134 FOURTUPANAMERICANCONFERENCE SLOPE STARILITY 135

groundwater flow system. However, information on the Typical Groundwater Environment for Slopes in Residual
regional flow system must be supplemented by detailed soxls
knowledge of the groundwater conditions within a particular
slope before a reliable analysis of the effect of ground- The position of a typical weathered siope with respect
water on a siope stability problem can be made. to a regional flow system is shown in Fig. 16a. The flow
linee indieate that the aireare and the lower part of the
Gr oundwa te r Flow Syste ms valley sides are in a groundwater discharge area. The w a t e r
t a b le i s shown aboye the zone of weathered rock. The flow
Regional groundwater flow systems provide the essential of water in the weathered rock toward the outlet spring at
framework for investigating and interpreting fluid pressure point A is largely horizontal. No excess porewater pres-
data for a given siope stability problem. New insight into sure will b e present at A but under the hydrogeologic con-
groundwater flow systems has become available in recent ditions given, excess porewater pressures will exist else -
years. This information, as it applies to siope stability where in the permeable weathered rock sone. With fluctua -
problems, was summarized by Deere and Pattón (1967) who
tions in the groundwater flow, fluid pressures could build
up within the weathered rock until a failure condition is
reviewed the work of Hubbert (1940), Toth (1963), Freeze reached.
and Witherspoon (1966, 1967), and Meyboom (1966).
A significant aspect of these studies fan flow systems
is that mejor river valleys and a portion of the slopes of
rnajor valleys are likely to be within a groundwater dis-
charge arca. Excess porewater pressures are normally en -
1 4
countered in groundwater discharge areas. Discharge areas
are not restricted to mejor rivers. Local flow systems are
likely to be found along small streams and at the bases of
small slopes. Exceptions to this general pattern of ground -
water discharging from hillsides and stream valleys accur
when the underlying rocks are extremely permeable. Then,
given the streams may become recharge areas for some under -
lying aquifer which discharges into another valley. IIighly
permeable materials such as limestones, basalts, or al-
luvium are usually responsible for such exceptional arcas.
The combination of slopes in a regional discharge area,
with the tendency of groundwater to flow out of the siope,
and impermeable mantles of residual soil and coliuvium
covering the slopes leads to a critical stability state.
Unfortunately, this is quite a frequent combination and is
the main reason for the myriad of slides that accornpany each
exceptional rainstorm. CITAILIF0111)01.0 "DM ...~e

S i g n i f i c a n c e of Local Details
The stage is set for siope failures in residual soils Fig. lb Potentia1 slide in residual soil, typical envíron-
by the general weathering profile and the regional flow men t.
system. Nevertheless, the occurrence of an individual land -
slide in a setting of many similar slopes which remain Figure 16b shows a more detailed view of the flow
s t a b l e r e q u i r e s t h e pr e se n c e o f s o m e pa r t i c u l a r l y a d v e r s e conditions and the distribution of porewater pressures in
detall in the strength of the materials or in the local the vicinity of the potential slide along surface ABD. It
groundwater flow. The presence of adversely oriented relict should be notad that the piezometric level of the water in
structures or of a greater intensity of weathering may be the permeable zone of weathered rock can extend aboye the
the cause of the abnormal siope weakness. Or, the details ground surface. Given this hydrogeologic environment, it
of the local groundwater flow as influenced by dintribution becomes apparent that the pare pressures in the permeable
of open and tight joints, irregularities of weathering, or zone could fluctuate considerably with seasonal or shorter
variations in permeability and thickness of the soil mantles variations in precipitation.
may be directly responsible for the singular failure.
136 FOURTH PANAMERICAN CONFERENCE SLOPE STABILITY 137

RELICT STRVCTURES AND SHEAR STRENGTH Pillines and Coatinss ef Relict Structures
Importance of Relict structures Clay fillings are found in relict structures in re-
sidual soil and occasiOnally along master joints in the
One of the most signi{icant of the geologic factors lower unweathered bedrock. In such cases the clay appeaEs
affecting the stability of slopes in residual soils is the t e have been waehed clown along the joints from
presence of relict joints, foliation, faults, and Other the B horizon at the surface. We observad such clay-
structural defects inherited from the original bedrock. The filled vertical joints in Ohio in unweathered
relict structures cOmmonly have a greatly reduced shear sandstone interbedded with chales and overlaan by
strength in comparison with that of the completely weath- residual soil. In Puerto Rico we ebserved similar clay
ered but "intact" meteríais. The low shear atrength permite fillings in vertical joints in partly weathered tuffs,
blocks or wedges pf the weathered rock and residual soil to siltstones, and vol-canje agglomeratea. le the Puerto
rail. Particularly adverse structures in the rock, such as Ricen Case the clay had Atterherg Limite similar
a fault with clay gouge and slickensides, are usually pre- t e thos.e of the most plastic partían of the B
served with all of their adverse characteristics intacta. teorizan. Ovar a penad of time the deposition of
Most deep-seated slides in residual soil and weathered clay in an apee joint may appreciahly deprease the
rock are assOciated with one lar more relict structural de- permeabtlity of the joint. This pan load to the
fects. However, it is mere comen for the failure surface formation of groundwater barriers during periods of
te pass from orle reLíct structure to another through the high rainfall which may result in alope instability,
intervening zone of eoherent but weathered material than is Deere (1957) deacribed a thin coating pf black very
the case in unweathered rock masses. DeFries (1971) in greasy manganese dioxide on many of the joint planes in a
his studies of slides in Caracas included the orientation weathered granite. He attributed its depositi.on on the
of the planes of schístosity of the parent rock as one of joint planes lo the action of circulating groundwater. And
the most significant variables affecting the stability of he concluded that the occurrence of the soft manganesa
slopes in sehist-derived residual soils. His ether factors dioxide coating en the jeint planes was one of the factors
were the avaflabiLity of free water, the degree and depthe responsible for the slope failures observad, the áther
of weathering, and the mineralogical composition of the Lactare being seepage of water from the sopes and the
parent rock. Rut he notad that the orientation of relict easeCiated subsurface erosion and the presence of joints
planes of schistosity is typically highly variable within abroughout the residual soil.
a particular site becanse of local folding. He said that it Queiroz (1965) describes] a larga elide that took place
is the exception to find lerge slides in which the fallare in a cut slope in residual soils and colluvium in arazil.
surface is exctusively parallel to the planes of weakness. The mavements took place álong pre-existing jpints in the
In a paper describing slope stability problems in deep residual. soil which Queiroz said container] á very thin layer
cuts in residual soils developed en granite in North Caro- of more elayey and b.lackish soil.
lina, Deere (1957) notad that the "slope failures were St. John et al. (1969) descrihed the occurrence of thir
often located along mejor joints that had clips or inclina- hiera aeams, often slickensided, in residual soils in the
tions towards the cut. Clearly, the joints formed dis- Piedmont region of the southeastern United Seates. They
continuilies and planes of weakness in the soil the notad that "although they (the thin black seams] haVe gen-
joints were enough in themselves to accOunt for several erally been overlooked by engineers and geologists, the
failures where the orientation of the joints happened to be authors have found them to be directly respbnsible for
particularly Unfaverable." numerous small but expansiva landslides as well as Other
• Neto (1967) emphasized the significante of relict earth movements." They recordad residual shear strengths
texturas and structures, and Sowers (1967h) notad that in for the black seams varying from 10.5° to 14.5° with the
hís experience "failure actually Cakes place along some lavar value for the slickensided samples. The black seams
Little relict zone of weakness," Purthermere, Sowers aaid were concentrated in the saprolitic le zone. They viere
that "in undisturbed residual soils, the effecte of the typically 3 to 25 mm thick, and could be continueus for
micro and macro structure of the mass are paramount." 30m. They notad that the black seams were found in residual
The significante of joints in determining the strength soils derived from igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
of residual soil has also been notad by Li and Méjia (1967). rocks, particularly sandetones and tuffs. They also re-
They described joints and faults filled with clay gouge and portad the results of several analyses nade en the black
athers filled with a badly shattered pervious breccia. They seams from one location. roe test indicated that the
notad that slickensides of the parent rock are frequently material vas a humic substance containing 20% marganese and
feund in the poil formation and show ther-saffe smoothly
polished surfaces as found in the parent rock. In addition,
they stated that faultinq, folding and landslides have
altered ehe uniform pattern of soil formation.
 138 FOUR•I PANAMERICAN CONFERENCE SLOPE STABILITY 139
s om e c ar bo n. A no t h e r t e st i nd ic at e d t he m at er ia l c on t a in e d degrees of weathering is shown in Fig. ISa. The irregulari-
7 to 15% Fe 2 0 1 and no mangane se . St. John and hin co- author s ties along the joint are assumed to be so nearly identical
concluded tea[ slickensides are ceused by differential move - that the geometry of all specimens telected for testing tan
ments occurring within the residual son as a result of he assumed te be idéntical. The four different types of
weathering processee. samples are described as samples IC, IIA, IIB, and III
It is apparent that a great variety of minerals can he according to their appropriate weathering tones.
present along joints and other relict structures in weath - By making a series of direct shear strength tests at
different levels °E normal stress on several identical sam-
ered rocks. These may be inherited from the bedrock, washed pies of Type III, the upper failure envelope (marked Sample
in from the surface, or formed in place. In general, they III and shown on Fig. 18b) can be establiehed. The failure
are likely to reduce the shearing resistance that can be envelope has a rélatively straight portion extending through
developed along a relict structure. Where present they can the origin and inclinad at about Or + 1. This line repre-
be an important factor in slope stability studies. sents the relationship between shear strength and normal
Shear strength Along Relict Structures stress for the rango of normal stress in which the initial
displacements in the specimen Cake place by sliding up the
A v a i l a b l e data--The foregoing studies indicate the im - surfaces of the irregularities. These surfaces are inclined
portance of understanding the shear strength of the reiict at an angle i, (see Fig. 18a, Sample III). Sliding will con-
joints and faults. Usually these discontinuities are ir - tinue up the surface of the irregularities until their tops
regular. Thus, the need is to try to understand the shear are reached or until the shearing stresses are sufficient to
shear off the tops of the irregularities.
strength characteristics of an irregular joint in weathered
When the internal strength of the irregularities is
materials. high, sliding up the inclined surfaces will be the initial
S e r af i m a n d L o p e z ( 1 9 6 1 ) a n d R o c h a ( 1 9 6 4 ) d e sc r i b e d t he mode of failure for a wide range of stress levels. As the
results of direct shear tests on "intact" rock which had
undergone different intensities of weathering. Hamral (1961) interual strength of the irregularity decreases due to
weathering (Samples 1/13, Fig. 18b), the change in the siope
described triaxial laboratory tests on the same rock types
as noted by Serafim, Lopez and Rocha. Hamrol'a results are of the failure envelope (In) will occur at smaller stress
shown on Fig. 17. For purposes of comparison, two lines have levels. Similar results are seen in the failure envelope for
been superirnposed upon Hamrol's data. These lines indicate samples from Zone IIA.
an estimated range of values for the residual angle of The failure envelope for the saprolitic samples, IC,
shearing resistance. The data shown on Fig. 17 give a gen- has a very small range of stresses for which sliding up the
eral picture of how the cohesion and angle of shearing re- inclined surfaces is possible. At higher levels of normal
sistance decrease with an increasing intensity of weather- stress the weathered irregularities are simply sheared off.
ing. However, in view of the known importance of pre-exist- The upper portions of the failure envelope shown on
ing joints in stability problems in residual soils, it is Fig. 18b are inclined at about Ø. Uowever, since the min-
surprising that there is no comparable data for irregular eralogy changes with weathering in most rocks, Or may also
joints in weathered materials. change somewhat. This variation in Or due te weathering is
Patton (1966) and Deere et al. (1967) described direct indicated by the "range of Or" shown on Fig. 18 and also on
shear laboratory tests on joints in artificial materials Fig. 17.
with different strengths and shapes. On the basis of these On the basis of the curves shown in Fig. 18h, one can
t e st s a f r am e w o r k w a s d e v e l o p e d i n a n at t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d say that the principal effects of increased weathering on
the multiple moles of shearing behavior of rock having ir - the failure envelopes are (1) to appreciably decrease the
regular joints. The applicability of that framework to shear strength at high stress levels, and (2) to decrease
rocks tested in the laboratory and in situ has been con, the normal stress level at which the initial mode of fail-
firmed by recent rock mechanics testing programs. These in- ure changes from sliding to shearing. In the case of highly
elude the extensive testing program conducted by the Labor- weathered rocks, the peak strength available at higher lev-
atoire Public d'Essais et d'Etudes de Casablanca (1968) and els of normal stress is nearly equal to the residual value.
that of Schnitter and Schneider (1970). in the light of the Other factors which have not been discussed, suCh as
apparent general applicability of this framework to the de- the scale of the irregularities and the magnitude of the
scription and interpretation of direct shear tests on rock critical displacements with respect to the size of the ir-
surfaces, and in view of the scarcity of published data, we regularities, have been covered in Patton (1966), Deere et
have attempted to use this framework to describe the effect al. (1967), and Patton and Deere (1971).
that weathering has on the shear strength along irregular
rock surfaces. The following in a description of a hypo-
theticai group of stlear strength tests.
Hypothetical shear test results--A joint passing
through a rock mass that has been subjected to different
 14Q FOURT11 PANAMERICAN CONFERENCE SLOPE STAWLITY 141

200 LEGEND Fig. 17 Shear strength envelopes for weathered "intact"

3 = indos o/ quaitty rodea graníte.
Wenhi wat«, AbszrrIxrd e 701} DeFries (1971) noted that he observed field evidente of
dry the strain softening properties of soils derivad from phyl-
lítes and micaceous schists, especially when the fa%lure
s u r f a c e w a s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e s o f s c h i s t o s i t y . H e noted
that generally it is only many years afier a cut is nadé
that the first symptoms of instability appear, and then
sIowIy the mavements accelerate cantil a major slide occurs.
1511 T h e m o v e m e n t s t h e n c o n t i n u a cantil t h e s l i d i n g m a s s a t t a í n s
e very f í a t slope. S u c h strain s o f t e n i n g m a y b e e x p l a í n e d
by weathering of the irregularities so as to decrease their
strength or by displacements along an irregular joint sur -
face.
Shear Strenclth of We ath ia re d Rocks a nd a ss oc ia te d Míne ra ls
M u c h o f t h e a v a i l e b l e d a t a en the shear strength of
weathered rocks is quite variable in that it has Meen ob -
tained by different methods--laboratory tests, field direct
shear tests, and by back-ealculating the strength from ac -
SHEAFI STREU. T.

t u a l s l i d e s . T h e m o e t d e d i t a b l e shear s t r e n g t h d a t a w o u l d
be from a series of field tests on weathered intact ma -
terials and along structures in a single rock type where
there were different intensities of weathering. Such tests
would he even more useful iE, in addition, they ocluid be
shown te agree with ohservations of a sIope failure.
It is a f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s i g n i f i c a n t e o f
it.creasini
a v a l u e o f c o h e s i o n , c , a n d e n a n g l o o f f ri ct io n, 0 , g i v e n
ín the líterature. This in because one may not be áble to
éstablish if the values are for test resulte aboye or betow
t h e p o i n t o f i n f l e c t i o n o f t h e s h e a r strength e n v e l o p e ( s e e
curve III, Fig. 18b). helow the point of inflection the co-
h é s i o n i n t e r c e p t i s l o w t e negligible and the 0 value i s
high, whereas above the point of inflection the cohesiva in -
t e r c e p t m a y b e a p p r e c i a b l e but t h e 0 v a l u e i s m u c h I o w e r a n d
Innen triaxial tests
atter Mármol
nearly equal to 0 r — t h e a n g l a o f s h e a r i n g r e s í s t a n c e . O f t e n
11%11 the results of shear strength tests are interpreted or sim-
plified to a straight-lime failure envelope and in these
S-1) 100
cases the values of c and 0 given may not be very enlight -
ening.
STRESS, cr Kghmi values of the angle of residual shearing resistance are
particularly useful for there are few problema in inter -
preting the resulta of others. Aleo, the published values of
residual strength can be of considerable use in design prob-
lema before the actual test values are available. Hcwever,
the peak strength values ohtained from tests on weathered
and unweathered rock will vary so much from place to place
that any áttempt to extrapolate values from other arcas to
the place of c o r i c e r n i s l i k e l y t o be m i s l e a d i n g u n l e t s i t
fa ceupled with an accurate description of the joint surface
geometry in both creas.
With these restrictions in mirad, we have collected and
summarized the strength values for tests on weathered rock.
These are given in Table V.
 T A B L E — S H E A R S T R E N G T H P A R A M E T E R S OF R E S I D U AL S O I L , WE AT H E R E D R O C K S , AN D R E L AT E D M I N E R AL S

ROCK TYPE DEGREE OF WEATHERING STRENGTH P AR AM E T E R S REMARKS SOURCE

METAMORPHIC ex' • 0.0:Or ° e

ROCKS kgm/crn' degrees

Gneiss (micaceous) murarn (zone 13) c = 0.6 O = 23" direct shear tests Gruner and
decomposed rock c = 0.3 o = 37' Gruner (1953)

33N32i34NOJNV31)11311VNIVd
Gnelss decomposed (zone IC) o = 18.5°
censal_ undrained St. John et
tests al, (1969)

Gneiss decornposed (fault zane) c = 1.5 o = 27° direct shear tests Evdokirnov and
much decomposed c = 4.0 O = 29" an concrete • rock Chiriaev (1966)
rnedium decomposed c = 8.5 0=35° surfaces
unweathered c = 12.5 0 = 60°
_____
Schist weathered (mica•schist sol)) O = 24'i, " both from analysis De Fries (1971)
partty weathered (mica•schists — of slides
and phyllItes) Ihi9hlYc = 0 7 O = 35° perpendicular to
,

weathered - c' = 0.5 0 15 O' = 15' i 50% saturated Consol. Sowers

0' = 21° 100% saturated Undrained

Sc weather o — 26° - compacted rock Wilson and

filt fleld direct
shear tests
Phyllite residual soil (zape IC) c= = perpendicular De Fries
to schistosity
c = parallel to
schistosity (both
from analysis o!

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Gran clecornposed granice cO o = 27' - 31" 50Q tests Roberts (1970)

Cherry Valley

Gran quallty index, i C O direct shear Rocha

15 1 41° tests
10 2 46' -46
7 3 49°-52
5 5 57' Serafirn
3 6-13 62".63

Áll1IIIVIS
Gran weathered (zone 1181, I. 7+ (ab direct L.NE.C.
partly weathered or = shear
(melena) 3+ 26"•33'
relatively sound Or = 27°-

Granite red earth (zane 181 4+'28° Lurnb

Gran decomposed (fine e = o if = 2514 - Lumb

grained) decomposed 34'

Quartz dimite sandy, silt decomposed c= o = 30'4. lab tests, undis; Li and
rock

Dioríte weathered c = 0.3 a= canso). St. John et

Rhyol decomposed o' = 30" Lumb

t
 SED1IVIENTARY ROCKS
Kaupar Mari highty weathered e ‘ Q. a" = 25-37 o r = 18.24' - 2% carbonares Chandier ((969)
intermedia tety wea•her-ed . c' o* - 32 42' O r = 22.29' • 14% tarbonates
unweathered > 40' or 23-32' • 20% carbonares
0.1 al/ tríaxiat tests
!e' dralried arld eortsol.
undrained and cut ptane
9.3 trIaxiar tests

FOURTH PANAMERICAN
London Clay weathered [brown) c' - .1-.2 ' .. 19.22° or .. 14° Chandler (1969)
unweathered o' = .9.1.8 O' = 23-30' o r = 15 ° after Skerrpton
and others
JO)NT Fa-LING
"Blackseams" la zona 1C o r = 10.5° -searn with slickensides St. John et al.
Y4 = /4.5'
r -3eam without slickensides (1969)
-bdth eonsol. ündrained
tests
MINERALS COMMON l'INJ RESIDUAL SOILS AND INEATH ERED ROCKS
QuaríZ sane 0r - '3 0
cfurve sand Kanney .119671
o r .r 15' crushed sand
Ka011nIte Or - 22' Rarn‹.)ided Kaolinite-IIrnIted displacernent Kanii (19701
or --- (29 Rernolded KaohnIte•lirnestorte Kanji 119701
or = 12' I ntact Kaolinite•preeur surface Morgenstern &
Tchalenko (1967)
1111te or 6W FlernoldedlnIte•firnestone Kwl'il (19701
Pr ' 11 ,° Par 111Ite Kaníj (1970)
Montrnorillohlte o r = 4-11° Kenney (1967) :
Muscovite .. °
r' 1 7 . 2 4
' Kanney (1967)
Hydrous rnica o r - 16.26 ° Kerrney(1967)
c • cohcsion • kgicm : "* 1 • fifective Jingle pi stre/rIng rtIsiziance
 c ' • e f f e c t i v e c a h e s i u n , kg / c r r ' .rojcitial inglepf 5 hozringrasJwyance lusually drainedl
••t5 • isnure pf ihearing resistance. degree5

o In 5 co ti, a 4 *-313. , l i = n r o o
o- s,• 1-
1 r.•
4 O ._-!` 113 O r^ rn Q a. rr
en ft c i r5
--II. O M401-11
N iC 1-•• r n ar Sil r- rt rr
o o tr, o o
o
vi rn to 4 < ükr•t
itL+ si l :ou t - r o
m CrED.-4-0P.PW1-
ui
}-%
PhilD rs .it1 : Y r D - " O r D • Z t r a
re C 21 o
 +3 rr 4
-r; CD 1 rt 11 <

r• C. Q N
o
onni-cc
s-•
• noro
11} 1:1
o 1+1 1-•- A11-1111VIS1cIO-
rm 01 a r) cr 1
'1 ft' = 3
- O OS rt,
Q
O
El"
rr
O
rt

 9• m =- ru
3, ft) r, r t7

rt

=.•
 a• e, O O rr rr
kí O O rh . r r = 1 - • r f f
rr'ra nn oo
E 4 1 = 1 D C C
rrh C ri ='
  rr C O s n C lv 1 • • •
o rD

Cr • < rt, s. 4 rr

tit *U G 4,- Q r ,
r ' r - " J O ( D O Z n j < C O r r

+i o th to o vi O
o r-
t o n o o r v 0..r rO O . Q sPI
i , r r I n s-s,
ID
=r7 rn P-1

un • O errn r- n < en . II C
ri r O lit=, 4-r 4
<11`C O a- a. ti} rr

 1.-• O

 O r > r 1 . 9 2 0 t P r i l i r r)tro it :U 4

rr ro u+ tr• m-• evo ,-.•..••

oo hit rri.•.4 ""'J
mrtaocno P--
M r s ' r r r I r t . 9 0 c 0 rrO O l u
rr Met, 05 ot =11o

 rr,‹ en o Q tri I-- o

1 r; I r 3 O, rr 0 ;t1
 t
 146 FOURTH PANAMERICAN CONFERENCE SLOPE STABILITV 147

EXPLORATION PROGRAMS FOR SLOPE DESIGN Changas in the velocity of Zone I soíls may be related te
changas in meteríais or te the presence of the groundwater
Much of the investigaban in the past has been directed tabla. It may he difficult to distinguish Zone I material
to the study of existing sudes. However, the real need in from colluvium without bering information.
engineering practico is for the adequate investigation of T h e t r a n s i t i o n , Z o n e I I A , i s a very difficult m a t e r i a l
slopes beforehand to prevent slope failures or to gain ad- te d e l i n e a t e b y g e o p h y s i c a l t e c h n i q u e s . But if the transi-
vance knowledge of potentially unstable slopes. •tional nature of thís layer is recognized in advance, then
It should be apparent that the objective of any explo- its seismic "signature" may often be recognized. For ex-
r a t i o n p r o g r a m f o r s l o p e d e s i g n m u s t b e t o (1) d e l i n e a t e t h e ample, orle may look for but not find a sharp change in seis-
nature of the weathering profile, (2) ].orate the principal mic velocity between the low velocity residual soil (Zone I)
structural defects present. (3) determine the local ground - and the higher velocity partly weathered rock (Zone IIB).
w a t e r c o n d i t i o n s , a n d ( 4 ) e s t a b l i s h t h e probable mode of Yet, all that is required is to delineate the zone where a
failure and the appropriate shear strength parameters along gradual change in seismic velocity occurs. When someone has
the potential failure surfaces. attempted to make a simple twa or three layer determination
of the depth to unweathered rock, then the "rock line" will
Methods often fall within lene IIA. eowever, une nevar knows if it
is the top of IIA or the bottom of IIA that is so chosen.
Field geologic investigations--Existing cuts should be Roberts (1970) suggests that the "seismic bedrock" line is
examines] and mapped, and sol! samples should be selected usually asear the míddle of the transition for granito and
where appropriate. In this way it is often possible to readily carbonate rocks.
obtain useful data on the weathering profile, bedrock Seismic surveys of weathering profiles require clase
structure, and g r o u n d w a t e r c o n d i t i o n s . T h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f s p a c i n g of t h e g e o p h o n e e a n d f r e q u e n t b o r i n g s t o c a l i b r a t e
the natural slopes should be recorded along with the corre - the interpretation of the seismic data. Reflection seismic
s p o n d i n g s u b s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s . C h a n g a s (or i n f l e c t i o n surveys may els° be suitable for delineating weathering pro-
points) in natural slopes should be noted as well as any files, particularly when tied into borings where thn true
obvious reasons for these slope changes. seismic velocities of the various zones may be established.
Airphoto studies should he a requirement for every Meidev (1967) detcribed the use of a new portable seismic
slope investigation. For very larde slopes they may be the refraction instrument which has shallow reflection surveying
only means of gaining the perspectiva necessary to recog- capabilities and appears to have promise for delineating
niza incipient and pre-existing slides, geologic structuree, weathering profiles.
springs, boundaries of different lithologic units, and other Electrícal resistivity surveys also have some promise
significant elements of the local and regional geology. Even for delermining weathering profiles. This is because changos
faint suggestions of structural trends and lineaments can he in the clay content associated with the different weathering
significant when planning a surface exploration program if zonas can result in appreciable changes in resistivity val-
other types of geologic information are not readily avail- ues. As ih the seismic surveys, the transition zone, IIA,
able. This is often the case in densely forestad and deeply can cause difficulties in the interpretation of resistivity
weathered terrain. For these reasons, a combination airphoto profiles. The recordad resistivity of Zone IIA may be simi-
s t u d y a n d d e t e n e d field g e o l o g i c s t u d y s h o u l d b e t h e first lar to Zone Ic as the lower resistivity of the matrix may
stage of every exploration program. prevail over that of the corestenes. Scharon et al. (1959)
S u r f a c e g e o p h y s i c a l s t u d i e s - - c r o s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of and Early and ayer (1964) have described the use of resis-
l a y e r i n g o f Z o n e s I , I I , a n d III a n d s o m e t i m e s o f t h e p o s i - tivity surveys in studies of residual eoils in carbonate
t i o n of t h e g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l a c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y s e i s m i c rocks with soLution cavities. Moore (1965) described a
surveys or electrical resistivity surveys or by a combina - resistivity survey in weathered metamorphic rocks.
tion o f b o t h . S e i s m i c r e f r a c t i o n s u r v e y s a r e t h e m o s t c o m - It is clear that surface geophysical surveys can pro-
monly used geophysical techniques (Robertshaw and Brown, vide considerable assistance in delineating weathering pro-
1955; Golder and Soderman, 1963). Murphy and Holt (1959) files when interpreted with knowledge of typical weathering
described the application of seismic techníques in regions profiles and where borings are provided for calibrating the
of deep weathering in Puerto Rico. Seismic velocities for profiles.
the various tones will typically fall in the following rangos: Borings--The layering of the weathering profile can be
Zones IA and IB - 1000 te 1200+ ft/sec. (305-365+ m/s) reliably established by careful borings. Tests en samples
Zone IC - 1500 te 3500 (455-1060 will permit the determination 'al the natural moisture con-
Zone IIA - 3500 to 6500 (1060-1985 ) tent, liquid and plastic limits. and grain-size distribution.
Zone IIB - 6500 to 10,000 (1985-3050 )
Zone III - 10,000 to 1 8 , 0 0 0 (3050-5500+ )
148 FOURTI-IPANAMERICAN CONFERENCE nom STA LH ury 149

The soil and rock can be examinen petrographically and clay layer, Guyod (1964) has presentad a concise sumrnary en Lhe
mineral analyses can be made of the fines if necessary. Lab- use of geophysical logging techniques in soils engineering.
oratory direct shear, unconfined, and triaxial tests can be The chiot advantage of in-hole geephysicel methods over
performed to obtain the unconfined strength, the peak shear surface methods is that far greater detail is poesible en-
strength parameters (e', 0'), arid the residual angle of abling óne Lo delineaba Lhe variable nature of the transi-
ehearing resístanee (0r). tion zone.
The diles Of the geologic structures can be determined Test pits, trenehes, test edite, and large-diameter
telt not their slrikes Unless borehole phetography, oriented drillholes--When it is imporeant te cesa, the geOlOgic strUc-
core, or soma other advanced technique is used (Kempe, 1969). tu res, there are no eubstiLutes for direct and centinueus
-

Integral sampling, described by Bocha (1970), should be obeervatione such as can be made in test pits, teenchee,
useful in weathered materials. With Chis technique a steel test_ edite, and large-diameter drillholes. Test pite and
bar is grouted int° a small daameter hale. This is followed tronches can often be used be advantage in establishing the
by overcoring to recover the steel bar together with its thickness and natura of Zones IA, 113, iC, and IIA. Test edite
core of cemented weathered rock. These samples may be nr large-diameter drillholes allowing in-place inspection
oriented if required. are °Caen required to reaoh the deeper eones, 1113 and III.
Sampies ot the saprolite in Zone IC, and the traneitáen Altbough expansiva, Lhese lattér methedS may provide the
material in Zone IIA are difficult ehtain. Mbye (1967) only reliable means of investigating the deep-seated struc-
described the prohlems involved. He alzo described the triple ture in important cuts such as spillway excavations, opon
tuba core barrel which was developed "Lo obtain undisturbed plt mine s1ops, and tunnel portals. All of these "larga
coree of completely to highly weathered granite Containing diameter" exploratlon metheds have the additional. advantagas
residual boulders of fresher granite." Vargas (1969) de- of permitting direct obsérvations of groundweter wondítione,
scribed sampling metheds usad in residual soile and weath- selecbton of undisturbed samplese and. performance of in-sito
ered rock in southere Braeil. sisear tests.
ThE, borehole can be used te provide informatien on the Working conditions in (hese temporary exploretion exea-
groundwater levels at various depths within a hola as vatione CAI■ he very hazardous if safely precautions are not
dril].ing progresses. The permeability at different depths enforced with respect te bracinge control of water, and gas
can be determinad by water preesure testse These pernea- inspection. NO coMprómises should be made regarding safety
bilitiee can be very useful in reeognieing Llie diflerent standards juel beuauSe (hese are temporary OpenIngs.
weathering eones. Water legal measuréments made at the be- Men-Idee bucket auger beles lapprcx. 1 m in diameter)
ginning and end of eaeh etift, when comparad with the record provade a relatively inexpeesive and rapid methad of ob-
of the depth of casing and the depth of the helee will help taíning direct and continucus Observations of materials
determine the groundwater regime. Shear strength tests nade within a hillzide. These are used exLensively in California
in boreheias have been réported (Lohnes and Uandy, 1969; for landslide investigations. Vargas (1969) described the
LOhnee et al., 1971). However, it is questionable w•ether use of larga diameter power auger hales and hand dug test
the values cbtained have any bearing upen a slope stability pite for sampling residual sone.
study, although conceivably such data might be used as an
índex test to help delineate the weathering profile. Presentation of Data
In-hole geoplysical loggingegoreholes can els° be The presentation of data is almost as important as the
logged by geophysecal methods. These geophysical logs can collection of data. Cross sections e boring logs, groundwater
help delineate the nones of the weathering profile and levels and Eield permeahility tests, and laboratory resulte
establish the gross physical properties of the eones. musa be presented in a cenci.se, convenient e ánd descriptiva
Seiernie Velocity logs can provide e detailed velocIty manner befere the analysis can próceed.
profile of the bering. This is useful infermation, not enly Cross sections--Cross sectione shculd show the weath
for delineating the weathering profile but for províding ering profile superimpcsed opon the bedrock with the pre-
basic veloeity data for the interpretation of surface seis- dominant rock skructure delineated. It is typical of cross
mic surveys. sectiens in residual sone and weathered rock that thick-
Gamma-Gamma logs provide a dehsity profile of the mete- necees and depths of the weathering eones become more vari-
ríais encountered by the boríngs. The densities will corre- able as more data become available. Tlencee one should antic-
late roughty with the weathering eones. ípate the variations between borings by indicatíng irregular
The neutron log will provide a profile of the water contacte.
content of the materials. Since the water content increales
with increasing fraeturing and especially with inoreasing
clay contente it is a good measure of the weathering profile.
The TU. corte will he aceentuated beith by a neutron log and
by a resistivity log due lo the higher clay content of this
 150 FOURTHPANAMER1CANCONFERENCE SLOPE STA131L1TY 151

I n d i v i d u a l b o r i n g logs--Summary boring logs are re- Permeability data-information on the permeability of

guired. They should be based on the driller's logs, a care ful materials as determined from water pressure tests in borings,
geological description of the samples and coses recovexed, descriptions of fractures or other openings, and the drill-
and tests mate in the borehole. Graphical displays of the er's re cor d of euc h things a s the loa s or gain of water or
information are preferible to other methods of presenta t i o n . change in drilling fluid, should be presented in graphical
Each variable should be plotted against depth in a series and note form on the detailed logs. Then, the essential as-
of profiles. The data should include a visual geologic log, a pecto of this data should be summarized on the cross sec-
l o g a n d de s c r i p t i o n o f t h e ge o l o g i c s t r u c t u r e s , a profile of tions.
the percent recovery and RQD, a graphical log of gr o un dwa te r L a b o r a t o r y t e s t data—The resulta of index property
d a t a i n c l u d i n g w a t e r l e v e l s a n d d a t e s , a p r o f i l e of water tests of soil and rock should be presentad in graphic ferio
losses, water pressure tests, or other permeability d a t a , a n d so that the values are plotted against depth. This data
a p r o f i l e o f t h e d e g r e e o f w e a t h e r i n g . I n t h e u p per should be interpreted so as to show the positions of the
weathering sones graphical logs should show the natural weathering zones. The resulta of shear strength tests should
moisture content and Atterberg Limíts, standard penetration be summarized on plots of shear strength vs. normal stress.
test results (if available), and the laboratory and field If possible, all shear strength data should be presentad on
strength determinatíons. a single diagram. Values ot the residual shearing resistance
Of all the aboye items none is more important than the should be determined and shown on the diagram for purposes
careful visual examination of a continuous core. This exam - of interpreting the other strength data.
ination is primarily to Tócate and describe joints, faults,
shear zones, mylonitic seams, and the various soil and rock DESIGN OF SLOPES
types and their boundaries. Most exístíng slopes in residual soils have not been
The experienced engineer in soil and rock mechanics designad. Instead the slope angles have been "selected" on
will recognize the fallacy of relying entirely upon small the basis of the personal experience and bias of the de-
di a me te r b or i ng s t o o bta in e sse nt ia l i nf or ma ti on o n pl an es signer or on the basis of the tradition of the owner-agency.
and sones of weakness. Hence, on those projects where a Such personal experience and tradition Cake into account
largo expense or loss of lives could result from a slope both the favorable and unfavorable behavior of slopes in
f a i lu r e , d ir e c t vi su al o bse r va ti on of c on ti nu ou s s ec ti on s of the same general anea. This approach is essentially design
the subsurface material ís a necessity. This can only be by precedent, and there are times when there is much to
done reliably with large-diameter drillholes, test pits, recommend it.
trenches, and test adits.
Early attempts to design cuts in residual soils by the
T e s t p i t a , t r e n c h e s , t e s t a d i t s , a n d l a r d e - diameter normal methods of soil mechanics met with failure as often
d r i l l h o l e s - -Data from these larger openings are best pre - as with success, particularly when the designed slopes were
sented in developed sections of the vertical exposures and, different from those developed by precedent. Most of those
if possible, of the horizontal exposures. These will provide engaged in soil mechanics recognized that designing on the
three-dimehsional views of the occurrence of materials, basis of precedent freguently produced better resulta than
str uc tur e s and gr oundwa te r conditions. Data fr om te st pits designing en the basis of laboratory tests and stability
should include developed geologic sections of the walls: enalyses.
data from trenches should include sections of the walls and, The present state-of-ehe-art of designing slopes in
if possible, of the Eloor of the trench; data from test adits residual soils and weathered rocks is about as follows
should include a developed section of the walls and roof of (1) the natura of the problem is isolated, (2) the charac-
the adits and, if possible, of the floor as well. Data from teristics and influence of the weathering profile and relict
larga-diameter drillholes are best presented ion a 360* devel - structures are recognized, and (3) the principal parameters
oped sectiOn of the vertical walls of the drillhole. The affecting the shear strength are recognized.
l o c a t i o n o f g r o u n d w a t e r s e e p s a n d s a m p l e s s e l e c t e d f o r t e s t ing The significant parameters are the strength of the re-
should be indicated on these sections. sidual soil and weathered rock, particularly the strength
The presentation of detailed information from small di- along relict structures; the distribution of porewater
ameter borings and the larger exposures from test pita, etc. pressures along the critical surfaces; and the variations
should never be considered an end in itself but must he ac- in strength and porewater pressures with time and with dis-
companied by cross sections in which only the essential in- placements along the critical surfaces. Knowledge of the
formation is shown. typical weathering profiles that develop in different litho-
G r o u n d w a t e r levels--All matee level data should be ac - logic settings provides the framework for understanding
companied by the dates and the depth intervals which they these parameters.
represent. Attempts should be nade to obtain water-level
measurements in both wet and dry seasons and to present the
range of groundwater fluctuations on cross sections.
 152 FOURT1-1 IAMERICAN CONFERENCE SLOPE STABILITY 1 53

Geologic Environments methods (1) and (2) are more economice' than method (3).
method (3) can ínvolve larga expenditures of time and money,
Three types of geologic environments will be encoun- seldom with any absólute assurance of success. Applipatión
tered when desígning slopes in residual soils. These geo- of method (3) is therefore Limited Lo special situations
logic environments are (1) massive homogeneous rock, (2) where the expenditure of time and money can be justified.
anisotropic rock structure, and (3) complex strata and
structure. These geologic environments are subject to Design by Precedent
different amounts of weathering in different ateas and each Design by precedent works test when applied where
may be covered by a layer of colluvium. climatic and geología conditions are similar tu those
1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 9 2 9 5 I L I T 2 2 2 j r s k — T h i s ge o l o g i c e n v i r o n me n t , where the design has prevíously been successful. The danger
consisting of massave more or leas homogeneous rock, is in design by precedent comes when extrapolating roto a
characteristically associabed with granites, gneisses,thick- distinotly different environment.
bedded limestones and sandstones, etc. These rocks generally
As an example nonsider the steep cuts ,(45 to 80') used
have two or three sets of joints, one el which is ordinarily with success in many of the residual soil and weathered rock
parallel to the bedding or foliation: Sheeting joints sub - slopes in nawaii. These steep sierpes are successful bacause
parallel to the ground surface are siso usually present. (1) the Major discontinuities in the bedrock are generally
A d v e r s e i y o r i e n t e d s t r u c t u r e s a r e leas frequently e n c o u n -
inplined at anglea leas that' that of the residual angle of
t e r e d t h a n i n t h e o t h e r g e o l o g i c environMents. T h e e f f e c t s of shearing resistance, (2) sheared rones between beds are
weatherihg therefpre becone more significant in stability seldom encountered, (3) the slopes have good i.nternal
considerations. d.rainage duo te the high permeabitity of the basalts and
Anisotropic rock s t r u c t u r e — S c h i s t S , s i a t e s , a n d t i l í n the low groundwater table (see rig. 15) , and (4) there is
or interbedded sedlmentary rocks, dippihg toward the cut, almost a complete absence pf incl roed, throughgoing geologic
typify this geologic environment. In these rock types major structures in the rango of 20 to 70'. However, if these
p l a n e s o f w e s k n e s s , s u c h a s b e d d i n g p l a n e s , f o l i a t i o n , ar steep outz are used in arcas with other rock types, which
r o c k c l e a v a g e , exist with a p r é f e r r e d ó r i e n t a t i o n . A s a r e - have normal weathering profiles and groundwater conditions,
sult the rock structure is usually the most signif•cant numerous failures wcuid certainly result.
element for slope design. Not only may the predomínant Oesign by precedent ts most applicable to a geologic
s t r u c t u r e b e a d v e r s a b u t t h e w e a t h e r i n g can v a r y greatly environment with maSsive homogeneous strata. In the second
from bed to bed actentuating the struotutal weakness and type of geologic environment where rock hes an anisotropic
producing se extremely irregular depth of weathering. Prior structure, the use of precedent alune is haaatdouo at hect.
shearing along the weak beds is almost the rulo and the Jowever, precedent can bu applied where the lithology and
inclinad bedding allOws high porewater pressures Lo be geologic structure in the two arcas are identical. In the
developed in some leyere. Furthermore sheeting joints may third type of environment involving emplea strata and
ocnur in the thicker beds. structure, design by precedent may be auitable for shallow
Complex strata and s t r u c t u r e - - I n s o m e g e o l o g i c e n - cuts where °ocasional slides can be tolerated. Ilowever,
vironments the distribution and orientation of the rock design by precedent may be hazardous for loop cuts in en
types and rock structures can be so complex that they al- atea where individual slides could change the economice of
most defy our ability to explore and describe them. The the project.
complex d i s t r i b u t i o n m a y b e n o n r e p e t i t i v e f r o m o n e p o r t i o n nenches--The majar deCisions in desigfi by precedent
of a cut to another so that detailed exploration in one are deciding whether or not benches should be used and se-
ares of a cut may not be relevant to another seetion of the lecting the slope angles for the different materials.
same cut. An example of this type of terrane is an ares Benches are provided to restrict any slope failures to
with tightly folded and faulted rocks. The influence of the ene roce only, to turnish a catchment arca for slide debris
weathering profile is usually more significant in this or boulders. from abone, and te aid in removing surface water
environment than in ateas where anisotropic rock structure which falla upan the slope and thereby reduce gulleying of
predominates. Local rock structure may siso be adverse but the cut surfaCc. Experience shdws that benches do provide
not in any readi.Ly predictable manner and it will not be these services in most inslances. However, it ls dcubtful
consistently adverse as it is for anisotropic rocks. if the overall deep-seated stability of a slope is any more
enhanced by benches than by a single .uniform slope with a
Design Methods Available slightly flatter angle (so as to give the same volume of
excavation).
T h r e e i n e t h o d s are a v a i l a b l e f o r d e s i g n i n g slopes in Unfavorable aspects of benches are that they often are
r e s i d u a l s ol le ; ( 1) p r e c e d e n t , ( 2 ) m o d i f i e d p r e c e d e n t , an d lost during construction blasting, particularly in the
( 3 ) s t a b i l í t y c a l c u l a t i o n s . There a r e m a n y s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e