ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL TECHNICAL PAPER

Title No. 117-M90

Performance of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete in Harsh

Marine Environment for 21 Years
by Edward G. Moffatt, Michael D. A. Thomas, Andrew Fahim, and Robert D. Moser

This paper presents the durability performance of ultra-high- erties, UHPC is used in a variety of applications including
performance concrete (UHPC) exposed to a marine environment bridge girders, decks, piles, seismic columns, wind turbine
for up to 21 years. Concrete specimens (152 x 152 x 533 mm [6 x towers, and connections. Additionally, it is currently being
6 x 21 in.]) were cast using a water-cementitious materials ratio used in a variety of military applications as a result of its
(w/cm) in the range of 0.09 to 0.19, various types and lengths of
high strength and toughness for use in high-performance
steel fibers, and the presence of conventional steel reinforcement
structural applications.
bars in select mixtures. Laboratory testing included taking cores
from each block and determining the existing chloride profile, UHPC not only exhibits exceptional mechanical proper-
compressive strength, electrochemical corrosion monitoring, and ties but also mitigates the intrusion of aggressive species
microstructural evaluation. such as chloride ions and the subsequent attack of steel
Regardless of curing treatment and w/cm, the results revealed reinforcement. Chloride penetration has been reported to be
that UHPC exhibits significantly enhanced durability perfor- dependent on exposure solution, duration of exposure, w/b,
mance compared with typical high-performance concrete (HPC) and curing regimes.6-9 The significantly reduced permea-
and normal concretes. UHPC prisms exhibited minimal surface bility compared to conventional portland cement concrete
damage after being exposed to a harsh marine environment for up has been presented by many and has been shown to produce
to 21 years. Chloride profiles revealed penetration to a depth of permeability readings less than 40 coulombs at 28 days
approximately 10 mm (0.39 in.) regardless of exposure duration.
for heat/steam-cured specimens tested in accordance with
Electrochemical corrosion monitoring also showed passivity for
ASTM C1202. The impermeable nature of UHPC is also the
reinforcement at a cover depth of 25 mm (1 in.) following 20 years.
result of its improved microstructure due the close packing
Keywords: chloride ingress; corrosion; durability; marine exposure; of solid particles, hydration products, and improvement in
ultra-high-performance concrete. the interfacial transition zone between fine aggregates and
cement matrix.9-14
INTRODUCTION Since 1995, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)
Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is used to and the University of New Brunswick (UNB) have placed
produce concrete with enhanced durability and mechan- various sets of UHPC concrete in the tidal zone at the marine
ical properties compared to that achieved with low exposure site at Treat Island, ME. In 1995, USACE produced
water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) ordinary portland what was then called “very-high strength concrete (VHSC)”
cement (OPC) concrete or conventional high-performance samples in the laboratory and placed these samples on Treat
concrete (HPC). Unlike conventional concrete, UHPC is Island in the same year. VHSC was produced by Walley
capable of achieving compressive strengths in excess of and Neeley of the then Concrete and Materials Division,
150 MPa (21,755 psi). The improved properties of UHPC Waterways Experiment Station (WES), now the U.S. Army
are a result of mixture proportions and ingredients, which Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC).15,16
ensure mechanical homogeneity and maximum particle They were tasked with the development of a VHSC mixture
packing density.1 that was capable of achieving 30,000 psi (205 MPa) uncon-
Concrete by nature is a brittle material; however, UHPC fined compressive strength and could be made with readily
has a nonbrittle behavior through the use of internal fiber available materials using conventional revolving-drum truck
reinforcement. Unlike conventional concrete, which requires mixers.
sufficient water to ensure workability and placement (typi- The following year, USACE cast and placed steel-rein-
cally water-binder ratio [w/b] = 0.35 to 0.70 depending on forced samples, which were termed reactive powder concrete
the application), UHPC is produced with a very low w/b (RPC) on Treat Island with cover depths of 10, 19, and 25
(0.08 to 0.20).2 Workability is achieved through the use of mm (0.39, 0.75, and 1.0 in.) in addition to a number of unre-
high-range water-reducing admixtures (HRWRA), which inforced specimens as well. The second series of concrete
alleviate stiffness and limited workability by deflocculating (designated as RPC) was produced at WES following the
cement grains.1 UHPC is also able to achieve very high
compressive strengths by curing at elevated temperatures. ACI Materials Journal, V. 117, No. 5, September 2020.
MS No. M-2019-354.R1, doi: 10.14359/51727022, received September 18, 2019,
At a curing temperature in excess of 90°C (194°F), poorly and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2020, American
Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless
ordered C-S-H is converted to tobermorite, a high-strength permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including
ordered crystalline structure.3-5 Due to its enhanced prop- author’s closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the
discussion is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.

ACI Materials Journal/September 2020 105

concepts for RPC developed by Richard and Cheyrezy17,18 Table 1—Mixture proportions, kg/m3 (lb/yd3)
and placed on Treat Island in 1996. In 2004, the University Material VHSC RPC UHPC
of New Brunswick (UNB) cast UHPC samples with either
Cement 942 (1582) 796 (1342) 712 (1200)
steel or plastic fibers.
This paper summarizes the long-term durability perfor- Silica fume 236 (396) 199 (335) 231 (389)
mance of these experimental series following up to 21 years Silica flour — 110 (185) 221 (373)
of marine exposure. Fine aggregate 1036 (1746) 897 (1511) 1031 (1738)
Fibers 160 (270) 235 (396) 156 (263)
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
This paper provides the invaluable opportunity to study Water 136 (229) 207 (349) 130 (219)
the long-term durability performance of UHPC exposed to a
natural harsh marine exposure site. It is to the authors knowl- plastic, and cured for an additional 2 days in water at 90°C
edge that this is one of, if not the longest-running long-term (194°F).
durability studies on UHPC in the world. To evaluate the corrosion resistance of these mixtures,
three RPC beams were manufactured with 13-mm diam-
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE eter steel reinforcing bars with cover depths of 10, 19, and
Materials 25 mm (0.39, 0.75, and 1.0 in.). To date, blocks containing
Between 1995 and 2004, three series of UHPC mixtures reinforcing bars at both 25 and 10 mm (1.0 and 0.39 in.)
were placed on a deck at the mid-tide level on the exposure have been recovered, while the third specimen containing a
site in Treat Island. cover depth of 19 mm (0.75 in.) remains on Treat Island and
Limited published data exist on the chemical composition will be recovered at a future date.
and properties of mixture constituents; however, mixture Following curing, all specimens were shipped to Eastport,
proportions of all concrete examined in this study are ME, for subsequent transport by boat to the Treat Island
presented in Table 1. VHSC was produced with a Class H oil exposure site. Specimens were placed on a platform, which
well cement, silica fume, silica flour, and a siliceous natural is located at the mid-tide level. Concrete specimens at this
sand with a maximum particle size of 4.75 mm (0.19 in.), location are exposed to 100 to 160 freezing-and-thawing
along with a powder form of a poly-naphthalene sulfonate cycles and the highest tides in the world—up to 6.2 m
sodium salt which served as a HRWRA to ensure proper (22 ft). The seawater has an average annual temperature
placement. The powder form was used to eliminate the water of 5°C (40°F) and a chloride concentration of 19,300 ppm
found in conventional liquid HRWRA. Hooked-end metallic (3.52% salinity).20-25
fibers, 30 mm (1.18 in.) in length and 0.55 mm (0.02 in.) in
diameter, were used. Items of investigation
Similar to VHSC, RPC was produced with Class H oil Following 5 to 21 years of exposure, blocks were retrieved
well cement, silica fume, and silica flour (d50 = 10 μm); from Treat Island and shipped to the University of New
however, a sand with a maximum nominal diameter of Brunswick to be tested in the laboratory. Four 75 mm (3 in.)
0.6  mm (0.02  in.) and metallic fibers 13 mm (0.5 in.) in diameter cores were taken along the centerline of the top
length and 0.16 mm (0.006 in.) in diameter were used. The (hand finished) face of each block; the cores were cut directly
third series of concrete (designated as UHPC) was produced through the blocks and were approximately 150 mm (6 in.)
using a pre-mixed UHPC formulation. Although the precise in length. Cores were used to determine existing chloride
mixture design details and chemical composition of the profiles and compressive strength. Existing chloride profiles
material were not provided, a typical composition of UHPC were conducted on the hand finished side of a single core
produced using this product is presented in Table 1.19 In by profile grinding the cores in 1 mm (0.04 in.) increments.
addition to the premixed concrete, a HRWRA and metallic The resulting powder samples were then passed through a
fibers, 13 mm (0.5 in.) in length and 0.2 mm (0.008 in.) in 200 μm (0.008 in.) sieve to remove any steel fibers and then
diameter, were used. No mixtures were air entrained and analyzed for chlorides relative to depth. The chloride content
they did not contain any air-entraining admixtures. at each layer was determined by digesting powder samples,
gained from profile grinding, in nitric acid and performing
Specimens potentiometric titration with silver nitrate in accordance
Concrete specimens (152 x 152 x 533 mm [6 x 6 x 21 in.]) with ASTM C1556.
were cast in two layers and struck off with a wooden straight The corrosion resistance of reinforcement found within
edge and then covered with wet burlap and plastic to cure. RPC specimens was conducted by performing electrochem-
VHSC and RPC specimens were demolded after 24 hours ical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) testing using a potentio-
curing in laboratory air (22°C [72°F]) and cured for an stat. The test setup for EIS is shown in Fig. 1. EIS relies
additional 6 days in limewater at 20°C (68°F), followed by on the assumption that the reinforced concrete system can
4 days in water at 90°C (194°F), and 2 days in air at 90°C be modeled through simple circuit models. In EIS, a sinu-
(194°F). Beams from both mixtures were then stored in soidal AC voltage is applied in a wide range of frequencies,
limewater at room temperature (22°C [72°F]) for 28 days. and the impedance characteristics of the system (real and
UHPC specimens were demolded following 48 hours curing imaginary impedance as well as phase angle) are recorded
in laboratory air and then wrapped in pre-soaked burlap and through analyzing the applied voltage shift and the corre-

106 ACI Materials Journal/September 2020

 Duprat et al.27 for a discussion on the scatter reported in the
literature on these values and Ge and Isgor28 for the influence
of this value on the theoretical calculation of corrosion rates.
The porosity of RPC concrete compared to conventional
and high-performance concrete was measured by the solvent
exchange technique using isopropanol following the proce-
dure described by Parrott29 and Ngala and Page.30 Following
13 years of marine exposure, 3 mm (0.12 in.) slices were
taken from 75 mm (3 in.) cores from an RPC prism. Slices
were then dried in moist tissue and initially weighed and
then weighed immersed in water. Slices were then immersed
in isopropanol and the counter diffusion was monitored by
measuring the weight change relative to time. As the water
filled porosity is replaced by isopropanol in the pores, the
weight decreases due to the lower density of isopropanol (ρIP
= 0.7851 g/cm3). The replacement, however, is limited by
the size of isopropanol molecules, ≈ 9 Å, which is bigger
Fig. 1—Specimen cross section and testing configuration for than that of water, 2.7 Å. The total porosity was then calcu-
EIS. (Note: Dimensions in mm.) lated once the exchange process reached a steady level.29
sponding current for each frequency. The resulting imped- Polished sections were analyzed with a scanning elec-
ance spectra are then fitted to the impedance spectra of tron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy-dispersive
circuit models with known components to determine, quan- X-ray (EDS) analyzer. EDS analysis was performed at an
titatively, the system characteristics (Rp, RΩ, and double accelerating voltage of 15 kV and a beam current of 1.5 nA
layer capacitance). For this portion of testing, potentiostatic with a working distance of 14 mm (0.55 in.). Samples were
EIS mode was used with an applied AC voltage of 10 mV carbon-coated using a carbon coater before observation in
with an initial frequency of 10,000 Hz and a final frequency the microscope. SEM and EDS were used to determine the
of 0.001 Hz. EIS spectra were fitted according to the method porosity and densification of the matrix at the surface of the
in Fahim et al.25 to determine the polarization resistance and specimen.
the ohmic resistance. The corrosion rate was then deter-
mined using Eq. (1) EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Visual inspection and mechanical properties
B Upon removal of specimens from Treat Island after 5 to
icorr = (1) 21 years, all beams were in excellent condition with no
Rp A
evidence of mass loss or surface scaling. Figure 2 shows
where A is the polarized area; B is the Tafel coefficient photographs of RPC and VHSC blocks following 15 to
(assumed to be 26 mV in this study26); and Rp is the polar- 21 years of exposure. For the purpose of comparing the
ization resistance. It is worth mentioning that the 26 mV freezing-and-thawing resistance of this concrete to conven-
value is the most commonly assumed Tafel coefficient used tional and high-performance concrete, the reader can
in the literature for the purpose of estimating corrosion refer to References 20 to 24 where photographs of air-en-
rate from measured polarization resistance. However, it is trained concrete samples exposed to the same conditions
acknowledged that there is a significant uncertainty asso- are presented showing significantly higher freezing-and-
ciated with this parameter especially for non-conventional thawing and surface scaling deterioration.
concrete such as UHPC, where such data is scarce. The 26 Table 2 presents the mixture details and mechanical prop-
mV value is calculated with the assumption of symmetric erties of all specimens retrieved from Treat Island between
values for anodic and cathodic Tafel coefficients of 120 mV/ 2009 and 2016. The compressive strength is presented for
dec. However, it is well established that a large scatter of both cylinders at an age of 28 days and 75 x 150 mm (3
reported results is shown in the literature for conventional x 6 in.) cores removed from the beams placed on Treat
concrete.27 The authors do anticipate both the anodic and Island following various increments of time. Following 5 to
cathodic tafel coefficient for this case to have very high 21 years of marine exposure, the compressive strength is
values (tend to infinity) because the steel is expected to be in shown to differ only slightly.
a passive condition (as evidenced by the half-cell potential,
polarization resistance, visual observation and the low chlo- Chloride penetration
ride concentration shown later) and corrosion propagation is Figure 3 presents chloride penetration profiles from the
expected to be under oxygen diffusion control (as evidenced average of two cores for the various specimens collected
by the extremely low porosity and the ohmic values shown from Treat Island. Following 5 to 21 years of marine expo-
later,) thereby causing these coefficients to tend to infinity. sure, the depth of penetration (passing a chloride threshold
If it is assumed that the steel is in active condition and the value of 0.05% by mass of concrete) of chlorides for all
corrosion reaction is under diffusion control, the assumed specimens ranges from 7 to 15 mm (0.28 to 0.59 in.). It
values (26 mV) may be in the reasonable range. Refer to has been practically established that the chloride threshold

ACI Materials Journal/September 2020 107

Fig. 2—(Top left) RPC after 15 years; (top right) VHSC after 16 years; (bottom left) coring RPC after 20 years; and (bottom
right) VHSC after 21 years of marine exposure.
Table 2—Mixture details and mechanical properties
fc′, MPa
Fiber (L/D), Sand
Mixture ID Placed Removed w/b mm/mm Reinforced particle size, mm 28-day Date removed
1 1995 2011 157 160
VHSC 0.19 30/0.55 — 4.75
2 1995 2016 157 153
1 1996 2016 (25 mm) 214 218
RPC 2 1996 2009 0.12 13/0.66 (10 mm) 0.60 214 224
3 1996 2011 — 214 176
1 2004 2009 209 206
UHPC 0.08 13/0.20 — 0.60
2 2004 2016 209 197

required to initiate corrosion is 0.4% by weight of cement the pore solution; and 3) precipitation of compounds during
(approximately 0.5% by mass of concrete) although a large exposure, which can behave as barrier for the penetration of
scatter exist in the literature ranging anywhere from 0.04 to chlorides. The densification of surface layers is supported by
8.34% by weight of cement.31-33 the microstructural analysis of UHPC2 presented in Fig. 4.
Although there is significant scatter in chloride concentra- The darker region found in the first 500 μm from the surface
tions in the outer 0 to 6 mm (0.24 in.) of the concrete samples, indicate the formation of brucite (Mg(OH)2) through the use
there is little evidence of an increase in the depth of penetra- of EDS, which is known to occur in concrete exposed to
tion with the duration of exposure beyond 5 years of expo- seawater.34 The reduced penetration may also be attributed
sure. The surface concentrations in increments closest to the to the chemical binding of chlorides and the formation of
surface (0 to 2 mm [0 to 0.08 in.]) are reduced compared to Friedel’s salt due to high cementitious material contents
the maximum values that occur in the middle third increment found in these mixtures, particularly VHSC and RPC, which
(2 to 3 mm [0.08 to 0.12 in.]). This shape of profile is often were produced with cementitious contents significantly
observed in concrete exposed to chloride intermittently, such higher than current UHPC products.
as highway structures exposed to deicing salts and concrete Regardless of shape, the chloride resistance of all concretes
in the splash zone (above high tide level). This has been typi- show a very high resistance to chloride-ion penetration, as
cally attributed to: 1) absorption and evaporation of water presented in Fig. 5 which compares the profiles to HPC with
during wetting and drying cycles, in which the wetting front 8.5% silica fume and w/cm = 0.33 exposed to the same envi-
is propagating inwards or outwards through convection; 2) ronment for 12 and 17 years.23
decrease in pore water pH due to leaching or carbonation The improved chloride resistance is partly attributed to
which releases chlorides bound within the cement paste into the reduced porosity as presented in Table 3, which pres-

108 ACI Materials Journal/September 2020

Fig. 3—Existing chloride penetration (% by mass of concrete) of (left) UHPC mixtures; (middle) RPC mixtures; and (right)
VHSC mixtures at various ages.

Fig. 4—UHPC2 after 12 years of marine exposure.

ents porosity measurements conducted on RPC2 following which is 10 mm more than the minimum cover depth spec-
13 years of marine exposure compared with cement paste ified by the Canadian Standards Association, CSA A23.1,
following 5 years. The paste samples are HPC (5% silica “Concrete Materials and Methods for Concrete Construc-
fume + 20% fly ash) and PC (100% portland cement) both tion,” for reinforced concrete exposed to chloride, that
with w/cm = 0.40. Porosity measurements include total there is a marked reduction in corrosion current density for
porosity calculated from the evaporable water content and conventional concrete mixtures containing SCMs compared
capillary porosity determined by solvent exchange with to plain portland cement concrete. Reinforcement embedded
isopropanol. Because isopropanol will only enter the large in 100% portland cement concrete is shown to be actively
pores, its porosity provides some indication of the rela- corroding. However, corrosion rates in mixtures containing
tive volume of pores that contribute to mass transport (for various types of supplementary cementing materials are in
example, chloride ingress). The results in Table 3 contribute the low risk of corrosion. On the other hand, for RPC, a
to the findings in Fig. 5. While the total porosity of RPC2 is negligible corrosion rate and corrosion potential are found at
roughly 40% of HPC, the capillary porosity is only 15% of a cover depth of only 25 mm (0.98 in.). This is not surprising
that of HPC. considering chlorides are shown to have penetrated less than
10 mm (0.39 in.) in Fig. 3. Comparing the ohmic resistance
Corrosion resistance for UHPC to other published EIS data25,35 clearly shows that
Figure 6 and Table 4 present corrosion rate, corrosion the resistivity of the system is at least an order of magni-
potential, and ohmic resistance results of RPC1 following tude higher than that shown by laboratory portland cement
20 years of marine exposure. Also presented are results concrete. The same observation is clearly shown for field
of various previously published mixtures (100% portland concrete exposed to the same exposure conditions as shown
cement, 10% silica fume, 25% fly ash, and 50% slag, all at in Table 4.20 The significant increase in ohmic resistance is
a w/cm of 0.5) with a cover of 30 mm (1.18 in.) and 70 mm mainly attributed to the lower porosity, and subsequently
(2.76 in.) exposed to the same environment for 27 years.20 the higher pore-structure tortuosity associated with UHPC
It can be seen that at a cover depth of 70 mm (2.36 in.), mixtures. The inversely proportional results between the

ACI Materials Journal/September 2020 109

Fig. 5—Comparison of chloride penetration (% by mass of concrete) for various UHPC mixtures and HPC at various exposure
durations.
Table 3—Porosity, % by volume
PC HPC RPC
Total porosity 11.9 11.5 4.9
Capillary
9.13 6.83 1.0
porosity

logarithm of ohmic resistance and corrosion rate, shown

in Fig. 6, agrees with results of others that the resistivity
influences the corrosion rate through the electrolyte’s ohmic
drop.20,36 This substantial increase in resistivity may indicate
that if chlorides were to penetrate the UHPC cover and reach
the surface of the reinforcement, the corrosion rate is hypoth-
esized to remain negligible due to the significant ohmic drop
between anodic and cathodic sites and the significant reduc-
tion in oxygen diffusion associated with such low-porosity
concrete.
The hypothesis that the increased ohmic resistance would
lead to negligible corrosion rates upon corrosion initiation Fig. 6—EIS results of RPC1 in comparison with conven-
are also supported by corrosion rate measurements and tional concrete mixtures.
visual observation of retrieved embedded reinforcements
for RPC2 samples following 13 years of marine exposure. significantly higher and visual observation of the specimens’
Figure 7 presents a cross section of RPC2 where the cover condition showed significant cracking, rust-staining and
depth is shown to range between 2 and 10 mm (0.08 and reinforcing bar degradation. Refer to Fahim et al.37 for data
0.39 in.), which provides evidence that chlorides did reach on the portland cement series of testing.
the reinforcement surface for such unrealistically low cover
depths. Following 13 years of marine exposure, corrosion CONCLUSIONS
current densities were measured in the range of 0.15 to 0.73 Based on the results presented herein, the following
μA/cm2. Upon removing and inspecting one of the bars from conclusions can be drawn:
the specimen, little if any signs of corrosion are observed as 1. The use of ultra-high-performance concrete leads to
presented in Fig. 7. The corrosion rates measured and the significant increase in the resistance to chloride ingress,
visual condition of the reinforcement is significantly better even when compared with high-performance concrete.
than that previously reported for mortar bars, of the same 2. The depth of chloride penetration following 5, 12, and
dimensions, made with ordinary portland cement exposed 21 years is shown to not increase with age.
to the same marine environment for only 2 years.37 For 3. Following 20 years of marine exposure, corrosion rate
ordinary portland cement samples, the corrosion rate was of reinforcement is found to be negligible and significantly
lower than that of concrete containing varying amounts of

110 ACI Materials Journal/September 2020

Table 4—EIS results of RPC in comparison with conventional concrete mixtures
Mixture Concrete cover, mm (in.) Corrosion current density, μA/cm2 Ohmic resistance, Ohms Half-cell potential, mV
100PC 1.38 398 –548
25FA 0.28 1771 –208
70 (2.75)
10SF 0.31 919 –182
50SG 0.28 1485 –202
100PC 1.91 268 –490
25FA 0.81 830 –448
30 (1.18)
10SF 0.93 896 –424
50SG 0.80 457 –411
RPC 25 (0.98) 0.01 5614 +32

Fig. 7—(Left) Cross section of RPC2 following 13 years of marine exposure; and (right) reinforcing bar under cover depth of
10 mm showing no sign of corrosion.
SCMs. Results have also shown that if reinforcement were to interests include non-destructive testing, electrochemical corrosion moni-
toring, multiscale multiphysics numerical modeling, mass transport, and
be placed at a lower cover depth (that is, 10 to 15 mm [0.39 materials characterization and testing.
to 0.59 in.]), the extremely high resistivity of the concrete
yields the corrosion propagation rates negligible following ACI member Robert D. Moser is a Senior Research Civil Engineer in the
Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research
corrosion initiation. and Development Center (ERDC) and an Adjunct Professor of Civil and
4. With a reduced chloride penetration following more Mechanical Engineering at Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS. He
than two decades, new design procedures could be used received his PhD in civil engineering from the Georgia Institute of Tech-
nology, Atlanta, GA. He is a member of ACI Committees 201, Durability;
to produce durable structures in marine environments with 222, Corrosion of Metals in Concrete; 236, Material Science of Concrete;
reduced cover thickness when using such ultra-high-perfor- 239, Ultra-High Performance Concrete; and 357, Marine and Offshore
mance concretes. Concrete Structures. His research interests include the development of
materials with the goal of improving the performance of and durability of
military and civil infrastructure.
AUTHOR BIOS
ACI member Edward (Ted) G. Moffatt is a Materials Engineer at WSP
Canada Inc. He received his PhD from the University of New Brunswick REFERENCES
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