EVT 524

PARTICULATE
POLLUTANTS
 Summary of particulate emission

i. Size dispersion of particulate matter (ambient air).

a) Natural and human activities
b) Finest (PM 2.5 from human activities, bigger size (PM2.5-
PM10) from nature)

ii. Problems in most Asian cities.

a) Higher in concentration than SOX or NOX

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Size dispersion of particulate matter

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Problems in most Asian cities

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Emission Control Technology
1) First phase – understanding types of
air pollutants and source of their
emission.
2) 2nd phase - control of emission of
various types of pollutants.

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 AIR PARTICULATE MATTERS (APM)

• APM – non-homogenous type of pollution

• Other types of non homogenous pollution is the VOC.

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 PARTICLE EMISSION CONTROL
SYSTEMS

Settling Chambers (gravity)

Centrifugal separators (cyclone
separators.
Electrostatic separators (electrostatic
forces)
Filtration (initial separation & diffusion)
Wet scrubbers
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 EMISSION CONTROL DEVICES

TWO TYPES
• WALL COLLECTION DEVICES (all functions by driving
the particles to a solid wall)
– Settling Chambers
– Cyclone separators
– Electrostatic separators
• DIVIDING COLLECTION DEVICES (Filters and
scrubbers divide the flow into smaller parts where they
can collect the particles)
- Filtration
- Wet Scrubbers

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There are many different design
types
For large particulates (>5µm)
– Gravity settling chamber
– Centrifugal separators (Cyclone
separators)

For Fine particulates (<5µm)

– Particulate wet scrubbers
– Electrostatic precipitators
– Fabric Filters
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Equipment for Large Particulates
• Mechanical collectors like settling chambers and
cyclones are used for larger particulate matter.
• For particles less than 5 microns, additional
equipment must be used, such as the
electrostatic precipitator, fabric filter, or venturi
scrubber.
• Particulate problems can be solved with the
technology that exists today, however, costs
tend to increase for high efficiency collection of
fine particulate.
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 PRIMARY PARTICULATES CONTROL
WALL COLLECTION DEVICES

• Gravity settling is effective for large particles

( more than 100 micrometers), in reasonably
sized chambers
• For smaller particles, the terminal settling
velocity is too small
• IDEA: Impose an external force greater than
gravity
Centrifugal - CYCLONES
Electrostatic - ESP

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Settling Chamber

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 Settling Chambers

• Most efficient for coarse particles (> 40 µm), the

greater the mass the more efficient,not effective
for small particles
• Efficiency can be improved by using several trays-
each particle has smaller distance to travel before
settling
• Often used as pre-cleaners upstream to remove
large particles, followed by other more efficient
devices
•

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 Terminal Settling Velocity
• As the name implies, this category of control
devices relies upon gravity settling to remove
particles from the gas stream.
• Gravity settling chambers are used only for very
large particles in the upper end of the
supercoarse size range (approximately 75
micrometers and larger).
• The very low terminal settling velocities of most
particles encountered in the field of air pollution
limit the usefulness of gravity settling chambers
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 Terminal velocity

Terminal velocity is defined as the velocity of a

falling particle when the gravitational downward
is balanced by the air resistance (or drag) force
upward

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 Stoke’s law

Drag Buoyant
force force

Gravity force

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Stoke’s law - terminal or settling velocity

ma = ρpart. (∏/6)d3g – ρfluid(∏/6)d3g – Fd

a=0 at terminal velocity

Fd=(∏/6)d3g (ρpart – ρfluid)

Fd = 3∏µdVt

Therefore, Vt = gd2((ρpart.-ρfluid)/(18µ))

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 Gravity Settling Chambers

H Width, W

L
vv = gd2 (p- f) ,
18
L/ vh is the time taken to travel through a distance L
And H/ vv is the time taken to fall through a distance H
If L/ vh = H/ vv , the particles of terminal velocity vt will be collected, I.e,
particle of diameter d, where d2 = 18 vh 
g (p- f)
d2 = 18 vhH 
g L(p- f) , since vt= vhH/L
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 Efficiency Of Settling Chamber
Dirty gas in Clean gas
Q/s= WHvh out
H
L
Width = W
Time taken for particles to move through a distance L, th = L/vh
Time taken for particles to fall through a distance H, tv= H/vt
If L/vh > H/vt, particles will not be collected,
L/vht < H/vt, particle of a diameter will be collected.
If L/vh = H/vt, particle of a diameter d will be collected.
Also, vertical settling distance= vt x L/vh; if this distance is greater than H, particle will reach the
floor,
Efficiency =  = wt of material collected x 100 % = Vt x W x L x 100 %
amount (wt) entering Q
= Vt x W x L x 100 % = Vt L . 100
vh x W x H Vh H
If the chamber is divided by a horizontal plate the height fall for the particle = H/2. With N plates,
the height fall becomes H/(N + 1) and the efficiency becomes:
= (N + 1) vt WL/Q x 100 %

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 Efficiency of a Settling Chamber
The size of collector and its cost are directly proportional to the gas
quantity being expressed volumetrically, Q, where Q is the flow of
gas , m3s-1
Q = WHvh and vh = Q WH
The efficiency is calculated by:
 % = wt of dust collected x 100
wt of dust coming in
= WL vt100 (i)
WH vh
= L vt100 (ii)
H vh

= WLvt 100 (iii)

Q
with N plates,  % = WLvt (N + 1) 100 (iv)
Q 20
 Mechanical Collectors
• Mechanical collectors use the inertia of the particles for
collection. The particulate-laden gas stream is forced to
spin in a cyclonic manner. The mass of the particles
causes them to move toward the outside of the vortex.
Most of the large-diameter particles enter a hopper
below the cyclonic tubes while the gas stream turns and
exits the tube.
• There are two main types of mechanical collectors: (1)
large-diameter cyclones, and (2) small-diameter multi-
cyclones. Large-diameter cyclones are usually one to six
feet in diameter; while small-diameter multi-cyclones
usually have diameters between 3 and 12 inches.

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 Efficiency based on Blocks flow model

Efficiency of collection based on mixed flow model

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 Types of Electrostatic Precipitators

• An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) uses

non-uniform, high-voltage fields to apply
large electrical charges to particles
moving through the field.
• The charged particles move toward an
oppositely charged collection surface,
where they accumulate.

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Figure 9 shows the scale of a typical electrostatic precipitator
used at a coal-fired boiler.

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 3 Main Styles of Electrostatic
Precipitators:
• Negatively charged dry precipitators – most
common, frequently used on large applications
such as coal-fired boilers, cement kilns, and kraft
pulp mills.
• Negatively charged wetted-wall precipitators-
(sometimes called wet precipitators) are often
used to collect mist and/or solid material that is
moderately sticky.
• Positively charged two-stage precipitators- used
only for the removal of mists.
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 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
(Cottrell precipitators)
• Principle: charge the particles, use electrostatic force
to attract them to wall
V applied voltage
Field strength , E 
x distance
40 kV kV
e.g .  400
0 .1 m m
MV
Higher at the wire, because of geometry (5  10 )
m

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Figure 9.7 de Nevers

• Sketch of ESP

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 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
(Cottrell precipitators)
• Note similarities of geometry between settling
chamber and ESP.
• H : the height through which particles must travel, at
right angles to gas flow, before hitting wall
• L : distance travelled by gas in the collection device.
• The H will be smaller in ESP, the velocity of particles
much higher because of the electrostatic force.

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• Corona discharge at the wire: electrons collide with
gas molecules, knock out electrons, positively
charged gas ions migrate to wire and discharge
particles
• Field charging away from the wire: as electrons fly
towards wall, they collide with particles in their path
and are captured by particles, negatively charged
particles attracted to wall and discharge there.
• Diffusion charging: for particles smaller than ~0.15
m, the interaction with electrons can be significantly
due to their random motion as a result of electron-
gas molecule collisions

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Maximum charge on particles:

  
q  3   0 D E 0
2
 2
q : charge , coulombs
 : dielectric constant relative to free space
C
 0 : 8 . 85 E  12 for free space
V .m
 air :1 . 0006 ,  particles : 4  6
D : particle diameter , m
E 0 : local field strength , V / m

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 Drift velocity
(I.e. terminal settling velocity under electrostatic force)

• Force on particle: F = qE
  
F  3   0 D E 0 E p
2
 2

• Resulting terminal settling velocity (with Stoke’s

law for drag force)

 
2
D 0 E  
  2
w


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 Collection efficiency
wA
• Block flow: 
Q
i.e. for gravity settling we wrote :
vt L
block 
HVavg
Q
replace Vavg with , Lh with A
H .h
• Mixed flow:
wA
 mixed  1  exp(  ) Deutsch  Andersen equation
Q
k
 wA 
 mixed  1  exp    modified D  A , k ~ 0.5
 Q 
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 ESP Performance and cake
resistivity
• High resistivity ash:
- large Vcake , small Vwire, poor charging, low 
- electron flow within cake, back corona
• Low resistivity ash:
- small Vcake , weak attraction to collection
plate, re-entrainment

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Figure 9.10 de Nevers

• Voltage-
distance
relation for
different ash
resistivities

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Figure 9.9 de Nevers

• ESP collection
efficiency for coal of
differeent S content

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of ESPs
1. Electrostatic precipitators can have very high efficiencies due to
the strong electrical forces applied to the small particles. These
types of collectors can be used when the gas stream is not
explosive and does not contain entrained droplets or other sticky
material.
2. The composition of the particulate matter is very important
because it influences the electrical conductivity within the dust
layers on the collection plate.
3. Resistivity, an important concept associated with electrostatic
precipitators, is a measure of the ability of the particulate matter
to conduct electricity and is expressed in units of ohm-cm.
4. As the resistivity increases, the ability of the particulate matter to
conduct electricity decreases.
5. Precipitators can be designed to work in any resistivity range;
however, they usually work best when the resistivity is in the
moderate range (108 to 1010 ohms-cm).
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Electrostatic precipitator

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ESP
Figure 10 shows a single gas
passage in a typical electrostatic
precipitator. A high-voltage
electrical charge is applied to the
small-diameter electrode shown
in the center of the picture. The
large vertical surfaces on both
sides of the electrode are
electrically grounded collection
plates.
The particles in the gas stream,
which is moving horizontally
through the unit (into the
photograph shown in Figure 11),
become charged and then move
to either side systems.

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.
 ESP
• these units are divided into a number of
separately energized areas that are termed
fields (see Figure 10).
• Most precipitators have between three and ten
fields in series along the gas flow path.
• On large units, the precipitators are divided into a
number of separate, parallel chambers, each of
which has an equal number of fields in series.
• There is a solid partition or physical separation
between the 2 to 8 chambers that are present on
the large systems .
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 Efficiency of ESP
• Efficiency= 1-exp { -AcVp /Q }

• Ac : collector surface area

Vp : particle migration velocity

Q : volumetric flow of gas

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 Particulate scrubbers
• Application:
– foundries, mining, electroplating, chemical
processing
• Waste products –slurry pose waste disposal
problem – settling tank may be used
• Droplets can give visible plume – may be used
as dirty
• Filtration and chemical treatment may be used
to allow recirculation for reuse

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Disadvantages include:

• High corrosion problems.

• Protection against freezing required.
• Collected particulate may be
contaminated.
• Possible water pollution and
contaminated water disposal problems.
• Possible accompanying vapor plume
and may have to add heat to eliminate
plume
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 Electrostatic Precipitator
• Uses high voltage electric current (up to 50 kV). to
separate dust, fumes, mist from gas stream
• The particle acquire a charge when a gas stream is
passed through a high voltage, direct current corona.
•

• Charged particles are attracted to the grounded

surface by electrostatic force, F = Eq
• Particles are neutralized, removed of particles is by
rapping or washing
• Efficient for particle size: 1-44 µm, separate dust,
fumes, mist from gas stream
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 Electrostatic Precipitator
Resistivity of deposited particles tend to
control the extend to which particles are
held to collecting surfaces
 a resistivity is improved by operating at
a low enough temperature to allow
condensed water to increase overall
conductivity, or at high temperature to
increase the intrinsic conductivity of the
dust
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 Terminal velocities for various particles

Radius, r (µm) u (cm/s)

0.1 8 x 10-5
1 4 x 10-3
10 3 x 10-1
100 25
1000 390

•How long does a spherical particle with 1 µm radius take to

travel 1 km ans. = 290 days
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 Collection Efficiency of ESPs

• The typical Particle Size - Collection Efficiency curve for a

properly sized and operated electrostatic precipitator is
shown in Figure 12. The efficiency is usually at a minimum
in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 micrometers.
• The shape of the efficiency curve is the combined effect of
two particle electrical charging mechanisms, neither of
which is highly effective in this particle size range.
• It should be noted that this decrease in efficiency occurs in
the same particle size range as for particulate wet
scrubbers. However, the reason for this decreased
efficiency zone is entirely different than that for particulate
wet scrubbers.
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Collection Efficiency of ESPs

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FABRIC FILTERS

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 Operating Principles
• Fabric filters collect particulate matter on the surfaces of
filter bags. Most of the particles are captured by inertial
impaction, interception, Brownian diffusion, and sieving
on already collected particles that have formed a dust
layer on the bags.
• The fabric material itself can capture particles that have
penetrated through the dust layers. Electrostatic
attraction may also contribute to particle capture in the
dust layer and in the fabric itself. Due to the multiple
mechanisms of particle capture possible, fabric filters
can be highly efficient for the entire particle

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 Types of Fabric Filters
A reverse-air-type fabric filter
• One of the major categories of fabric filters. It is used mainly for
large industrial sources. In this type of unit, the particle-laden gas
stream enters from the bottom and passes into the inside of the
bags. The dust cake accumulates on the inside surfaces of the
bags. Filtered gas passes through the bags and is exhausted from
the unit.
• When cleaning is necessary, dampers are used to isolate a
compartment of bags from the inlet gas flow. Then, some of the
filtered gas passes in the reverse direction (from the outside of the
bag to the inside) in order to remove some of the dust cake. The
gas used for reverse air cleaning is re-filtered and released.

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Baghouses

 Consists of hollow cylindrical tube (bag) fabric

filter arranged in parallel vertically - baghouse
 Baghouses are normally placed in series after
mechanical collector to capture smaller
particles (> 0.01 µm)
 Filtering mechanisms are a combination of
inertial forces, electrostatic forces,
impingement, diffusion, gravitational settling
 Cleaning is done by shaking the bag or
removal by rapping, sonic waves, reversing
airflow or gentle collapsing
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 Baghouse collection

Exhaust gas
containing particles

Fabric bag

Periodic
shaking
Collected
particulate

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 Fabric Filters
• Flow through a surface filter

1 2 3

Filter
Dirty cake
Gas
stream
Fluid flow Clean gas stream

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Baghouse configuration

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 Mechanisms of Filtration of
Fabric Filters
• A type of surface filter
• Particles collect on individual fibres by Brownian
diffusion, interception and inertial impaction
• Particles accumulate on previously collected
particles, bridging the fibres
• Collected particles form a cake acting as packed
bed filter for incoming particles

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 Filtration
 Filtration by medium - for gases
 Filtration by the ‘cake’
Cake of solid particle deposited on a fabric filter
Particles retained by filter medium because they
are too large to pass through the pores
Particles diameter may bed smaller than the pore
diameter because flowing particles bridged over
an aperture
used for concentration of about 1 mg/m3
 characteristics of filtration from liquids

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Advantages of fabric filters include
• High collection efficiency for fine
particulate.
• Operates on a wide range of dust types.
• Modules can be factory assembled.
• Can operate over wide gas flow rate
range.
• Provides reasonably low pressure drops.

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Fabric Filters offer the following
advantages

• Have high collection efficiencies, even for

small particles
• Can be used for a wide variety of particles
• Can operate over a wide range of
volumetric flow rates
• Requires only moderate pressure drops

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 Limitations of Fabric Filters
• Operation must be carried out at temperatures
lower than that fabric is destroyed, or its life is
shortened
• Cannot tolerate vapour condensation, hence dew
point must be below actual gas temperature
• Gas or particle constituents that attack fabric or
prevent proper cleaning eg. Sticky particles are
to be avoided
• Baghouses require large floor areas

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 PULSE JET

• In this type of unit, the bags are supported on

metal wire cages that are suspended from the top
of the unit. Particulate-laden gas flows around the
outside of the bags, and a dust cake accumulates
on the exterior surfaces.
• When cleaning is needed, a very-short-duration
pulse of compressed air is injected at the top
inside part of each bag in the row of bags being
cleaned. The compressed air pulse generates a
pressure wave that moves down each bag and, in
the process, dislodges some of the dust cake
from the bag.
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.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Fabric
Filters
• Fabric filters are used in a wide variety of applications where high
efficiency particulate collection is needed. The control efficiencies usually
range from 99% to greater than 99.5% depending on the characteristics of
the particulate matter and the fabric filter design. As mentioned earlier,
fabric filters can be very efficient at collecting particles in the entire size
range of interest in air pollution control.
• The performance of fabric filters is usually independent of the chemical
composition of the particulate matter. However, they are not used when
the gas stream generated by the process equipment includes corrosive
materials that could chemically attack the filter media. Fabric filters are also
not used when there are sticky or wet particles in the gas stream. These
materials accumulate on the filter media surface and block gas movement.
• Fabric filters must be designed carefully if there are potentially
combustible or explosive particulate matter, gases, or vapors in the gas
stream being treated. If these conditions are severe, alternative control
techniques, such as wet scrubbers, are often used.
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 Particulate Measurement
• Total particulate concentration
– mass of solid extracted from a fixed volume of
atmosphere by filtration or other methods
– Typical values:
• 70 µm-3 rural air
• 300 µm-3 urban air
• 1 mg m-3 factory workshop
• 100 mg m-3 power station flue gas

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 Particulate Measurement -con’t
• Analytical consideration
• may require sample dissolution and extreme
condition
• Particle size distribution
• Typical values
d (µm) common term sediment. Velocity
<0.1 fume negligible
0.1 8 x 10-5
1 smoke 4 x 10-3
10 0.3
100 dust 25
>100 grit >25
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 Summaries the operation of various types of
particle control equipment, with particular
reference to:

• Size collected
• Mechanism of operation
• Efficiency
• Advantages
• Disadvantages

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 Summary of Particulate Control Emission Control Techniques
Device Min. Efficiency Advantages Disadvantages
Particle (%) mass
Size(µm) basis

Gravitational  50  50 Low pressure loss Much space required

settler Simplicity of design & Low collection efficiency
maintenance

Cyclone 5-25 50-90 Simplicity of design & Much head room required
maintenance Low collection efficiency of small
Little flooR space particles.
Dry continuous disposal of Sensitive to variable dust loadings
collection dust and flow rates
Low to moderate pressure
loss
Handles large particles
Handles high dust loadings
Temperature independent

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Electrostatic <1 95-99 99+ efficiency obtainable. Relatively high initial cost
precipitator V. Small particle can be Sensitive to variable dust
collected loadings or flow rates
Particles may be collected Precaution required to
wet or dry avoid high voltage
Pressure drop & power Resistivity causes some
requirement small materials to be
compared with high economically
efficiency collectors uncontrollable
Maintenance nominal unless Collection efficiencies can
corrosive or adhesive deteriorate gradually
materials are handled
Few moving parts
Can be operated at high Tem
.573-723K

FABRIC filtration <1 .99 Dry collection possible Sensitivity to filtering

Decrease of performance velocity
noticeable High Tempt. Gases must
Collection of small particle be cooled
High efficiency possible Affected by relative
humidity
Susceptible to chemical
attack

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