HDDs: An enclosure contains a series of platters covered by a ferromagnetic coating.

The direction of
the magnetization represents the individual bits. Data is read and written by a head (similar to the way
vinyl record albums work) that moves extremely fast from one area of the disk to another. Since all of
these pieces are “mechanical,” the hard disk is the slowest component of any computer – and the most
fragile.

SSD: These newer types of disks store information on flash memory, which consists of individual
memory cells storing bits that are instantly accessible by the controller. Learn all about SSDs here.
Partition
A partition is a virtual division of a hard disk drive (HDD) or solid
state drive (SSD). Each partition can vary in size and typically
serves a different function.

For example, in Windows there is usually a small recovery

partition and a large file system partition labeled C:.
The C: partition is what most people are familiar with, as it's
where you usually install your programs and store your various
files.
In Linux, there's typically a root partition (/), one for swap which
helps with memory management, and large /home partition.
The /home partition is similar to the C: partition in Windows in that
it's where you install most of your programs and store files.
Before a drive can be divided into individual partitions, it needs
to be configured to use a specific partition scheme or table.

A partition table tells the operating system how the partitions

and data on the drive are organized. For example, the
screenshots above show the partition tables on the drive, and
each individual partition is shown as a rectangular block.

There are two main types of partition tables: MBR and GPT.

MBR stands for Master Boot Record, and is a bit of reserved

space at the beginning of the drive that contains the information
about how the partitions are organized. The MBR also contains
code to launch the operating system, and it's sometimes called
the Boot Loader.

GPT is an abbreviation of GUID Partition Table, and is a newer

standard that's slowly replacing MBR.

Unlike an MBR partition table, GPT stores the data about how
all the partitions are organized and how to boot the OS
throughout the drive. That way if one partition is erased or
corrupted, it's still possible to boot and recover some of the
data.

If you bought your computer within the last five years or so, it's
very likely that it's using GPT partition tables rather than the
older MBR table

Differences between MBR vs GPT partitions

There are a number of differences between MBR and GPT
partitions, but we'll cover some of the main ones here.

First, the maximum capacity of MBR partition tables is only

about 2 terabytes. You can use a drive that's larger than 2
terabytes with MBR, but only the first 2 terabytes of the drive
will be used. The rest of the storage on the drive will be wasted.
In contrast, GPT partition tables offer a maximum capacity of
9.7 zetabytes. 1 zetabyte is about 1 billion terabytes, so you're
unlikely to run out of space anytime soon.

Next, MBR partition tables can have a maximum of 4 separate

partitions. However, one of those partitions can be configured to
be an extended partition, which is a partition that can be split up
into an 23 additional partitions. So the absolute maximum
number of partitions an MBR partition table can have is 26
partitions.
GPT partition tables allow for up to 128 separate partitions,
which is more than enough for most real world applications.

As MBR is older, it's usually paired with older Legacy BIOS

systems, while GPT is found on newer UEFI systems. This
means that MBR partitions have better software and hardware
compatibility, though GPT is starting to catch up.

NTFS and FAT are both file systems. Both are two different methods, which
store the data in a structured way on a disk partition. NTFS stands for New Technology
File System while FAT stands for File Allocation Table.
File System is the most popular and widely used technique to store data on different
types of devices such as a hard drive, memory card, USB, etc. The devices write and
store the data in their systems so that the data can be modified, accessed, deleted, or
distributed at the time of need. The data can also be upgraded or degraded while
formatting the system. This article differentiates between the two popular file systems,
NTFS and FAT File Systems.

Comparison between NTFS and Fat File Systems:

 
NTFS Fat File Systems
 The term NTFS stands for
The term FAT is an acronym
Acronym ‘New Technology File
for ‘File allocation Table’.
System’.

It provides complete security

There is no security of files
Security to files and folders in the
and folders in the system.
system.

In case of any failure, the In case of any failure, the

Activity Log files and folders can be easily files and folders are not
restored. recovered or restored.

It supports flexible per file No such compression is

File Compression
compression. supported.

File Size It can be 4GB to 64 GB It is 4GB Max

It allows the accessing of files

It only allows accessing on
when the computer running
OS Compatibility the recognized platforms, on
on other or different
a running computer.
platforms.

It does not allow sharing data It allows sharing data

Data sharing between the operating between the operating
systems. systems.

Difference Between FAT32 and NTFS

ssFAT32 and NTFS are the files systems used in an operating system. NTFS
is the successor of the FAT32 which is used in newer versions of operating
systems such as Windows NT and 2000 and its later versions while FAT32 is
the oldest version of the file systems and used in earlier versions of the
operating system such as DOS and Windows version before XP. The prior
difference between FAT32 and NTFS is that NTFS file system can trace the
changes committed in the system with the help of maintaining the journal
whereas this is not the case in FAT32, even though FAT32 is still used in
removable media and storage drive. Additionally, NTFS supports large file and
volume size and provide efficient data organization.

Now, what is a file system? It is a technique of organizing and storing the data
on the drive, it also specifies what type of attributes can be attached to a file
such as filenames, permission, other attributes.

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR COMPARISON FAT32 NTFS

Basic Simple Structure Complex structure

Maximum numbers of characters 83 255

supported in a file name

Maximum file size 4GB 16TB

Encryption Not provided Provided

Security Network type Local and network

Conversion Permitted Not allowed

Fault tolerance No provision for fault Automatic troubleshoot

tolerance.

Compatibility with operating Old windows version- Win Later versions- Win
 BASIS FOR COMPARISON FAT32 NTFS

systems 95/98/2K/2K3/XP NT/2K/XP/Vista/7

Access control list No Yes

User level disk space No Yes

Journaling and channel log Absent Offers journaling to keep track of

previous operations.

Performance Good Better than FAT32

Hard and soft links Does not present Contains

Accessing speed Less relatively More

Compression No provision of compression. Support file compress

Hard disksThe hard drive, which typically provides storage for data and
applications within a computer, has four key components inside its casing -- the platter
(for storing data), the spindle (for spinning the platters), the read/write arm (for reading
and writing data) and the actuator (for controlling the actions of the read/write arm).
Only the most technically proficient IT professionals should attempt to work on the
components inside a hard drive.

The disk is divided into tracks. Each track is further divided into sectors. The
point to be noted here is that outer tracks are bigger in size than the inner
tracks but they contain the same number of sectors and have equal storage
capacity. This is because the storage density is high in sectors of the inner
tracks where as the bits are sparsely arranged in sectors of the outer tracks.
Some space of every sector is used for formatting. So, the actual capacity of a
sector is less than the given capacity. 

Read-Write(R-W) head moves over the rotating hard disk. It is this Read-Write
head that performs all the read and write operations on the disk and hence,
position of the R-W head is a major concern. To perform a read or write
operation on a memory location, we need to place the R-W head over that
position. Some important terms must be noted here: 
1. Seek time – The time taken by the R-W head to reach the desired track from
it’s current position.
2. Rotational latency – Time taken by the sector to come under the R-W
head.
3. Data transfer time – Time taken to transfer the required amount of data. It
depends upon the rotational speed.
4. Controller time – The processing time taken by the controller.
5. Average Access time – seek time + Average Rotational latency + data
transfer time + controller time.

Hard disk

Physical Structure of a Hard Disk (Cont’d)

A hard disk contains a stack of platters, circular metal disks that are mounted inside the
hard disk drive and coated with magnetic material, sealed in a metal case or unit. Fixed in a
horizontal or vertical position, the hard disk has electromagnetic read or write heads above
and below the platters. The surface of the disk consists of a number of concentric rings
called as tracks; each of these tracks has smaller partitions called disk blocks. The size of
each disk block is 512 bytes (0.5 KB). The track numbering starts with zero. When the
platter rotates, the heads record data in tracks. A 3.5-inch hard disk can contain about
thousand tracks.
The spindle holds the platters in a fixed position such that it is feasible for the read/write
arms to get the data on the disks. These platters rotate at a constant speed while the drive
head, positioned close to the center of the disk, reads the data slowly from the surface of
the disk compared to the outer edges of the disk. To maintain integrity of data, the head is
reading at a particular period of time from any drive head position. The tracks at the outer
edges of the disk have less densely populated sectors compared to the tracks close to the
center of the disk.
The disk fills the space based on a standard plan. One side of the first platter contains
space, reserved for hardware track-positioning information which is not available to the
operating system. The disk controller uses the track-positioning information to place the
drive heads in the correct sector position.
The hard disk records the data using the zoned bit recording technique, also known as
multiple zone recording. This method combines the areas on the hard disk together as
zones, depending on the distance from the center of the disk. A zone contains a certain
number of sectors per track.
Calculation of data density of disk drives is done in the following
terms:
 Track density: Refers to the number of tracks in a hard disk
 Area density: Area density is the platters’ storage capacity in bits per square
inch
 Bit density: It is bits per unit length of track
Also Read : Discribe the different types of Disk and there
characterstics
Logical Structure of Hard Disk
A hard disk’s logical structure mainly depends on the file systems used and the software
that defines the process of accessing data from the disk. Operating systems use different
types of file systems, and those file systems use various other types of controlling and
accessing mechanisms for data on the hard disk, Operating systems organize the same
hard disk in many different ways.
The logical structure of the hard disk directly influences the consistency, performance,
compatibility, and expandability of the storage subsystems of the hard disk. The logical
structure depends on the type of operating system and file system used, because these
factors organize and control the data access on the hard disk.
The most common computer file systems are:
 FAT
 FAT32
 NTFS
 EXT
 EXT2 and 3
 EFS
Booting Process
Booting is the process of starting or resetting the computer when the user turns the system
on. The process includes getting both the hardware and software ready and running. The
booting process is of two types:
 Cold booting: The process happening when we first turn on the computer. Also
called as hard boot, this happens when user completely cuts the power supply to the
system.
  Warm booting is the process happening when we reset the computer. In this
process, the user restarts the system via operating system.
During the process of booting, the computer loads the operating system to its memory or
RAM and prepares it for use. During initialization, the system switches on the BIOS and
loads it onto the ROM. BIOS stores the first instruction, which is the command to perform
the power-on self-test (POST). Under POST, the system checks the BIOS chip and CMOS
RAM.
If the POST detects no battery failure, it continues to start other parts of the CPU by
checking the hardware devices and secondary storage devices.
Post(test)

When power is turned on, POST (Power-On Self-Test) is the diagnostic testing
sequence that a computer's basic input/output system (or "starting program")
runs to determine if the computer keyboard, random access memory, disk drives,
and other hardware are working correctly.

If the necessary hardware is detected and found to be operating properly, the

computer begins to boot. If the hardware is not detected or is found not to be
operating properly, the BIOS issues an error message which may be text on the
display screen and/or a series of coded beeps, depending on the nature of the
problem. Since POST runs before the computer's video card is activated, it may
not be possible to progress to the display screen. The pattern of beeps may be a
variable numbers of short beeps or a mixture of long and short beeps, depending
on what type of BIOS is installed.

The patterns of beeps contain messages about the nature of the problem
detected. For example, if the keyboard is not detected, a particular pattern of
beeps will inform you of that fact. An error found in the POST is usually fatal (that
is, it causes current program to stop running) and will halt the boot process, since
the hardware checked is absolutely essential for the computer's functions

What is POST(Power-On-Self-Test)?
A power-on self-test (POST) is a set of routines performed by firmware or software
immediately after a computer is powered on, to determine if the hardware is working as
expected. The process would proceed further only if the required hardware is working
correctly, else the BIOS(Basic Input Output Software) would issue an error message.
POST sequence is executed irrespective of the Operating System and is handled by the
system BIOS. Once the tests are passed the POST would generally notify the OS with
beeps while the number of beeps can vary from system to system. When POST is
successfully finalized, bootstrapping is enabled. Bootstrapping starts the initialization of
the OS.

The Role of POST in the Boot Sequence

The boot sequence is the process of starting a computer/system. The boot process is
initiated when the power button is pressed, it sends power to the boot-loader in the cache
memory. The Boot loader performs POST as a preboot sequence and if everything is
working well without any errors the BIOS(Basic Input Output System) is activated which
finds and loads the operating system.
Finally the software has to interact with the hardware units to complete the process. To
avoid any hardware errors while executing a software program, the pre-boot sequence
would test the hardware and initiate the OS if and only if the basic hardware units are
functioning as expected. he principal duties of the main BIOS during POST are as
follows:
1. Find, size, and verify the system main memory.
2. Initialize BIOS.
3. Identify, organize, and select which devices are available for booting.
4. Verify CPU registers.
5. Verify the integrity of the BIOS code itself.
6. Verify some basic components like DMA, timer, interrupt controller.
7. Pass control to other specialized extensions BIOS (if installed).
The checks are performed majorly on:
 Hardware elements like processor, storage devices and memory.
 Basic System Devices like keyboard, and other peripheral devices.
 CPU Registers
 DMA (Direct Memory Access)
 Timer
 Interrupt controller

Types of Errors encountered during POST

If there are any errors in the POST the system would fail to proceed towards the next
steps(boot process) as it would throw a fatal error. The POST sequence is executed
irrespective of the Operating System. However, how the POST is handled and the types
of errors thrown can be modified by the Vendor as per the system requirements.
The error message could consist of text messages on the console or audio in the form of
beeps. Irrespective of the vendor there would be a manual describing the types of errors
and the error message mappings to help us troubleshoot. The error messages can vary
from a parity error to a faulty motherboard.

Steps of Booting
We can describe the boot process in six steps:

1. The Startup
It is the first step that involves switching the power ON. It supplies
electricity to the main components like BIOS and processor.

2. BIOS: Power On Self Test

It is an initial test performed by the BIOS. Further, this test performs an
initial check on the input/output devices, computer’s main memory,
disk drives, etc. Moreover, if any error occurs, the system produces a
beep sound.

3. Loading of OS
In this step, the operating system is loaded into the main memory. The
operating system starts working and executes all the initial files and
instructions.

4. System Configuration
In this step, the drivers are loaded into the main memory. Drivers are
programs that help in the functioning of the peripheral devices.
5. Loading System Utilities
System utilities are basic functioning programs, for example, volume
control, antivirus, etc. In this step, system utilities are loaded into the
memory.

6. User Authentication
If any password has been set up in the computer system, the system
checks for user authentication. Once the user enters the login Id and
password correctly the system finally starts.

Booting Process in Operating System

When our computer is switched on, it can be started by hardware such as a button
press, or by software command, a computer's central processing unit (CPU) has no
software in its main memory, there is some process which must load software into main
memory before it can be executed. Below are the six steps to describe the boot process
in the operating system, such as:

Step 1: Once the computer system is turned on, BIOS (Basic Input /Output System)
performs a series of activities or functionality tests on programs stored in ROM, called
on POST (Power-on Self Test) that checks to see whether peripherals in the system are
in perfect order or not.

Step 2: After the BIOS is done with pre-boot activities or functionality test, it read
bootable sequence from CMOS (Common Metal Oxide Semiconductor) and looks for
master boot record in the first physical sector of the bootable disk as per boot device
sequence specified in CMOS. For example, if the boot device sequence is:

o Floppy Disk
o Hard Disk
o CDROM
Step 3: After this, the master boot record will search first in a floppy disk drive. If not
found, then the hard disk drive will search for the master boot record. But if the master
boot record is not even present on the hard disk, then the CDROM drive will search. If
the system cannot read the master boot record from any of these sources, ROM
displays "No Boot device found" and halted the system. On finding the master boot
record from a particular bootable disk drive, the operating system loader, also called
Bootstrap loader, is loaded from the boot sector of that bootable drive· into memory. A
bootstrap loader is a special program that is present in the boot sector of a bootable
drive.

Step 4: The bootstrap loader first loads the IO.SYS file. After this, MSDOS.SYS file is

loaded, which is the core file of the DOS operating system.

Step 5: After this, MSDOS.SYS file searches to find Command Interpreter

in CONFIG.SYS file, and when it finds, it loads into memory. If no Command Interpreter
is specified in the CONFIG.SYS file, the COMMAND.COM file is loaded as the default
Command Interpreter of the DOS operating system.

Step 6: The last file is to be loaded and executed is the AUTOEXEC.BAT file that

contains a sequence of DOS commands. After this, the prompt is displayed. We can see
the drive letter of bootable drive displayed on the computer system, which indicates
that the operating system has been successfully on the system from that drive.

Steps In the Booting Process

Booting is the process of switching on the computer and starting the operating system. 6
steps in the booting process are BIOS and Setup Program, The Power-On-Self-Test (POST),
The Operating System Loads, System Configuration, System Utility Loads, and Users
Authentication.
 1: BIOS and Setup Program
 2: The Power-On-Self-Test (POST)
 3: The Operating System (OS) Loads
 4: System Configuration
 5: System Utility Loads
 6: Users Authentication

 Booting Process Of Computer Step By Step

Here is the explanation of the booting process steps for more clarity.
Step 1: BIOS and Setup Program
 ROM (read-only memory): it is a permanent and unchanging memory also
 BIOS (basic input/output system ): the part of the system software that includes the
instructions that the computer uses to accept input and output
 Load: to transfer from a storage device to memory. The ROM loads BIOS into
the computer’s memory
 Setup program: a special program containing settings to control hardware. 
Furthermore,  the program can only be accessed while the BIOS information is visible
Step 2: The Power-On-Self-Test (POST)
 POST (Power-On Self-Test): a series of tests conducted on the computer’s main
memory, input/output devices, disk drives, and the hard disk.
 BIOS conducts Power-On-Self-Test to check the input/ output system for operability.
 The computer will produce a beeping sound if any problem occurs. An error message will
also appear on the monitor

Step 3: The Operating System (OS) Loads

BIOS  searches for the operating system.
 Setting in CMOS: complementary metal oxide semiconductor determines where to look
for the operating system.
 In this step, the operating system’s kernel is also loaded into the computer’s memory.
 The operating system takes control of the computer and begins loading system
configuration information.

Step 4: System Configuration

 Registry: a database to store information about peripherals and software
 Peripheral: a device connected to a computer
 Drive: a utility program that makes peripheral devices function properly
 The operating system’s registry configures the system.
 In this step, drivers are also loaded into memory.
Step 5: System Utility Loads
 System utilities are loaded into memory.
 Volume control
 Antivirus software
 PC card unplugging utility

Step 6: Users Authentication

 Authentication or user login occurs
 Username
 Password
The above-mentioned steps play an important role in booting a computer. After all this
process, the user interface starts, enabling user interaction with the computer and its
programs also.