind.

Of the following statements only the first is in the logical form; the others are not.

1. Abortion in the Philippines is illegal.

2. Heartless is the man who feels no compassion for the sufferings of his fellow man.
3. What we need is time.
4. It is better to light a candle than to curse the darkness.
5. He is indeed a lucky man who has found a true friend.

In putting a proposition in the logical form, the following may be taken as a guide:

1. Look for the logical subject that about which something is affirmed or denied. In the case
of proposition no. 2, the logical subject is the complex term “The man who feels no
compassion for the suffering of his fellow man.”
2. Eliminate insignificant words. Thus, in example no. 4, the expletive “it” is eliminated when
we say that “To light a candle is better than to curse the darkness.”
3. Transpose a sentence which is in the inverted order. So, the logical form of proposition no.
no. 3 is “Time is what we needed.”
4. Unite a term that is split. So, in the case of proposition no. 5, the complete subject term is
“He who has found a true friend.”

Putting the proposition in its logical form makes its meaning clear and reduces to a
minimum a lot of the misinterpretation, misunderstanding or confusion arising from a vague
formulation of the proposition (Jayme, 2002). Putting the proposition in the logical form also
makes it easy for us to subject it to such logical processes as conversion, obversion, contraposition,
and inversion. (This is treated in a latter discussion.)

B. The Types of Proposition

A. General Classification
 1. Categorical and Hypothetical Propositions:

A Categorical proposition is a kind of proposition that expresses an unconditional judgment

(Babor, 2003). It is a proposition in which the subject term is either affirmed or denied by the
predicate term (De Leon, 2003).

Examples: Every Filipino is an Asian.

Smoking is bad to people’s health.

A hypothetical proposition unites or separates two enunciations by means of non-verb

copula (Agapay, 1991). It is a compound proposition that expresses the connection of truth or
falsehood between its components (Umali, 2007). It is a proposition that states conditions,
causation, or opposition between two judgments, sets of ideas, or statements (Rivas & Nael, 2006).

Example: If you are a qualified voter, then you must be at least 18.

Nota Bene: The example presented does not assert that “you are qualified voter,” or “that
you are at least 18,” rather, it asserts that the latter proposition follows from the former. What is
asserted is the sequence of two proposition follows from the former. What is asserted is the
sequence of two propositions or the dependence of one proposition on another.

2. The Single and Multiple Propositions

A single proposition has for its elements the two terms (S and P) linked by the verb copula
“is” or its negation “is not.”

Example: Socrates is the most famous philosopher.

A multiple proposition, on the other hand, has for its elements not terms but two or more
propositions linked by such particles as “if…then,” “either…or”, “but”, and similar expressions.
The multiple proposition contains more than one subject and/ or predicate.

Example: It is not possible for a country to have both the presidential and the
parliamentary systems of governance.

A hypothetical proposition is always a multiple proposition. A categorical proposition may

be single or multiple.

C. Basic Forms of the Categorical Propositions

There are two important aspects of the categorical proposition which serve as an important
basis for the classification of propositions. These are the quality of the copula and the quantity or
extension of the proposition. Something will also be said of the extension or distribution of the
predicate-term in this section.
The Quality of the Proposition

The quality of a proposition is either affirmative or negative. This quality is determined by

the quality of the copula.

1) In affirmative proposition, the predicate is assigned to or affirmed of the subject. The

affirmation is expressed by an affirmative or a positive copula. As long s the copula is
positive, even if there is a negation in the subject of predicate, the proposition is considered
as an affirmative proposition.

Example: The Philippines is a beautiful country.

A boxing team needs money.
His father is a lawyer.

2) In negative proposition, the predicate is denied of, or not applied to the subject.

Example: Adam Smith is not a mathematician.

No person is an angel.
My best friend will never go.

The Quantity of the Proposition

The quantity of the proposition refers to its extension, that is, to the number of the
individuals or groups to which the proposition can be applied. What determines the extension of
the proposition is the extension or quantity of the subject.

On the extension, the proposition is either universal, particular, singular, or collective.

1) A universal proposition is a proposition having a universal subject term.

Examples: All my brothers are athletes.

Every vegetable is nutritious.
No man is infallible.
An eagle is a flying bird.

2) A particular proposition is a proposition having a particular subject term.

Examples: Some green things are grass.

Several philosophers are existentialists.
Certain experiences are difficult to forget.
Few politicians are lawyers.

3) A singular proposition has a singular subject term.

 Examples: This student is on the Dean’s list.
That dog is not mine.
Lern is the most awarded guitarist.
Manila is the capital of the Philippines.

4) A collective proposition has a collective term for its subject.

Examples: The class is noisy.

The children are home.
Our basketball team is one of the competitors.

Nota Bene: Singular and collective propositions are taken as universal propositions
because, like the latter, they take their subjects according to the whole of their extension. Since
collective and singular propositions have the same value as universal propositions, there are only
two types of propositions based on quantity or extension – the universal and the particular.

All propositions have quantifying particles or quantifiers (all, some, no, etc.), except
indefinite propositions like “women are fickle,” “men are selfish,” and “mothers are lovable.” The
quantifiers serve as the principal signs of the extension of the subject term. The quantity of the
subject term is the same as the quantity of the proposition.

Consider this example:

All flowers are plants.

(quantifier) (subject) (copula) (predicate)

1) Quantifier (all): The quantifier determines the extension of the subject (Pasigui et al.,
2006). The quantifiers can be singular, particular, or universal. It should be noted,
however, that from the point of view of practical correct thinking, a singular is a universal.
In the given example, the quantifier all signifies universality, thus, the extension of the
subject of the proposition is universal. The quantity (or extension of the subject) of the
proposition shall be represented by these symbols: d for distributed (universal) and u for
undistributed (particular).

d (Distributed or Universal) – u (Undistributed or Particular)

2) Subject Term (flowers): The subject is the part of a proposition about which something is
either affirmed or denied (Pasigui et al., 2006).

There are propositions which have no definite subject-quantifier. Such propositions like
“Truth hurts,” “Children are naughty,” “fire burns,” and “Filipino boxers are excellent athletes.”
These statements are designated as indefinite or indeterminate. A study of the relation between the
subject and predicate of the propositions will enable us to determine whether they are particular or
universal.
 If the predicate represents something that does not belong to the essence of the subject,
then it may or may not be attributed to other members of the subject. In this case, the proposition
is to be taken as particular proposition. Thus, “Truth hurts,” and “Filipino boxers are excellent
athletes” are actually particular propositions.

3) Copula (are): The copula is the qualifier of the proposition. Because of it, the proposition
is either affirmative or negative. Examples of affirmative copula are is, am, and are; and
negative copula, is not, am not, and are not (De Leon, 2003). The quality of the proposition
shall be presented by these symbols: (+) for affirmative and (-) for negative.

+ (Affirmative) - - (Negative)

A proposition that expresses an affirmation and uses an affirmative copula is called an

affirmative proposition, and one that expresses a negation or denial and uses a negative copula
is a negative proposition (De Leon, 2003).

Nota Bene: It is the copula, and the copula alone, that determines whether a categorical
proposition is affirmative or negative. Since the subject and the predicate have no bearing on the
quality of the proposition, propositions of the structures “A is non-B” and “Non-A is non-B” are,
thus affirmative propositions (McCall, 1952).

To illustrate the point, take these examples:

That today is not Sunday is true.

Angels are non-material beings.

In the first example, the negative element belongs to the subject. The proposition does not
express a denial since the copula is affirmative. Thus, it is an affirmative proposition. In the second
example, the negative element non is part of the predicate, and the copula is affirmative.

The sentences below are examples of negative propositions. To identify e negative

proposition, the question to be asked is, “Does the proposition express denial?”

None of them are amenable to the strategy.

He did not see anyone stealing.
He will never be a corrupt public official.
A cat is not a winged animal.

1) Predicate Term (plants): The predicate term is that which is affirmed or denied of a subject
(Pasigui et al., 2006). Like the subject term, it also quantify, and its quantity depends upon
the quality of the proposition. The quantity of the extension of the predicate shall be
represented by these symbols: d for distributed (universal) and u for undistributed
(particular).

d (Distributed or Universal) – u (Undistributed or Particular)

Rules Governing the Quantity of the Predicate:

1. All affirmative propositions always have particular (or undistributed) predicate terms
(Babor, 2003).

Examples:

All persons are created equal.

Sd C+ Pu

Some countries are against China.

Su C+ Pu

Exceptions are predicates that are (a) essential definitions and (b) singulars. These are
universals or in full extension.

Example (a):

Man is a rational animal.

Sd C+ Pu

To say that man is only some rational animal would be illogical; but this is what would be
implied if the predicate of an affirmative proposition is always an exclusive particular. Since
“rational animal” is the definition of “man,” there cannot be a non-existent class of rational animals
that is not of men. If on the moon or on Mars or on Venus or elsewhere are found some rational
animals who look, for example, like gigantic bugs or other brute-like creatures, they would still be
men, because the definition of “man” applies to them. Then agaian, men has to be subdivided into
earthmen, moonmen, martians, and Venusians.

Example (b):

A triangle is a three-sided figure.

Sd C+ Pu

The predicate in the given proposition is three-sided figure, and three-sided figure is the
definition of “triangle,” there cannot be a non-existent class of three-sided figure that is not of a
“triangle.”

2. All negative propositions always have universal (or distributed) predicate terms (Babor,
2003).
 Examples:

Some things are not meant to be.

Su C- Pd

No government is anarchic.
Sd C- Pu

It should also be noted at this time that there are certain words or phrases customarily
written or spoken with the predicate that may affect the quantity (subject) or quality (copula) of a
proposition. Such expressions generally do not affect the quantity or extension of the subject term
in itself, but in relation to certain contingencies of time, place, or circumstance (McCall, 1952).
These expressions shall be designated herein as circumstantial quantifiers. Refer to Table 1 for
examples.

Table 1. Circumstantial Quantifiers

Universal Affirmative Always, everywhere, all, in every instance, any, anything, anyone,
Circumstance (A) always, each, every, everything, everybody, everyone, whatever,
(Copula Affirmative) whoever, whichever, etc.
Universal Negative No, nothing, no one, nobody, never, nowhere, under no
Circumstance (E) circumstances, etc.
Particular Affirmative Some, something, someone, somebody, sometimes, few, several,
Circumstance (I) plenty, most, majority, etc.
Particular Negative Not always, practically not all, not many, not every, etc.
Circumstance (O)

Symbols of Categorical Propositions

Since Aristotle’s time, there have been attempts to make logic a science of symbols to
achieve shortcuts to correct reasoning. Among these are symbols for the four categorical
statements, namely, universal affirmative (A), universal negative (E), particular affirmative (I),
and particular negative (O). A and I are taken from the vowels of Affirmo (affirm), and E and O
from the two vowels of nEgO (negate or deny) (Cruz, 1995).

A - E- I – O

The propositions A, E, I, and O are arrived at through the combined classifications of

quantity and quality. Hence, it is appropriate to start with these two basic classifications.

1. According to Quantity

a. A universal proposition is a proposition having a universal quantifier.

 Examples:

All my brothers are athletes.

Every vegetable is nutritious.
An eagle is a flying bird.
The wisest man here is Zizek.
b. A particular proposition is a proposition having a particular quantifier.

Examples:

Some green things are grass.

Several philosophers are existentialists.
Certain cities are worth seeing.
Few politicians are lawyers.

2. According to Quality

a. An affirmative proposition is a proposition having an affirmative copula.

Examples:

Every man is social.

Some animals are mammals.
Every voter is a citizen.
A few politicians are sincere public servants.

b. A negative proposition is a proposition having a negative copula.

Examples:

All artists are not psychics.

Some projects are not pro-woman.
A few moral reasons are not apparent in the RH Bill.
Many Africans are not rich.

3. According to Quantity and Quality

a. A universal affirmative proposition (A) is a proposition having a universal quantifier

and an affirmative copula.

Examples:

All idiots are slow learners.

Every judgment is an act of the mind.

Also, indefinite affirmative and singular affirmative proposition:

 Man is fallible.
This insect is poisonous.

b. A universal negative proposition (E) is a proposition having a universal quantifier

and a negative copula.

Examples:

No transparencies are plastic.

In the E proposition “No S is P,” the apparently affirmative copula is actually

negative. While “no” is written with the subject, its negative quality affects the copula. With
regard to the subject, the “no” is to be understood as a sign of universality.

Also, indefinite negative and singular negative propositions:

Beauty is not sensible.

The Dead Sea Scrolls are not the source of the Da Vinci code.

c. A particular affirmative proposition (I) is a proposition having a particular quantifier

and an affirmative copula.

Examples:

Several astronauts are able to perform a spacewalk.

Some policemen are rich.
Certain men are geniuses.
Most parents are proud of their children.

Also, indefinite affirmative proposition (O) is a proposition having a particular quantifier and a
negative copula.

Examples:

Some honest people are not married.

Majority of the soldiers are not brave.
Not every politician is honest.
Not all ambitious individuals are selfish.

It should be noted that the “not” written with the subject in the last two examples is to be
understood as part of the copula.

Also, indefinite negative propositions:

Politicians are not corrupt. (A few?)
Priests are not celibate. (Many?)
 Table 2 illustrates how the quantity and the quality are combined to form the four
standard categorical propositions.

Table 2. The Four Standard Categorical Propositions

QUALITY

Q Affirmative Negative
U
A Universal A E
N
T
I Particular I O
T
Y

Euler’s Diagram of the A, E, I and O Propositions

The mathematician Euler invented diagrams illustrating the structure of the ordinary
categorical propositions. The diagrams referred to as “Euler’s diagrams” make use of two circles
designating the subject and the predicate, each of which is taken as representing a class.

The following illustrate the A, E, I and O propositions:

a. A - All electors are taxpayers.

S P
taxpayers
electors

In an A proposition, a class of S comprises part of the extension of P. Thus, the circle

representing S is inside the circle representing P. The diagram shows that the predicate term of an
A proposition is particular.
 b. E – No actor is immortal.

S P

actor immortal

In an E proposition, the subject term, in the totality of its extension, is excluded from the
totality of the extension of the predicate term. It is easy to see in the diagram that the predicate of
an E proposition is a universal term.

c. Some animals are herbivorous.

S P animals that are herbivorous

The shaded are in the diagram represents the animals that are herbivorous. In an I
proposition, a part of the extension of S is included in P as part of its extension. In an I
proposition. P is thus taken particularly with respect to S.

d. O – Some mothers are not wives.

mothers S P
who are not
wives
 The shaded area represents the class of mothers who are not wives. In an O proposition,
some of the members of the class of S are not included in the extension of P. Or P, in the totality
of its extension is excluded from a part of S. P is, therefore, taken universally in an O proposition.

The Venn Diagram of A, E, I, and O Proposition

A variation of Euler’s diagrams are the ones introduced by the British logician John Venn.
In the Venn diagram, each of the four propositions is represented by two intersecting circles.
Unlike Euler’s diagrams, the shaded area in the Venn diagram represents the class with no
members. This class is called a null class (Jayme, 2002). An X in an area means “there is at least
one member in this part of the class.” The four propositions are represented by the following Venn
diagrams.

(Note: The bar above a symbol indicates the negation of the term with the bar above it. So, if “P”
means “evaluation,” then “¯P” would mean “those that are not evaluation.”

a. A – All exams are evaluation.

S P

SP¯ = O There are no exams that are not evaluation.

The shaded area means that the class of “exams that are not evaluation” has no member.
The symbolic formula for an A proposition is SP¯.

b. E – No animals are computers.

S P
 SP = O There are no animals that are computers.

The shaded area here stands for the class of “animals that are computers.” This is a null
class. The symbol for an E proposition is SP = O

c. I – Some animals are herbivorous.

S P

SP ≠ O The class of “animals which are herbivorous” is not a null class.

The area with an X represents the class of “animals which are herbivorous.” Since it is not
a null class, there is at least one member in it and this is designated by an X. The symbol for an I
proposition is SP ≠ O

d. O – Some mothers are not wives.

S P

SP¯ ≠ O The class of “mothers who are not wives” is not an empty class.

The area with an X represents the class of “mothers who are not wives.” Since it is not an
empty class, there is at least one member designated by an X. An O proposition is symbolized by
the following: SP¯ ≠ O
D. Hypothetical Propositions

A hypothetical proposition unites or separates two enunciations by means of a non-verb

copula (Agapay, 1991). It is a compound proposition that expresses the connection of truth or
falsehood between its components (Umali, 20070. It is a proposition that states conditions,
causation, or opposition between two judgments, sets of ideas, or statements (Rivas & Nael, 2006).

Kinds of Hypothetical Propositions

There are four kinds of hypothetical propositions, namely: conditional, conjunctive, and
disjunctive.

1. Conditional proposition is an if-then statement consisting of two parts. The first part of
the statement, which follows “if” and precedes “then,” is called the antecedent. The second
part of the statement, which follows “then,” is called the consequent. In the conditional
statement “If it rained, then the ground is wet.” Other connectives commonly used to form
conditional propositions are “if,” only if,” “in case,” “on the condition that,” “provided
that,” and “unless.”

It is distinctive nature of the conditional proposition to assert nothing but the necessity of
logical connection between its two components – the antecedent and the consequent (McCall,
1952). Thus, if the consequent really follows from the antecedent, irrespective of whether or not it
is itself true, the conditional proposition is true. If, on the other hand, the consequent does not
follow from the antecedent, even though both the antecedent and the consequent are true, the
conditional proposition is false (McCall, 1952). The antecedent and the consequent of a conditional
proposition may be affirmative or negative. If the antecedent is negative, “unless” is frequently
used instead of “if … not.”

Examples:

“Unless he is careful, he will have a breakdown” is identical with “If he is not careful,
he will have breakdown.”

“Unless you do penance, you shall likewise perish” is the same as “If you do not do
penance, you shall likewise perish.”

The circumstantial conditional non-verb copulas such as “whenever,” wherever,” “when,”

and “where” are sometimes used in place of “if.” Thus, the subsequent is essentially a conditional
proposition.

Examples:
 Whenever politicians rule, wise men suffer.
Whenever I tell a joke, my students look uncomfortable.
Where wealth accumulates, men decay.

2. Disjunctive proposition is a combining statement that uses the connective “or to join
component clauses called disjuncts or alternatives, of which at least one must true
(Montemayor, 1993). This is also known as the either-or statement because of its usual
structure: Either A or B is C. The disjunctive proposition has two types, viz, complete
disjunctive and incomplete disjunctive.

a. Complete Disjunctive Proposition. A disjunction is complete when only one of its

disjuncts, not both, can be true.

Examples:

He is either asleep or awake.

Barry is either in Canada, New Zealand or Japan.
Either we have a national language or we do not.

b. Incomplete Disjunctive Proposition. A disjunction is incomplete when both of its

disjuncts may be true.

Examples:

He is either an employee or a student.

His sickness was due either to overwork or to an improper diet.

3. Conjunctive Proposition is a combining statement consisting of two coordinate clauses

joined by “and”; both clauses must be true (Montemayor, 1993). Conjunctive propositions
are also introduced by conjunctions like “but,” “yet,” “as well as,” “however,” “though,”
“although,” “whereas,” “while,” “moreover,” “nevertheless,” and “now.”

Examples:

The harvest is great but the laborers are few.

He won a point; nevertheless, he lost the case.
She cannot be single and married too.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we have learned that there can be no judgment where there is no proposition.
This is because the proposition is, so to speak, the lifeblood of the judgment. It is the proposition
that gives a judgment, as it were, flesh and blood, for it is impossible to think of propositionless
judgment.
 It is also imperative that after ideas are formed, the mind process one idea with another
idea. It enunciates whether two ideas agree or disagree with each other. In this way, the mind
makes judgment. As we express our judgments in words we form propositions. Then the mind
compares one judgment with another judgment. That is, the mind passes from the truth or falsity
of one judgment or proposition to the truth or falsity of another proposition that is related to the
first. In this manner, we are reasoning. As with terms, knowledge on proposition, particularly
categorical type, is a requisite to the study and understanding of inference.

REFERENCES

Agapay, R. B. (1991). Logic: The essentials of deductive reasoning. Pasig City: Capitol Publishing
House, Inc.

Articulo, A. C. (2006). Logic: The practice of Critical Thinking. Quezon City: Great Publishing.

Babor, E. R. (2003). Logic: The philosophical discipline of correct thinking. Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.

De Leon, j. R. E. (2003).Logic. Legazpi City: Serrano Print House.

Jayme, V. (2002). An Introduction to Logic (2nd ed.). Cebu City: ABC Publications.

McCall, R. J. (1952). Basic logic. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc.

Montemayor, F, M. (1993). Harmony of Logic (3rd ed0. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store.

Pasigui, R. E., Parallag. C., Reguidan, J., & Tabin, V. G. (2006). Integrated logic multi-
disciplinary approach (With applied logic for nurses). Valenzuela City: Mutya Publishing
House.

Piñon, M. (1979). Logic primer. Quezon City: Rex Book Store, Inc.

Rivas, D. C., & Nael, M. M. (2006). Logic for nursing students and professionals. Quezon City:
Rex Book Store, Inc.
 LOGICAL RELATIONS BETWEEN PROPOSITIONS

I. Introduction

As defined in the previous chapter propositions are statements of affirmation or denial of

something the validity of which involves form and content. Now, propositions are either related
with one another or have no relations at all. The relationship between propositions in an inference
is determined by the type of inference which is either mediate or immediate. It is therefore, proper
and helpful to distinguish first these two types of inference before discussing the relationship
between propositions.

II. Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

1.   explain the nature of inference;

2.   compare the types of inference namely; mediate and immediate inference;
3.   compare logical inference and logical equivalence;
4.   determine whether the oppositional inferences are valid or invalid;
5.   know the rules of logical inference;
6.   convert, obvert, contraposed, as well as invert the A, E, I, and O propositions; and
7.   familiarize the rules of logical equivalence.

III. Lesson Presentation

A. Nature of Inference

An inference refers to any process through which the mind moves from one or more
propositions to other propositions, with the first (few) proposition(s) already implying the meaning
of the succeeding proposition(s) (Babor, 2003).

Inference is a process whereby from the truth-value of one or more propositions, we

conclude to the truth-value of another proposition. Whenever we draw a conclusion from what we
have asserted as true or false, we make an inference. So, if we know that 3x = 15, then we can
conclude that x = 5. Or if the teacher says that the passing score is 50% of the total number of
points, then you conclude that your score, which is only 40 out of 100, is failing. Or seeing that
there are dark clouds, one can infer that it is going to rain (Jayme, 2002).

B. Types of Inference

Inference is of two kinds: immediate and mediate. Immediate inference involves logical
opposition and logical equivalence; mediate inference involves syllogisms.

  1  
1. Immediate inference is a process of reasoning wherein the mind derives a new proposition
from an existing proposition, with no new truth created; the new proposition is a mere restatement
of the original proposition (Babor, 2003). Immediate inference, therefore, is characterized
basically as having only two propositions, using no medium, and producing a new proposition but
no new truth.

In a broad sense, immediate inferences proceed from one proposition directly to another
proposition; mediate inferences proceed from two or more propositions to another which is implied
in the given propositions. The latter type of inferences involves what is commonly referred to as
reasoning.

Examples of Immediate Inferences:

a)   It is true that all philosophers are intelligent. Therefore, it is false that some
philosophers are not intelligent.

b)   It is true that some dogs are fierce animals. Therefore, it is also true that some fierce
animals are dogs.

Examples of Mediate Inferences:

b)   Animals are living organisms,

but horses are animals,
therefore, horses are living organisms.

b)   Minors are not allowed to see pornographic film.

My brother is still a minor.
So, he is not allowed to see pornographic film.

The difference between the two modes of inferences may become clear as we study each
of these later. The following diagram shows the different forms of inferences under each type.

oppositional inferences conversion

obversion
immediate eduction contraposition
inversion
method of material
INFERENCE implication

induction
Mediate hypothetical
deduction

categorical

  2  
 There are two kinds of immediate inferences, namely, logical opposition (or square of
opposition) and logical equivalence (or eduction).

A.   Logical opposition (or square of opposition/oppositional inference) refers to the

disagreement or difference as to quantity, quality, or both of two propositions having
the same subject and the same predicate. (Hermida, 1996). In other words, it is the
relation of truth and falsity existing between such propositions (Reyes, 1988). There
are four oppositional relations, viz: contradictories, contraries, subcontraries, and
subalterns. See Figure below

Figure 1. The Square of Opposition

1)   Contradictory opposition occurs when two propositions have the same subject and
predicate but different quantities and qualities. Contradictory opposition exists
between A and O, and between E and I (Hermida, 1996).

Rules:

(1) If one proposition is true, the other is false.

(2) If one proposition is false, the other is true.

Examples of Rule 1:

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

A True All illegal drugs are hazards to health.
O False Some illegal drugs are not hazards to health.

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

E True Men are not immortal beings.
I False Some men are immortal beings .

  3  
 Examples of Rule 2:

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

O False Some roses are not flowers.
A True All roses are flowers.

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

I False Some models are shy.
E True No models are shy.

2)   Contrary opposition occurs when two universal propositions have the same subject
and predicate but different qualities. Contrary opposition exists between A and E
(Hermida, 1996).

Rules:

(1) If one proposition is true, the other is false.

(2) If one proposition is false, the other is doubtful.

Examples of Rule 1:

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

E True No towns are provinces.
A False All towns are provinces.

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

A True All athletes are overweight.
E False No athlete is overweight.

Examples of Rule 2:

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

A False All chairs are red.
E Doubtful No chairs are red.

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

E False No police officer is a thief.
A Doubtful All police officers are thieves.

3) Subcontrary opposition occurs when two particular propositions have the same
subject and predicate but different qualities. Subcontrary opposition exists between O and
I (Hermida, 1996).

  4  
 Rules:

(1) If one subcontrary is false, then the other is true.

(2) If one subcontrary is true, the other is doubtful.

Examples of Rule 1:

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

I False Some spoiled children are snobs.
O True Some spoiled children are not snobs.

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

O False Some animals are not precious creatures.
I True Some animals are precious creatures.

Examples of Rule 2:

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

I True Some lovers of wine are lovers of women.
O Doubtful Some lovers of wine are not lovers of women.

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

O True Some Filipinos are not rat-eaters.
I Doubtful Some Filipinos are rat-eaters.

4)   Subaltern opposition occurs when two propositions have the same subject and
predicate, and the same quality. Subaltern opposition exists between A and I, as well
as E and O (Hermida).

Rules:
(1) If the universal is true, the particular is true.
(2) If the universal is false, the particular is doubtful.
(3) If the particular is false, the universal is false.
(4) If the particular is true, the universal is doubtful.

Examples of Rule 1:

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

A True Every lifeguard is an expert swimmer.
I True Some lifeguards are expert swimmers.

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

E True No law breakers are good citizens.
O True Some law breakers are not good citizens.

  5  
 Examples of Rule 2:

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

A False All TV shows are good for the children.
I Doubtful Some TV shows are good for the children.

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

E False Smoke is not a sign of fire.
O Doubtful Some smoke is not a sign of fire.

Examples of Rule 3:

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

I False Some ants are white.
A False All ants are white.

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

O False Some roses are not flowers.
E False No roses are flowers.

Examples of Rule 4:

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

I True Some artists are creative.
A Doubtful Every artist is creative.

Symbol Truth Value Proposition

O True Some movie stars are not good actors.
E Doubtful No movie stars are good actors.

Table 1. Synopsis of Oppositional Inference

A E I O
If A is true                             False True False

If A is false   Doubtful Doubtful True

If E is true False False True

If E is false Doubtful True Doubtful

If I is true Doubtful False Doubtful

If I is false False True True

If O is true False Doubtful Doubtful

If O is false True False True

  6  
B. Logical Equivalence (or eduction) is the formulation of a new proposition by
interchanging the subject and predicate of the original proposition or by using or
removing negatives (Torres & Hernandez, 2002).

Eduction, then, expresses explicitly in another proposition a meaning that is contained implicitly
in a given proposition. We find in eduction another type of immediate inference which consists in
passing from the truth-value of a given statement to the truth-value of the implied judgments.

Eduction has four methods: conversion, obversion, contraposition, and inversion.

1)   Conversion is the formulation of a new proposition by interchanging the subject and

the predicate of the original proposition, but preserving its quality (Reyes, 1988). The
given (or original) proposition is called the convertend; the resultant proposition is
called converse. There are two kinds of conversion, to wit, simple and accidental
conversion. Table 2 presents the formulas for conversion.

Table 2 – Formulas for Conversion

Convertend Converse
I Some S are P. I Some P are S.
E No S is P. E No P is S.
A All S are P. A All P are S. (Exception)
I Some P are S. (Partial Conversion)
O Some S are not P. Invalid

a.   Simple conversion is a kind of conversion where the quantity of the convertend is

unchanged in the converse. It is applied only to I and E – remember the two vowels
in “sImplE”. It is a form of conversion from I to I, and E to E. (Bachhuber, 1966).

Rules for simple conversion:

(1) Retain the quantity of the convertend.
(2) Retain the copula (or quality) of the convertend.
(3) interchange the subject and the predicate.

Symbol Proposition
Convertend E Men are not angels.
Su C- Pu
Converse E Angels are not men.
Su C- Pu

Symbol Proposition
Convertend I Some Chinese are industrious people.
Sd C+ Pd
Converse I Some industrious are Chinese.
Sd C+ Pd

  7  
 b)   Accidental conversion is a kind of conversion where the quantity of the convertend
is reduced from universal to particular. It is applied only to A – remember the first
vowel in “Accidental conversion is also called partial conversion by limitation, and
reduced conversion.

Rules for accidental conversion:

(1) Change the quantity (from universal to particular) of the convertend.
(2) Retain the copula (or quality) of the convertend.
(3) Interchange the subject and the predicate of the convertend.

Symbol Proposition
Convertend A Every man is rational.
Su C- Pd
Converse I Some rational being is a man.
Sd C+ Pd

In conversion, one of the general rules is: if a term is particular in the convertend, it cannot
be universal in the converse, for that is a violation of overextending term. Thus, it is gross logical
error to convert the example above into “Every man is rational,” for it will violate the rule of sub-
alternation (cf: rules for subaltern opposition). To be consistent with the truth, a universal term in
the convertend must be made particular in the converse. Such limitation is allowed under the rule
of sub-alternation, that if the universal is true, the particular is also true.

Note, however, that there is one situation in which A to A conversion is allowed, i.e., a
particular term in the converse can be made universal in the convertend. It is when the subject and
the predicate are term standing for the same class or terms that are interchangeable (Kelly, 1988).
For example:

Symbol Proposition
Convertend A Men are not angels.
Su C- Pu
Converse A Angels are not men.
Su C- Pu

O propositioncannot be converted at all. The original subject, as it is made the predicate of

a negative proposition, will be changed from a particular term to a universal term (Bachhuber,
1996). For example:

Symbol Proposition
Convertend O Some matter is not visible.
Sd C- Pu
Converse O Some visible is not matter.
Sd C- Pu
While the convertend (air is matter, and yet not visible) is true, the alleged converse is
false (if a thing is visible, it is certainly material; all ghost stories aside).

  8  
 2)   Obversion is the formulation of a proposition by retaining the subject and its quantity,
while changing the quality of the proposition and changing the predicate to its
contradictory. The original proposition is called the obvertend; the resultant
proposition is called the obverse (Reyes, 1988).

Obversion is a proposition yields an equivalent proposition when applied to all four types
(A, E, I, and O) of propositions (Borchert, 2006).

Table 3. Formulas for Obversion

Obvertend Obverse
A All S is P. E No S is non-P.
E No S is P. A All S are non-P.
I Some S are P. O Some S are not non-P.
O Some S are not P. I Some S are non-P.

Rules:
(1) Retain the quantity of the obvertend.
(2) Change the copula (quality) of the obvertend.
(3) Retain the subject of the obvertend.
(4) Contradict the predicate of the obvertend.

Symbol Proposition
Obvertend A All cigarettes are pollutants.
Su C+ Pd
Obverse E No cigarettes are pollutants.
Su C- Pu

Symbol Proposition
Obvertend E No animals are angels.
Su C- Pu
Obverse A Angels are not men.
Su C- Pu

Symbol Proposition
Obvertend I Some students are quite talented.
Sd C+ Pd
Obverse O Some students are not quite untalented.
Sd C- Pu

Symbol Proposition
Obvertend O Some men are not honest.
Su C- Pu
Obverse I Some men are dishonest.
Su C+ Pd

  9  
 3)   Contraposition is a combination of conversion and obversion. It involves the
interchanging of the subject and the predicate (like conversion), and the use of
contradictories of terms (like obversion).

The given proposition is called the contraponend, and the new formulation is called
the contraposit. Contraposition is of two types: partial and full. The process of
contraposition (whether partial or full) yields an equivalent proposition only when the
original proposition is A or O. When the original proposition is E, traditional logicians
allow for contraposition per accidens (or by limitation), i.e., contraposition plus a change
in the quantity of the proposition from universal to particular, claiming that the proposition
formed is equivalent to the original proposition. The process of contraposition yields no
equivalent proposition when the original proposition is I.

Table 4. Formulas for Partial and Full Contraposition

Contraponend Obversion Partial Contraposit Full Contraposit

(Given Proposition) (Obverse) (Converse) (Obverse)
A All S are P. E Non S is non-P. E No non-P is S. A All non-P is non S.
E No S is P. A All S are non-P. I Some non-P are S. O Some non-P are not
non-S.
O Some S are I Some S are non-P. I Some non-P are S. O Some non-P are not
not P. non-S.
I Some S are O Some S are not non-P. Invalid Invalid
P.

Rules for partial and full contraposition:

(1) Obvert the contraponend.
(2) Convert the obverse. (Partial Contraposit)
(3) Obvert the converse. (Full Contraposit)

Symbol Proposition
Contraponend A All architects are artists.
Su C+ Pd
E No architects are non-artists.
(Converse) Su C- Pu
Partial Contraposit E No non-artists are architects.
(Converse) Su C- Pu
Full Contraposit A All non-artists are non-architects.
(Obverse) Su C+ Pd

  10  
 Symbol Proposition
Contraponend E No angels are mortals.
Su C- Pd
A All angels are non-mortals.
(Obverse) Su C- Pd
Partial Contraposit I Some non-mortals are angels.
(Converse) Sd C+ Pd
Full Contraposit O Some non-mortals are not non-angels.
(Obverse) Sd C- Pu

Symbol Proposition
Contraponend O Some pessimists are not nature lovers.
Sd C- Pd
I Some pessismists are non-nature lovers.
(Obverse) Sd C+ Pd
Partial Contraposit I Some non-nature lovers are pessimists.
(Converse) Sd C+ Pd
Full Contraposit O Some non-nature lovers are not non-pessimists.
(Obverse) Sd C- Pu

Symbol Proposition
Contraponend I Some houses are mansions.
Sd C+ Pd
O Some houses are not non-mansions.
(Obverse) Su C- Pu
Partial Contraposit _____ Invalid
(Converse)
Full Contraposit _____ Invalid
(Obverse)

4)   Inversion, like contraposition, has two types: partial and full. It goes through a series
of obversions and conversions (Bachhuber, 1966). The original (or given) proposition
is called invertend; the new formulation derived from the invertend is called the
inverse. Among the four types of propositions, only A is qualified for inversion (Babor,
2003).

Rules for partial and full inversion:

(1) Obvert the invertend.
(2) Convert the obverse.
(3) Obvert the converse.
(4) Convert the obverse. (Full Inverse)
(5) Obvert the converse. (Partial Inverse)

  11  
Table 5. Formulas for Partial and Full Inversion

Invertend Full Inverse Partial Inverse

A All S are P. I Some non-S are non-P. O
E No S is P. Invalid. Invalid.
I Some S are P. Invalid. Invalid.
O Some S are not P. Invalid. Invalid.

Symbol Proposition
Invertend A All physicians are doctors.
Su C+ Pd
E No physicians are non-doctors.
(Obverse) Su C- Pu
E No non-doctors are physicians.
(Converse) Su C- Pu
A All non-doctors are non-doctors.
(Obverse) Su C+ Pd
Full Inverse I Some non-physicians are non-doctors.
(Converse) Sd C+ Pd
Partial Inverse O Some non-physicians are not doctors.
(Obverse) Sp C- Pu

Symbol Proposition
Invertend E No aliens are voters.
Su C- Pu
A All aliens are non-voters.
(Obverse) Su C+ Pu
I Some non-voters are aliens.
(Converse) Sd C+ Pd
O Some non-voters are not aliens.
(Obverse) Sd C- Pd
Full Inverse _____ Invalid.
(Converse)
Partial Inverse _____ Invalid.
(Obverse)

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 Symbol Proposition
Invertend I Some politicians are religious.
Sd C+ Pd
O Some politicians are not non-religious.
(Obverse) Sd C- Pu
_____ Invalid.
(Converse)
_____ Invalid.
(Obverse)
Full Inverse _____ Invalid.
(Converse)
Partial Inverse _____ Invalid.
(Obverse)

Symbol Proposition
Invertend O Some criminals are not lawyers.
Sp C- Pu
I Some criminals are non-lawyers.
(Obverse) Sd C+ Pd
I Some non-lawyers are criminals.
(Converse) Sd C+
O Some non-lawyers are not non-criminals.
(Obverse) Sd C- Pu
Full Inverse _____ Invalid.
(Converse)
Partial Inverse _____ Invalid.
(Obverse)

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 Table 6. Synopsis of Logical Equivalence

ORIGINAL
PROPOSITION A All S are P. E No S is P. I Some S are P. O Some S are not P.

Converse A All P are S. (Exception)

E No P is S I Some P are S. ___ Invalid.
I Some S are P.
Obverse
E No S is non-P. A All S re non-P. O Some S are not non-P. I Some S are not non-P.

Partial
Contraposit E No non-P is S. I Some non-P are S. __ Invalid. I Some non-P are S.

Full Contraposit A All non-P are non-S.

O Some non-P are __ Invalid. O Some non-P are not
not non-S. non-S.

Partial Inverse O Some non-S are not P.

__ Invalid. __ Invalid. __ Invalid.

Full Inverse I Some none-S are non-P.

__ Invalid. __ Invalid. __ Invalid.

2. Mediate Inference is a process of reasoning in which from one proposition, with the aid of
another proposition (or a third term) called medium, the mind infers not only a new proposition
but also a new truth (Babor, 2003). However, the new truth achieved in mediate inference must
necessarily follow from the previously asserted ones. Mediate inference, therefore, has three
propositions, of which one is the medium (middle and minor premise) and one is the new
proposition with a new truth.

SUGGESTED READINGS

1.   Dobelli, Rolf. (2013). The Art of Thinking Clearly. New York: Harper Collins Pub., pp
36-45.
2.   Maboloc, C. R. (2012). Logic: A workbook in Critical Thinking. Davao City, MS Lopez
Pub., 53-63.
3.   Miller, E. L. (1998). Questions that matter. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 28-30.

REFERENCES

2.   Babor, E. R. (2003). Logic: The Philosophical Discipline of Correct Thinking. Quezon

City. C & E Publishing, Inc.
2.   Bachhuber, A. H. (1966). Introduction to Logic. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.
2.   Borchert, D. M. (Ed.) (2006). encyclopedia
2.   Hermida, R. B. (1996). Reviewer for the Oral Comprehensive Exam in Philosophy. Naga
City: Holy Rosary Minor Seminary
2.   Jayme, V. (2002). An Introduction to Logic 2nd Ed. Cebu City, ABC Pub.

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 2.   Reyes, E. A. (1988). Logic: Simplified and Integrated. Quezon City: National Book
Store.
2.   Torres, J. R. F., & Hernandez, R. M. (2002). Philosophy: Logic for Beginners.
Mandaluyong City: Academic Publishing Corporation.

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 Exercise 1

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

Directions: In the space provided, write T if the statement is true; if it is false, change the
underlined word or words to make it right.

___________ 1. In the immediate inference the two propositions speak of the same truth.
___________ 2. In conversion, the new proposition is called the convertend.
___________ 3. In the simple conversion, the quantity of the original proposition is changed.
___________ 4. All propositions A, E, I, O can be subjected to partial conversion.
___________ 5. In obversion, the new proposition is called the obverse.
___________ 6. The quality of the original proposition in obversion is changed.
___________ 7. All propositions, A, E, I, O can be obverted.
___________ 8. In contraposition, the original proposition is called the contraposit.
___________ 9. All propositions A, E, I, O can be subjected to contraposition of any type.
___________ 10. The new proposition in inversion is called the invertend.

Exercise 2
OPPOSITIONAL INFERENCE

Directions: Identify the oppositional relation of the following inferences. Write the letter of your
choice on the space provided.

a. Contradictory c. Subcontrary

b. Contrary d. Subaltern

______ 1. If it is true that “No Japanese are Filipinos,” then it is false that “Some Japanese are
Filipinos.
______ 2. If “All snakes are reptiles” is false, then “Some snakes are reptiles” is undetermined.
______ 3. If “Some birds of prey are eagles” is true, then “Some birds of prey are not eagles” is
doubtful.
______ 4. If it is true that “My grandfather carries a backpack,” then it is false that “My
grandfather does not carry a backpack.

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______ 5. If “All fruit is nutritious” is true, then “Some fruit is nutritious” is also true.
______ 6. If “No bag in this cupboard is new” is true, then it is also true that “Some bags in this
cupboard are not new.”
______ 7. If it is false that “You are not a lucky person,” then it is doubtful that “You are a lucky
person.”
______ 8. If “Moral rights are moral means to do good” is true then it is false that “Moral rights
are not moral means to do good.”
______ 9. If “Plants are organisms” is true, then “Some plants are organisms” is also true.
______ 10. If “Some honest persons are not rich” is true, then “No honest persons are rich” is
doubtful.

Exercise 3

OPPOSITIONAL INFERENCE

Directions: Answer True if the succeeding statement follows from the first line. False if the
succeeding statement does not follow from the first line.

1. If E is true, it is necessary for

_________ a. A to be false.
_________ b. O to be true.
_________ c. I to be true.
_________ d. A and I to be both false
_________ e. O and I to be both false

2. If A is false, it is impossible for

_________ a. E to be uncertain
_________ b. I to be false
_________ c. O to be false
_________ d. I and O to be both false.
_________ e. O and E to be uncertain

3. If I is false, it is possible for

_________ a. A to be true
_________ b. E to be uncertain
_________ c. O to be false
_________ d. O and E to be both true
_________ e. O and A to be both false

4. If O is true, it is not necessary for

_________ a. A to be false
_________ b. E to be true
_________ c. I to be false
_________ d. I and E to be both true
_________ e. E and A to be uncertain

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 Exercise 4

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

Directions: Identify the method of eduction used in the following inferences. Write the letter of
your choice on the space provided.

A. Conversion C. Contraposition

B. Obversion D. Inversion

______ 1. Logic is a science of correct thinking; therefore, the science of correct thinking is
logic.
______ 2. Nothing is impossible with God; therefore, everything is possible with God.
______ 3. Some Boholanos are honest men; therefore, some Boholanos are not dishonest men.
______ 4. All philosophers are deep thinkers; therefore, some non-philosophers are not deep
thinkers.
______ 5. Newspaper is a source of information; therefore, a non-source of information is not a
newspaper.
______ 6. No engineers are carpenters; therefore, some non-carpenters are non-engineers.
______ 7. All men are created by God; therefore, no men are non-created by God.
______ 8. No angels are mortals; therefore, all angels are immortals.
______ 9. Maximus is my child’s name; therefore, my child’s name is Maximus.
______ 10. No stones are bread; therefore, all stones are non-bread.

Exercise 5

INFERENCE

I. Direction: Give the correct converse of the following propositions.

1. Some mermaids are members of college sororities.

________________________________________________________

2.   A teacher is a person who gives instruction to children.

________________________________________________________

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 3. The end of a thing is its perfection.

_________________________________________________________

4. All diamonds are precious.

_________________________________________________________

5. No wrestler is a weakling.

__________________________________________________________

II. Direction

1. No television stars are certified public accountants.

_________________________________________________________

2. All proteins are organic compounds.

_________________________________________________________

3. Some Cebuanos are cowards.

________________________________________________________

4. Not all tragic actors are idiots.

________________________________________________________

5. Many foods that that contain iron are toxic substances.

________________________________________________________

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