Chapter I Introduction

Map 1.1: Kēraḷa - Political Map

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Chapter I Introduction

Map 1.2: Kēraḷa - Physical Map

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Chapter I Introduction

Map 1.3: Kēraḷa – Map of forest cover

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Chapter I Introduction

Map 1.4: Kēraḷa – Map of Rivers and Lakes

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Chapter I Introduction

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

All forms of art springs from inner impulses of human. Expression of these

inner impulses could be in the form of varied arts – performing and visual.

Paintings and sculptures were the earliest of visual arts. The life force of every art

is the underlying concepts of nature and human interface with his environment1.

India has earliest paintings evidenced from prehistoric rock shelters and sculptures

from the earliest civilization dating from middle of 3rd millennium BC. Nature

played a predominant role behind faiths and believes of early human beings. The

fear of nature’s extreme actions became the objects and concepts of worship.

Though Indus valley civilization displays all elements of organized civic life,

conclusive interpretations are yet to be reached regarding religious ideologies of

its people. Ṛg Vēdic period is the earliest period in history of India which has

definite information on religious ideas. Dated to the middle of second millennium

BC, the Ṛg Vēda speaks of numerous gods, who were the personification of

whatever was noble, splendid and striking in nature, like sky (Dyuh), earth

(Pṛthvi), sky god (Varuṇa), god of thunder storm (Indra), morning and evening

stars (Aśvini) and goddess of dawn (Uṣas) and fire (Agni)2. These gods possessed

powers to do both and god and evil and they have to be kept satisfied with

offerings of food and drink, not only to avoid wrath of their fury, but also to avail

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Chapter I Introduction

boons. The worship consisted of ceremonies called yajñas. Fire (Agni) sacrifice

played a pivotal role in this worship. The gods were functional and their functions

were reactions to the actions of devotee. The action - reaction equation between

the devotee and deity was so perfect that the deity was left choiceless3.

Elaboration of sacrifices and ritual involving more priests succeeded the Ṛg

Vēdic period. New deities like Rudra and Viṣṇu became prominent and deities like

Varuṇa and Pṛthvi were sidelined. Various sacrifices dominated the worship of

this period. The doctrines of Karma, Māya, transmigration, identity of individual

soul with the universal soul and Mukti find their first expression in the Upaniṣads.

These later Vēdic texts represent the early phase in origin and development of

religio-metaphysical concepts.

By the middle first millennium BC India witnessed emergence of heterodox

religious sects, prominent among them were Buddhism, Jainism, and Ājīvikism.

These religions were more or less of an ethical character and they refused the

infallibility and super natural origin of the Vēdas. They did not encourage abstruse

enquiries about god and soul and thus were not theistic creeds in the beginning.

These religions received patronage hugely from trading communities.

As result of contemporary socio-political and economic transformations in

the post Maurya period religious scenario witnessed great changes. Worship of

Āgamic deities was the foremost change which necessitated a new space for

worship. Thus by the Gupta period Brāhmaṇical temples were built in India.

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Chapter I Introduction

The Gupta period (319 to 550 AD) witnessed remarkable transformation in

different aspects of social life. Very remarkable change was in the field of religion

where prominence of worship of Āgamic deities namely Śiva and Viṣṇu was

accorded. This was a result of the changed social, political and economic scenario

and a necessity for the allied Bhakti ideologies. In this backdrop developed in

India temple building, dedicated to either of the Āgamic deity. This religious

activity received immense patronage from the royalty too. Temples functioned as

the link between the temporal world of man and that of the gods. Rise of the

sectarian cults of Hinduism gave a great impetus to the progress of religious

architecture.

Human endeavor to find his true origin and self resulted in the evolution of

religion and philosophy which guided his religious practices. How a place

becomes sacred or what determines the location of a temple is also significant.

Midst of jungles, top of hills, bank of rivers, sea shores and slope of hills are

considered ideal location for temple building4. Trees, water bodies etc. are also

revered sacred at certain places. These sthalavṛkṣas (sacred tree) like peepal tree

and tīrtham like sacred tanks make a place sacred. Eventually associated structures

and temples are built around and idols were consecrated for worship. In case of

many historically significant temples, their location is either in the midst of human

settlement or in hearts of the political capital of territories. Because temples were

not only places of worship, but also a community center which cared for the ideal

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Chapter I Introduction

socio-economic life of the community. Its functions expanded over every aspect of

social life.

The śrāmaṇic religion had their centers of worship in the form of Stūpa and

Caityagṛha. They have employed both rock cut and structural methods of

construction. Even though structural temples could have had their beginning in

late Kuṣāna period, evidences are available from the Gupta period only and it took

a definite form also at the same period. The period of Guptas marked great

development in different fields of human knowledge and one among them was

Vāstu Vidya or Architecture. Some of the earliest texts which directly or

incidentally deal with architecture like Matsya Purāṇa and Bṛhat Samhita are

compositions of this period5.

During this period temples were built on a simple two unit division of plan

(garbhagṛha and maṇd̩ apa) and elevation. Examples of such temples are seen at

Sanchi, Bhumara, Nachna Kuthara, Deogar and Bhitargaon etc. distributed in

Madhya Pradesh and Utter Pradesh6. A contemporary development is seen at

Deccan region, under the patronage of Chalukyas of Badami. Ladkhan temple (5th

c. AD) and Durga temple at Aihole (6th c. AD) in Karnataka are the evidences of

this development. Stone masonry was employed both by Guptas and Chalukyas to

express their religions ideal7.

The division of temples into Nāgara, Drāvid̩ a and Vēsara are known from

different texts like Viśva Karma Prakāśika, Bṛhat Samhita, Matsya Purāṇa, Agni

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Chapter I Introduction

Purāṇa, Samarāngaṇa Sūtradhāra etc. These divisions, as generally understood,

was not originally based on only shape of temple, its plan and structure, but on

stylistic differences according to localities i.e. they were really geographic

division8. Earliest known orders of Indian architecture were only two, Nāgara of

North India and Drāvid̩ a of Deccan and south India. The Vēsara might or might

not originally refer to an order or style of architecture. With passage of time and as

architecture developed in different localities, different local styles with distinctive

features began to arise. It is certain that from the 6 th to 10 th century AD almost of

all known Indian styles of architecture and methods of classification of temples

had grown up in India 9. Temples of different types of external form seem to have

originated independently in different parts of India10.

It was post Gupta period that Indian architectural treatises of all schools

became further developed and all extent books may be said to have practically

belonged to this period. Evidence of temples was not found in pre 4th century AD.

It is discernible that there was a coeval development and growth of actual

architecture and treatises written on the subject11.

In the case of south India, Drāvid̩ a School of Vāstu Vidya existed from a

very early time, prior to 6th century AD. But the earliest of the extent temples of

Drāvid̩ a style could not have been built before 6th century AD, though proto types

of them might have existed12. Important treatises on the south Indian architecture

are the Āgamas, Mayamata, Iśāna Śiva Gurudēva Paddhati, Śilparatna,

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Chapter I Introduction

Tantrasamuccaya etc. Temples were built following the guidelines and set

framework laid out in these texts. These texts served as guide books than rule

books which need to be followed meticulously. Scholars like Adam Hardy

dismisses the claims of the Śāstras as the explicatory guide to temple architecture,

and argues that the temples themselves reveal principles of their design, that their

external wall can be read as a kind of grammar for their own interpretation.

Accordingly, a set of building blocks and principles of composition are the factors

behind the complexity and diversity of temple forms, a good grasp of which will

enable one to classify or predict any given example, the process of multiplication

by which constituent parts increase is a process of emanation of forms emerging

from within others13.

South Indian temples have evolved from simple unostentatious beginnings

to agglomeration of structures through centuries. Various components of structure

served functional utility and architectural and decorative value. These complex

structures were developed by addition to the main shrine through stages. The

additions sub served the requirements of elaborate ritual. Elaboration of structure

was in conformity to the demands of the community in which the temple exist. In

a sense Pallavas laid the real foundation of the Drāvid̩ a architecture as evident

from Mahabalipuram. The monolithic rock-cut Rathas and Shore temple at

Mahabalipuram , Kailāsnath and Vaikunṭha Perumāḷ temples at Kanchipuram are

examples of their architectural activities. Vaikunṭha Perumāḷ temple, being the

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Chapter I Introduction

later among the group, display more refinement and its principal parts make an

organic composition. The Pallava builders paved the way for a great movement in

temple architecture which in subsequent centuries produced some of the most

imposing edifices to be found anywhere in India and finally culminated in the

Vijaynagara period14.

Throughout India structural temple architecture was preceded by a period

of rock-cut architecture. This method was adopted by both Śrāmaṇic and

Brāhmaṇic religion. Earliest date of rock cut architecture goes back to period of

Maurya and continued to be in practice in 9th century AD simultaneously with

structural temple movement. These caves were carved into the natural living rock

formations. Rock-cut movement came to a virtual end by the 9th century AD

owing primarily to the changed religious ideas, the Āgamic mode of worship

necessitated different sort of space and structure. Secondly the temples were

steadily becoming socially important and economically resourceful institution,

which could not be contained in rock-cut cave. Finally and most importantly the

temples were mainly centered in agrarian settlements. The coterminous status of

temple with agrarian settlements proved that plains and fertile tracts and not the

rocky mountain were the suitable centers for large scale architectural activity15.

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Chapter I Introduction

The course of architectural activity in Kēraḷa was also the same. Rock-cut

caves mark the beginning of religious architecture. They are distributed on the

extreme south and south central parts of Kēraḷa. The caves at Chitral (near

Kanyakumari), Kallil (near Perambavur, Erṇākuḷam District) were dedicated to the

Jaina religion. Brāhmaṇical rock cut caves are those at Vilinjam, Kottukal,

Kaviyur, Tirunandikkara, Bhutapandi, Tuvarankad, Shivagiri and

Alagiapandipuram forming the southern group and those at Trikkur and

Irunnilamkod in Tṛśśūr and Bharantanpara forming the northern group. Rock cut

method of architecture give way to structural temple architecture due to the reason

mentioned in the forgoing. By the 9th century AD, spread of Āgamic religions

under the efforts of Bhakti saints and the reciprocal relation between political and

religious establishments led to the great movement of structural temple building

throughout Kēraḷa mainly in agrarian settlements. The political patrons during this

period were Āys in the south and Cēras or Kulaśēkharas of Mahōdayapuram in the

central and north Kēraḷa. Under the influence of Bhakti ideologies of south India

and the architectural development in the east coast of south India, temple building

gained a steady progress in Kēraḷa from 9th century onwards. After Kulaśēkharas,

the movement gained further acceleration under the patronage of rulers of Kochi,

Malabār and Vēṇād̩ u. Local chieftains were also patrons of the movement.

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1.1 Problems of dating:

Determining, or even understanding, the antiquity of temples in Kēraḷa is a

complicated issue. The seed of the problem lies in the tradition that the Epic sage

Paraśurāma created the land of Kēraḷa from Arabian Sea, brought Brāhmins from

northern region and settled them in 64 grāmas, 32 in present Kēraḷa and 32 in Tulu

region in present day Karnataka and consecration of 108 Durga temples along

coastline and 108 Śāsta temples in the hill range of the land he created. There are

another group of 108 Śiva temples, believed to be consecrated by Ceramān

Perumāl. The verse enlists the 108 Śivālayās. The 108 Durgālayās too are enlisted

in a verse. But to spot the 108 Śāsta temples are yet to be successful. Again the

problem is complicated by the traditions of association with sage Paraśurāma and

Ādi Śankarācārya, claimed by many temples other than the listed 108. Partial

legendary- partial historic figures like Vilvamangalam Swāmi also find links with

many temples. Perumtacchan, the master architect and carpenter, is another

notable figure. There are many temples ascribed to him. The problem lies in fixing

an accurate date for these historic and legendary figures. These are questions

paused by the traditions.

Another obstacle in dating is the concept of Dēvacaitnayam or Divine

presence in the idol. The Dēvapraśnam is used in temples to trace the history of

divine presence of deity, the temple and many more ritualistic predictions. Many a

times the predictions reveal divine presence from more than 2000 years. This

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Chapter I Introduction

certainly does not mean existence of temple installed with the said deity in that

remote past. Calculating date of temple accordingly, thus, does not make sense in

an academic research.

Another problem of dating is paused by the constant renovation,

reconstruction and modification of the temples from time to time. This was mainly

due to the perishable nature of materials used for construction. Evidently, wood

was the popular choice of builders for the super structure, stone being only the

second choice. This had many reasons as well, such as availability of the

materials, comfort of the builder and financial ability of the patron etc. Most of the

temple buildings are not more than 200 years old, except a few which are mostly

the Mahākṣētrams.

A vast majority belongs to another category which originally had the

simple structure without much architectural embellishments and been extended,

modified or rebuilt from time to time. It is a difficult task to identify the additions

and their chronological order.

Taking all these factors into consideration assigning a date is difficult.

Hence, only relative and tentative dates are considered for study. Only in the cases

of concrete evidence such as inscriptions or other attested valid literary sources

exact dates are arrived in certain cases. As a matter of fact, the earliest temples in

this region of Kēraḷa state belong to a period between 8 th and 12th centuries A.D.

which corresponds to the rule of Kulaśēkhara of Mahōdayapuram (800-1124 AD).

There have been many factors contributing to the enhancement of temple building

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Chapter I Introduction

activity in the period. The changed socio-political and economic milieu and the

widespread Bhakti movement could be named as the major propagators of Āgamic

religions and the establishment of temple institution in this period. The reciprocal

relationship shared by the state and the religious institution was a major

phenomenon to be underlined. The royal patronage shifted from Vaiṣṇavism to

Śaivism and in vice versa among the rulers from time to time. Again, the rulers

were not the sole patrons, the well-to-do merchants, local chiefs etc. also became a

major hand in this process.

1.2 Nomenclature of Temple:

A notable aspect about Hindu temples is that same deity could be

worshipped in different forms for example; Śakti is worshipped as Dēvi,

Bhagavati, and Rājarājēśvari etc. Viṣṇu is worshipped as Vāmanamūrti,

Narasimhamūrti, Rāma, Kṛṣṇa etc. Same is the case with the forms of Śiva who is

worshipped as Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Naṭarāja etc.

The names used to denote temples in Kēraḷa need some explanation.

Usually the names are related to various manifestations of the principal deity

(example Dakṣiṇāmūrti temple), in some cases the temple’s name is derived from

its locality (example Nedumbrayur Tali Śiva temple). But it is difficult to ascertain

whether the place derived the name from the temple or the temple derived the

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Chapter I Introduction

name from the place (example Tiru Nettoor Trikkayil Mahādēva temple at Nettor).

The names with suffixes like Taḷi (eg. Tirumattaḷi, Kitaḷi etc.) denote the tradition

that Taḷi was earlier used as synonym to temple as seen in inscriptions, it also

denote the authority and hierarchical position of the temple in the Kulaśēkhara

period. Thus using the suffix ‘Tali’ with the name is the continuation of the

Kulaśēkhara period tradition, even if the temple belongs to a later period. Another

suffix popularly used is Trikkovil (Ekadasi Perumtrikkovil, Jayanta Trikkov,

Putrikkovil, Putiyatrikkovil etc.). The term ‘Kovil’ is also used as a synonym to

‘Ambalam’ and ‘Kṣētram’ in Malayāḷam, meaning temple. ‘Tri’ or ‘Tr’ is prefixed

to express the reverence which is the shortened form of ‘Tiru’. The suffix of

‘Kāvu’ is also common in Kēraḷa (Ayyappan Kāvu, Iringol Kāvu, Palliyarakkāvu

ect.) Kāvu were originally the sacred groves where nature and animal worship,

especially serpent worship, used to take place. Over time the term has been used to

denote temples dedicated to forms of Śakti, Ayyappan and Śāsta also. However,

‘Kāvu’ is not suffixed with Śaiva and Vaiṣṇava temples (the Āgamic based belief

system). The term is also used to refer to sacrifices which used to be a part of the

worship at these groves. In some cases the temple names are derived out of some

stories related to the temple (example Potiyil Kṛṣṇa temple, Urakattamma Tiruvati

temple, Chattakutam Śāsta temple, Tiruvellamantulli Vatakkunnathan temple etc.)

Another factor behind the names is affinity of principal deity with another deity.

There are many Śakti temples with the sankalpa as the sisters of Bhagavati of

Kodungallur temple; such temples located at other places also get the name

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Chapter I Introduction

Kodungallur Bhagavati temple. Same way Pazhayannur Bhagavati temples are

seen at Tṛśśūr and Mattancheri.

1.3 Geographical Background:

Kēraḷa is located on the west coast of south India. It is bordered on west by

Arabian Sea, on south Indian Ocean, on east and north respectively by Tamil Nadu

and Karnataka states. The place has hilly region, plains and coastal belt. Present

study focuses on the central districts of Kēraḷa, viz., Erṇākuḷam and Tṛśśūr.

Erṇākuḷam district is divided into three well defined parts-highland,

midland and the lowland consisting of hills and forests, plains and the seaboard

respectively. The hilly or eastern portion is formed by a section of the Western

Ghats. Muvattupuzha, Kothamangalam and Aluva can be called the hilly taluks.

The midland consists mainly of plain land having natural facilities of drainage via

backwaters and canals. Cochin taluk is divided into two blocks by the Cochin

Azhi, viz., Vaipinkara Island on the northern side and the southern portion from

Fort Cochin to Chellanam surrounded on three sides by water. The western portion

and part of the southern side of the Kanayannur taluk are divided by backwaters.

The Paravur taluk lies in the flat delta region of the Periyar River and cut by

several canals, which have resulted in the formation of many islands.

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Chapter I Introduction

Periyar and Muvattupuzha are the main rivers of the district of which the

former flows through Thodupuzha, Muvattupuzha, Aluva, Kunnathunadu and

Parur taluks. The Chalakudi river which flows through north of Aluva also joins

Periyar at Alanthikara. The rivers Thodupuzha, Kallai and Kothamangalam join

together to form Muvattupuzha River. During rainy season these rivers are full and

the low-lying areas on the banks are flooded, but in the summer season they

generally go dry and narrow.

Tṛśśūr district is bounded on the north by Malappuram and Palakkad districts,

on the east by Palakkad district of Kēraḷa and Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu

on the south by Kottayam and Erṇākuḷam districts and on the west by Arabian

Sea. It lies between north latitude 100 11’ and 100 47 ’ and east longitude 75 0 55’ and

760 54’. The district has five Taluk, Talappilly, Tṛśśūr, Chavakkadu, Kodungallur

and Mukundapuram. The area of the district is 3032 sq. km. Descending from the

heights of the Western Ghats in the east, the land slopes towards the west forming

three distinct natural divisions - the highlands, the plains and the sea board.

The Periyar, the Chalakudy, the Karuvannur, and the Ponnani (Bharatha

Puzha) are the main river systems in the district. They take their origin from the

mountains on the east, and flow westward and discharge into the Arabian Sea.

There are a number of tributaries also joining these main rivers.

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Chapter I Introduction

1.4 Historiographical Review:

Kēraḷa history has fascinated academicians from the colonial period itself.

Pioneering works in the field are those of P Sangoony Menon, P. N. Kunjan Pillai,

and K. P. Padmanabha Menon. More methodical and theoretical based approach

was applied by Dr. Rajan Gurukkal and Dr. Raghava Varier. Both these scholars

are specialized in early history and study of primary sources with a material-

cultural development approach. M. G. S. Narayanan brought new light into Kēraḷa

history with his bench mark studies on Perumals of Mahodayapuram. Dr. Kesavan

Veluthat approached the early medieval of Kēraḷa history with well defined

structure. Specialized study on religious history and temples of Kēraḷa was taken

up by very few scholars.

The pioneering work on temples of Kerala is ‘Arts and crafts of

Travancore’ jointly authored by Stella Kramrisch, J. H. Cousens and R. V.

Poduval first published in 1948, revised in 1970 and reprinted in 1999. This book

has three sections, each on Architecture, sculpture and paintings. Stella elaborates

the temple architecture, its principles and features in the first section. The section

on bronze sculpture is the work of R. V. Poduval and J. H. Cousens mainly focus

on murals and paintings of Kēraḷa. This is the first analytical and methodic work

on the architecture, sculpture and paintings of Kēraḷa. It brought new light on the

subject and shown way for further studies.

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Chapter I Introduction

In 1953 Stella Kramrisch authored ‘Dravida and Kerala in the art of

Travancore’. The book deals with temple architecture of Travancore and also

analyses the palace and residential architecture. She uses the term ‘Kerala-

Dravida’ to denote the indigenous temple architecture style of Kēraḷa.

In 1969 Cochin Devaswom Board published ‘The Secret Chamber’

authored by V. T. Induchudan. The book gives historical background of temples in

Kēraḷa and presents description of select temples with traditions associated with

them. The other work by the same author and publisher is ‘The Golden Tower’.

The two books are successful efforts towards understanding Kēraḷa temples.

‘Temple Architecture in Kerala’ by K. V. Soundara Rajan, published in

1974 is detailed attempt towards identifying characteristic features of Kerala

temple architecture. ‘Splendors of Kerala’, ‘Art and Architecture of Tamil Nadu

and Kerala’ are other works by the same author published in seventies. These

books deal temple architecture from a technical perspective and hence are very

important contribution to the subject.

In 1978 Archaeological Survey of India published an ‘Architectural survey

of Temples of Kerala’ authored by H. Sarkar. This book was a result of a detailed

survey conducted by the author in this region as part of the temple survey project

of Archaeological Survey of India. The book presents a more systematic approach

and chronology based method to understand the Kerala temple architecture.

Greatest contribution of this volume is the chronological division of temple in to

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Chapter I Introduction

three phases. These classifications remain the accepted standard for all further

studies in the subject. With description of selected examples, the book set

methodology of presentation and analyses to study Kerala temples. H. Sarkar has

also published a number of articles related to architecture of Kerala temples in the

seventies.

‘Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture’ volume I, first published in

1984 has four parts dedicated to south Indian architecture. Among these the part 1

and 2 deals with the early and late phase in upper Drāvid̩ adēśa and in Part 3and 4

deals with lower Drāvid̩ adēśa covering Kēraḷa and Tamil Nadu. These massive

volumes are bench mark studies in the subject.

‘Temple Culture of South India’ by V. R. Parameshwaran Pillai (1986)

studies various aspects related to Kerala temples like its historical background

architectural style, belief system, inscriptions and temple arts. As it deals with

many areas, the book gives an outline of these aspects rather than an in-depth

approach to any specific issue.

‘Arts of Kēraḷa Ksetram’ by Kapila Vatsyayan published in 1989 is also an

attempt to comprehend the various aspects of Kēraḷa temple. ‘The Kovils of

Kēraḷa’ by K. K. Murti was published in 1991. This book attempts to study Kēraḷa

temple and its various aspects including architecture.

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Chapter I Introduction

Directorate of Census of India published Temples of Kerala in 1999

authored by S.Jayashanker. This book gives an introduction to temple architecture,

allied concepts and rituals of Kēraḷa. Mainly drawing information from field

survey, the monograph is a ready to refer handbook.

‘Kēraḷathile Ksetrangalum Ksetracarangalum’ (Malayalam) by P. K. J.

Karta (2006) elaborates the rituals followed in Kēraḷa temples. ‘Ksetracarangal’

(Malayalam) by Kanippayur Sankaran Nambutirippat is another work on rituals

and the reasons behind the rituals to be followed. The book is a good manual for

temple visitors.

District wise companion volumes to Temples of Kerala was published by

Directorate of Census of India and authored by S.Jayashanker. Temples of

Thrissur (2007) and Temples of Ernakulam (2011) are volumes related to the

research area of the present research. These books are based on extensive date

collected from vast field work. These books have descriptions of selected temples

of the region and in the appendix are given complete data of number of temples,

its geographical location, deity worshipped, shape of temple etc in table. These

two volumes serve as ready to refer handbooks on temples of the two districts.

A very useful book for students on traditional architecture is written by

Sudheesh Namboodiri titled ‘Tantra Nikhandu’ (Malayalam) published in 2007.

This book is dictionary on Tāntric and architectural terms.

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Chapter I Introduction

A well studied scholarly work on traditional Kēraḷa mural painting was

brought out by renowned academician M. G. Sasibhooshan under the title

‘Kēraḷathile Chuvarchitrangal’ (Malayalam) in 2000. The book elaborates the

mural painting idioms, seen at temples, churches and palaces. This scholarly

volume is of great help to understand the indigenous murals, its techniques and

concepts.

Epigraphic studies have attracted the attention of scholars from the colonial

period itself. The Travancore government had set up a department of archaeology

in 1910. Work of the department was concentrated on inscriptional studies. Their

findings and studies were published in Travancore Archaeological series. The first

three volumes were edited by T. A. Gopinatha Rao. Fourth volume was edited by

K. V. Subrahmanya Aiyar and fifth, sixth and seventh volumes were edited by A.

S. Ramanatha Ayyar. These seven volumes are magnum opus on Kēraḷa’s

epigraphy. These are the most authentic and original works done on inscriptions of

Kēraḷa.

M. G. S. Narayanan’s ‘Index to Chera Inscriptions’ included in ‘The

Perumals of Kēraḷa: Political and Social Conditions of Kēraḷa under the Cera

Perumals of Makotai (C. AD 800-1124)’ 1987 is a compilation of Cera

inscriptions based on thorough analysis.

R. Vasudeva Poduval authored ‘Travancore Inscriptions: A Topographic

list’ (1990). This book gives a proper catalogue of inscriptions found from length

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Chapter I Introduction

and breadth of Travancore its exact find spot, date and author. This is a helpful

handbook on Travancore inscriptions.

The Tamilian Antiquary edited by Pandit D. Savariroyan is also a helpful

work about the sources to Kēraḷa history.

Some analytical works in the field of Kēraḷa epigraphy were published in

Malayalam language also. V. R. Parameswaran Pilla’s ‘Sila likhita Vijnaniyam’

(Malayalam) and ‘Pracina likhitangal’ (Malayalam) were published in late 1970s.

‘Lipikalum Manava Samskaravum’ (Malayalam) by K. A. Jaleel, 2006 deals with

fundamentals of epigraphy and origin of Brāhmi, Vatteluttu and Koleluttu scripts.

E. V. N. Namboodiri’s ‘A Biref History of Malayalam Language’,

published in 2004 analyze the development of the Malayalam language from a

linguistic perspective. The book uses inscriptions to trace the evolution and

developmental stages of the languages. This book is a valuable supplement to the

study of Kēraḷa epigraphy.

1.5 Research Area:

The present research focuses on the architecture of temples located in

Kēraḷa. The area of study is Erṇākuḷam and Tṛśśūr districts, which constitutes the

central Kēraḷa and also form the nucleus of erstwhile Kulaśēkhara and Cochin

kingdoms. The period of study is from pre-Kulasekhara period to 1700 AD which

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Chapter I Introduction

marks the end of traditional temple building activity in the area. For

comprehensive understanding of this topic, present research covers the origin and

evolutionary process and development stages of temples. The focus region is

central Kēraḷa comprising Erṇākuḷam and Tṛśśūr districts. This region was

identified for study considering its religious and political significance at different

periods in the past, along with the availability of sufficient sources for research.

Mahōdayapuram, the capital of Kulaśēkharas, is identified with Kodungallur in

Tṛśśūr district. Some of the ancient Brāhmin settlements are also located in this

district. Being the most politically significant place and rich with natural

resources, many temples emerged in this part of Kēraḷa by 8 th c. AD. Some of

these temples, though in modified form, are still available for study. Erṇākuḷam

has some of the Brāhmin settlements like Paravur, Muzhikkulam etc. and it rose to

political significance in the post- Kulaśēkhara period with the establishment of

rule by Kochi Rajas. The district holds temples from the Kulaśēkhara period

associated with Brāhmin settlements and temples from post Kulaśēkhara period in

large numbers. This study covers from pre- Kulaśēkhara period with cave temples

and extends till 1700 AD which marks the end of traditional temple building in

Kēraḷa with the prominence of Semitic religions and European influences. Thus

the time and space limit of the study is Erṇākuḷam and Tṛśśūr, up to 1700 AD.

Study of these marvelous monuments not only enables one to appreciate its

beauty but also the building techniques and understand the progress of the science

of architecture.

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Chapter I Introduction

• Objectives of the research is

o to find out the characteristic features of the Kēraḷa temple

architecture

o to find out the essence and style of temple architecture in Kēraḷa

o to find out how Kēraḷa temples are affiliated to or separate from

Drāvid̩ a style

o to identify the formulating factors behind the structure and character

of these temples

o To figure out the processes of change and development it underwent

to become a wonderful architectural creation.

Present research has vast scope, primarily due to the lack of adequate

previous study in the field. The previous studies in the subject were from

traditional or conventional point of view, which lacked academic approach and

methodical presentation. Present research also attempts to bring Kēraḷa temple to

the understanding of common man.

1.6 Methodology:

Methodology adopted in this work is combined of both analytical and

descriptive method. It depends upon primary and secondary sources for data.

Primary sources were collected in field visit. Temples of Tṛśśūr and Erṇākuḷam

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Chapter I Introduction

districts were visited personally to collect information. The temples were

documented textually and visually at the field itself. Temple authorities, traditional

trusties, hereditary temple staff and other local resource persons were consulted

during field visit, information was collected and documented. Wherever

photography was allowed and possible, visual data also was collected. This

documented information was integrated with historical and epigraphical data.

Published literary works were used to understand historical background and

antiquity of temple. The suggested dates by earlier authors with help of

epigraphical works are generally followed in the present study.

Photography inside the temple is not allowed in Kēraḷa due to the strict

adherence of the temple authorities to conventional ideas. Hence the plates

supplemented herewith are those accessible from outside. The information given

in the present study primarily depends on the observations of the researcher from

the field.

Maps, plan and photographs are used to supplement the textual information.

Ground plans and line drawings relating to each chapter are provided at its end.

Photographs are given in the appendix. Each photograph has a unique number.

Photographs are numbered like 3.5, in which the first number denotes the chapter

and the second number denote the serial number of the photograph in that chapter.

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Chapter I Introduction

Many Sanskrit and Malayāḷam terms are used in the description of temples.

Terms related to architecture and rituals are written with appropriate diacritical

marks to denote correct pronunciation. The method followed is according to the

transliteration followed in Epigraphia Indica. Proper nouns, name of places and

persons which are currently in use are written in common characters without

diacritical marks. The exceptions however are Kerala, Ernakulam and Thrissur

which are written as Kēraḷa, Erṇākuḷam and Tṛśśūr respectively, because these

places are the focus area of research. All other proper nouns are written in

commonly used spelling. The meaning of Sanskrit and Malayāḷam words used in

the text are explained in the glossary, which is provided at the end of thesis

Due to large number of temples and lack of authentic date of temples, it is

very difficult to select the temples. Hence, temples which are architecturally and

historically significant with established dates have been selected for the study.

Twenty temples have been selected from each district for the study. These temples

represent all stages of evolution of temple architecture in Kēraḷa up to 1700 AD.

Table containing the list of selected temples of each district are given in the

appendix.

The temples are grouped as circular shrines, square shrines and apsidal

shrines and under each group temples are described in chronological order. A

uniform patter is followed in description, starting with location of the temple

followed by its historical background and architectural details. Sculptures and

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Chapter I Introduction

paintings form an organic part of architecture and wherever it is found, are

explained as part of architecture.

1.7 Plan of the study:

The study is presented in six chapters. Chapter one is introduction to

following chapters and to the general subject dealt with in this research.

Chapter two attempts to find out what were the political set up and cultural

scenario under which temple building activity emerged in Kēraḷa and how it

affected distribution of these religious institutions and what relation did the

political economy shared with temples, how political significance impacted on the

size and dimension of temple structure etc. along with explaining why Āgamic

religions were patronized by the royalty at this specific period of time. It explains

the emergence of temple institution and architecture as result of chain of social

changes connecting social, political, economic, cultural and religious realms. Here,

the temple is viewed as a social institution, performing various social functions

beyond religion, towards integration of its society. The temple is identified as a

link not only between mortal world of man and immortal divine world but also a

link between different strata of its society. The chapter discusses causal relation

between elaborations of temple architecture with the social functions it performed.

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Chapter I Introduction

Third Chapter attempts to give specific introduction to architectural

of Kēraḷa temples. For this purpose, different aspects of plan and elevation of

Kēraḷa temple are analyzed juxtaposed with Drāvid̩ a style. The evolution of

temple architecture in Kēraḷa is classified under three phases. These are:

• Early phase (800 - 1000 AD)

• Middle Phase (1001 - 1300 AD)

• Late Phase (1301- 1800 AD)

The study draws a clear picture of Kēraḷa temples within the broad area of

Drāvid̩ a style. The reasons behind formulation of the specific form of architecture

or the variation from Drāvid̩ a style are adaptation to native environment, use of

different building materials and techniques employed by builders in accordance

with the materials. Figures and photographs are used to substantiate explanation.

In chapter four temples of Erṇākuḷam district is discussed in detail. Selected

temples with architectural and historical significance are grouped as circular and

square shrines and are presented in its chronological order. By analyzing different

architectural components of the selected temples, it is attempted to reach some

generalizations about temples in this area.

Chapter five follows the same pattern and content as the previous chapter.

Here selected temples of Tṛśśūr district and their architectural features are figured

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Chapter I Introduction

out. Selected temples are grouped as circular, square and apsidal shrines and each

group is presented in the chronological sequence of the temples.

Chapter six presents the conclusions drawn from the study. Chapter wise

summary and findings are given in this part. Findings of the research is listed and

explained here.

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Chapter I Introduction

1.8 Notes and References:

1. Bose, Phanindranath. (1975) Principles of Indian Shilpsastra,

Bharatiya Publishing house, Delhi. p. 1
2. Publication Division, (2003, 6th edition), Gazetteer of India Vol. II:
History and Culture, Government of India, New Delhi. p. 47
3. Ibid. pp. 48-49
4. Reddy, Venkataramana G., (2010) Alayam. Ramakrishna Mission,
Mylapore. p. 10
5. Bhattacharya, Tarapada. (1947) Canons of Indian Art: A Study on
Vastuvidya. Firma K L Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta p. 133
6. Brown, Percy (1956). Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu
Period), D B Taraporevala Sons and Co. private Limited. Bombay.
p. 9
7. Ibid. p. 13
8. Bhattacharya, Tarapada. (1947) Canons of Indian Art: A Study on
Vastuvidya. Firma K L Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta. p.156
9. Ibid. pp. 158,167,176
10. Gravely, F. H. (1999) An Outline of Indian Temple Architecture,
bulletin of Madras govt. museum, Madras govt. museum, Madras.
p. 9
11. Bhattacharya, Tarapada. (1947) Canons of Indian Art: A Study on
Vastuvidya. Firma K L Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta. pp. 151-152
12. Ibid. p. 154
13. Tillotson, G. H. R. (Ed.) (1998) Paradigms in Indian Architecture:
Time and Space in Representation and Design. Oxford University
Press, New Delhi. p. 89

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Chapter I Introduction

14. Publication Division, Temples of South India (1973 revised edition),

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India,
New Delhi. p. 12
15. Subbiah, Ganapati. (1978-79) Medieval Trends in Indian
Architecture (c AD 750-1300) Problems of Elucidation, Journal of
Ancient Indian History. Calcutta. p. 3

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