Velocity Loss as an Indicator of Neuromuscular

Fatigue during Resistance Training

LUIS SÁNCHEZ-MEDINA and JUAN JOSÉ GONZÁLEZ-BADILLO
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Faculty of Sport, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, SPAIN

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ABSTRACT
SÁNCHEZ-MEDINA, L., and J. J. GONZÁLEZ-BADILLO. Velocity Loss as an Indicator of Neuromuscular Fatigue during Resistance
Training. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 43, No. 9, pp. 1725–1734, 2011. Purpose: This study aimed to analyze the acute mechanical and
metabolic response to resistance exercise protocols (REP) differing in the number of repetitions (R) performed in each set (S) with respect to the
maximum predicted number (P). Methods: Over 21 exercise sessions separated by 48–72 h, 18 strength-trained males (10 in bench press (BP)
and 8 in squat (SQ)) performed 1) a progressive test for one-repetition maximum (1RM) and load–velocity profile determination, 2) tests of
maximal number of repetitions to failure (12RM, 10RM, 8RM, 6RM, and 4RM), and 3) 15 REP (S  R[P]: 3  6[12], 3  8[12], 3  10[12],
3  12[12], 3  6[10], 3  8[10], 3  10[10], 3  4[8], 3  6[8], 3  8[8], 3  3[6], 3  4[6], 3  6[6], 3  2[4], 3  4[4]), with 5-min
interset rests. Kinematic data were registered by a linear velocity transducer. Blood lactate and ammonia were measured before and after exercise.
Results: Mean repetition velocity loss after three sets, loss of velocity pre-post exercise against the 1-mIsj1 load, and countermovement
jump height loss (SQ group) were significant for all REP and were highly correlated to each other (r = 0.91–0.97). Velocity loss was
significantly greater for BP compared with SQ and strongly correlated to peak postexercise lactate (r = 0.93–0.97) for both SQ and
BP. Unlike lactate, ammonia showed a curvilinear response to loss of velocity, only increasing above resting levels when R was at
least two repetitions higher than 50% of P. Conclusions: Velocity loss and metabolic stress clearly differs when manipulating the
number of repetitions actually performed in each training set. The high correlations found between mechanical (velocity and coun-
termovement jump height losses) and metabolic (lactate, ammonia) measures of fatigue support the validity of using velocity loss to
objectively quantify neuromuscular fatigue during resistance training. Key Words: MUSCLE STRENGTH, WEIGHT TRAINING,
BLOOD LACTATE, AMMONIA, BENCH PRESS, FULL SQUAT

K
nowledge of the mechanical and physiological performing all repetitions (12[12]). Lack of attention to this
aspects underlying resistance training (RT) is es- issue is likely due to an assumption that RT should always
sential to improve our understanding of the stimuli be performed to muscular failure. However, increasing evi-
that affect adaptation (8). Configuration of the exercise dence seems to suggest that reaching repetition failure may
stimulus in RT has been traditionally associated with a not necessarily improve the magnitude of strength gains
combination of the so-called acute resistance exercise vari- (10,14,20,21). Furthermore, in the case of not exercising to
ables (exercise type and order, loading, number of repeti- failure, the optimal number of repetitions to perform under
tions and sets, rest duration, and movement velocity) different loading conditions to achieve certain training goals
(25,35). Although most of these variables have received has not been established.
considerable research attention, a question that remains ig- Muscle fatigue is recognized as a complex, task-dependent
nored in the literature is the possibility of manipulating and multifactorial phenomenon whose etiology is contro-
the number of repetitions actually performed in each set versial and still a matter of much debate (12,13,29). Despite
with respect to the maximum number that can be completed. the many definitions of fatigue that have been proposed
It seems reasonable that the degree or level of effort is (2,4,12,13), a common element to most of them is the ob-
substantially different when performing, e.g., 8 of 12 pos- servation of an exercise-induced transient decline in muscle
APPLIED SCIENCES
sible repetitions with a given load (8[12]) compared with force–generating capacity. This decrease in force production
is accompanied by an increase in the level of effort required
to perform the exercise until eventually, if continued, task
Address for correspondence: Luis Sánchez-Medina, Ph.D., Facultad del
Deporte, Pablo de Olavide University, Ctra. de Utrera km 1, 41013 Seville,
failure occurs (13,39). However, fatigue limits not only a
Spain; E-mail: [email protected]. fiber’s capacity for maximal force generation but also the
Submitted for publication December 2010. maximum velocity of shortening decreases and a slowing of
Accepted for publication February 2011. relaxation occurs (2). Consequently, power output will be
0195-9131/11/4309-1725/0 affected. In fact, an increased curvature of the force–velocity
MEDICINE & SCIENCE IN SPORTS & EXERCISEÒ relationship is a major factor in the loss of muscle power (22).
Copyright Ó 2011 by the American College of Sports Medicine Therefore, all definitions of fatigue necessitate a decline in
DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318213f880 force, velocity, or power (39).

1725
 During typical resistance exercise in isoinertial con- 12RM, 10RM, 8RM, 6RM, 4RM), 3) 15 REP differing in
ditions, and assuming every repetition is performed with the number of repetitions (R) actually performed in each
maximal voluntary effort, velocity unintentionally declines set (S) with regard to the maximum predicted number of
as fatigue develops (18). However, few studies analyzing the repetitions (P) (S  R[P]: 3  6[12], 3  8[12], 3  10[12],
response to different RT schemes have described changes 3  12[12], 3  6[10], 3  8[10], 3  10[10], 3  4[8], 3 
in repetition velocity or power (1,18,19,26). It thus seems 6[8], 3  8[8], 3  3[6], 3  4[6], 3  6[6], 3  2[4], 3 
necessary to conduct more research using models of fatigue 4[4]). All these sessions were conducted on separate days,
that analyze the reduction in mechanical variables such as with 48 h of recovery time except the initial 1RM test, the
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force, velocity, and power output over repeated dynamic XRM assessments, and the 3  12[12], 3  10[10], 3 
contractions in actual training or competition settings (7,39). 8[8], and 3  6[6] REP (i.e., the most demanding protocols)
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Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to quan- after which 72 h of recovery was allowed. Sessions were
tify the extent of neuromuscular fatigue while performing performed in the evenings, at the same time of day for each
popular multijoint RT exercises for the upper (bench press) participant and under similar environmental conditions
and lower body (squat) by analyzing the acute mechanical (20-C–22-C and 55%–65% humidity). During the present
(velocity loss) and metabolic (blood lactate and ammonia) study, subjects did not perform any other RT besides some
response to 15 types of resistance exercise protocols (REP) abdominal and lower-back strengthening exercises, and their
differing in the number of repetitions actually performed in endurance conditioning only consisted of running (BP group)
each set with regard to the maximum predicted number. We or swimming (SQ group) twice per week (30 min at an in-
hypothesized that both repetition velocity loss within a set tensity corresponding to 70%–80% of HR reserve).
and loss of velocity before versus immediately after exercise
against a submaximal, individually determined, load would
Testing Procedures
be highly correlated to indicators of metabolic stress and
thus could be used to quantify the actual level of effort in- Initial session and 1RM determination. An intro-
curred during typical RT sessions. ductory session was used for body composition assessment,
medical examination, and familiarization with testing
protocols. Subjects arrived to the laboratory in the morning
METHODS in a well-rested condition and fasted state. After being
medically screened and their body composition determined,
Subjects they carried out some practice sets with light and medium
Eighteen men (age = 25.6 T 3.4 yr, body mass = 75.9 T loads in their respective exercise (BP or SQ), while re-
9.1 kg, height = 176.6 T 7.5 cm, body fat = 12.2% T 3.7%) searches emphasized proper technique. On the evening of
volunteered to take part in this study. Subjects were either the following day, individual load–velocity relationships
professional firefighters or firefighter candidates with an RT and 1RM strength were determined using a progressive
experience ranging from 3 yr to beyond 5 yr. They were loading test. A detailed description of the BP testing pro-
divided into two groups depending on the exercise to be tocol has been recently provided elsewhere (31). The BP was
performed: bench press (BP, n = 10) or full squat (SQ, performed imposing a momentary pause (È1.5 s) at the chest
n = 8). Initial one-repetition maximum (1RM) strength was between the eccentric and concentric actions to minimize
95.0 T 14.9 kg for the BP and 97.1 T 23.0 kg for the SQ the contribution of the rebound effect and allow for more
group. In the 3 months preceding this study, subjects had been reproducible, consistent measurements. In the SQ group,
training two to three sessions per week and were capable of subjects started from the upright position with the knees and
performing their respective exercise with proper technique. hips fully extended, stance approximately shoulder-width
No physical limitations, health problems, or musculoskeletal apart and the barbell resting across the back at the level
injuries that could affect testing were found after a medical of the acromion. Each subject descended in a continuous
examination. None of the subjects were taking drugs, medi- motion until the top of the thighs got below the horizontal
(ground) plane, the posterior thighs and shanks making
APPLIED SCIENCES

cations, or dietary supplements known to influence physical

performance. The study was approved by the Research Ethics contact with each other, then immediately reversed motion
Committee of Pablo de Olavide University, and written in- and ascended back to the upright position. Auditory feed-
formed consent was obtained from all subjects. back based on eccentric distance traveled was provided to
help each subject reach his previously determined squat
depth. Unlike the eccentric phase that was performed at a
Study Design
normal, controlled speed, subjects were required to always
During a period of approximately 8 wk, 21 exercise ses- execute the concentric phase of either BP or SQ in an ex-
sions were conducted in the following order: 1) an initial test plosive manner, at maximal intended velocity. Warm-up
with increasing loads for the individual determination of consisted of 5 min of stationary cycling at a self-selected
1RM strength and full load–velocity relationship, 2) five easy pace, 5 min of static stretches and joint mobilization
tests of maximal number of repetitions to failure (XRM: exercises, followed by two sets of eight and six repetitions

1726 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org

 (3-min rest) with loads of 20 and 30 kg, respectively. Initial the help of the spotters). Furthermore, the participants from
load was set at 20 kg for all subjects and was gradually the SQ group performed five maximal countermovement
increased in 10-kg increments until the attained mean pro- jumps (CMJ), separated by 20-s rests, right after executing
pulsive velocity (MPV) was G0.5 mIsj1 in the BP or the three preexercise repetitions with the V1 mIsj1 load and
G0.8 mIsj1 in the SQ group. Thereafter, load was individu- again after the final three postexercise repetitions with that
ally adjusted with smaller increments (5 down to 1 kg) so load. On each occasion, CMJ height was registered, the
that 1RM could be precisely determined. The heaviest load highest and lowest values were discarded, and the resulting
that each subject could properly lift while completing full average was kept for analysis. Strong verbal encouragement
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range of motion was considered to be his 1RM. Trained and velocity feedback in every repetition was provided
spotters were present when high loads were lifted to ensure throughout all sessions to motivate participants to give a
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safety. Three attempts were executed for light (G50% RM), maximal effort.
two for medium (50%–80% RM), and only one for the
heaviest (980% RM) loads. Interset rests ranged from 3 Mechanical Measurements of Fatigue
(light) to 6 min (heavy loads). Only the best repetition at Three different methods were used to quantify the extent
each load, according to the criteria of fastest MPV (31), was of fatigue induced by each REP. The first method analyzed
considered for subsequent analysis. the decline in repetition velocity during the three consecu-
Maximum repetition number assessment. For the tive exercise sets. It was calculated as the percent loss in
XRM load assessments, subjects warmed up by performing MPV from the fastest (usually first) to the slowest (last)
four to five sets of five down to two repetitions (3-min rests), repetition of each set and averaged over the three sets. The
progressively increasing weight up to the load correspond- second method examined the percent change in MPV pre–
ing to È70% (12RM), È75% (10RM), È80% (8RM), post exercise attained with the V1 mIsj1 load. The average
È85% (6RM), or È90% (4RM) of their previously deter- MPV of the three repetitions before exercise was compared
mined 1RM. This was carefully controlled for each partici- with the average MPV of the three repetitions after exer-
pant from his individual load–velocity profile because it has cise, i.e., 100 (average MPVpost j average MPVpre)/average
been recently shown that mean velocity can be used to pre- MPVpre. Figure 1 shows an example of these velocity losses
cisely estimate loading intensity (15). After a 5-min rest, for a representative subject and protocol. The third method
subjects completed one set to failure, whereas kinematic (only applied to the SQ group) involved the calculation of
data from every repetition were registered. percent change in CMJ height pre–post exercise.
Acute REP. The 15 types of REP were performed al-
ways using three sets and 5-min interset recoveries. Two Blood Lactate and Ammonia Analyses
measures were taken to ensure that the maximum predicted Capillary whole blood samples were drawn from the fin-
number of repetitions for each session was as accurate as gertip before exercise and immediately after each REP.
possible. First, previous XRM assessments were used as a Postexercise samples for the analysis of lactate (5 KL) were
reference to individually determine absolute load for each taken at 1, 3, and 5 min, whereas samples for ammonia
REP. Second, because of the considerable number of ex- (20 KL) were obtained at 1, 4, and 7 min during recovery to
ercise sessions undertaken in this study, strength levels determine peak concentration. The Lactate Pro LT-1710
were expected to change. Consequently, before starting each (Arkray, Kyoto, Japan) portable lactate analyzer was used
REP, adjustments in the proposed load (kg) were made
when needed so that the velocity of the first repetition
matched that expected from each subject’s relative load–
velocity relationship. In each session, subjects warmed up
by performing three sets of six down to three repetitions
(2-min rests) with increasing loads up to the individual load
that elicited a È1.00-mIsj1 (1.04 T 0.01 for SQ and 1.03 T
0.01 for BP) MPV (V1 mIsj1). This value was chosen be-
APPLIED SCIENCES
cause it is a sufficiently high velocity, which is attained
against medium loads (È45% RM in BP and È60% RM in
SQ), and it allows a good expression of the effect of loading
on velocity, besides being a relatively easy-to-move and
well-tolerated load. The V1 mIsj1 load (kg) was thus taken
as a preexercise reference measure against which to com-
pare the velocity loss experienced after the three exercise
sets. Subjects executed three maximal-effort consecutive
repetitions against the V1 mIsj1 load right before starting the FIGURE 1—Example of quantification of percent velocity losses after a
3  12[12] REP for a representative subject in the BP exercise. Both
first set and again immediately after completing the last MPV loss over three sets (j65.7%) and MPV pre–post exercise against
repetition of the third set (load was changed in 10–15 s with the V1 mIsj1 load (j30.8%) were calculated.

VELOCITY-BASED RESISTANCE TRAINING Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised 1727
 for lactate measurements. Ammonia was measured using (Mitutoyo HDS-H60C; Mitutoyo, Corp., Kawasaki, Japan)
PocketChem BA PA-4130 (Menarini Diagnostics, Florence, previously calibrated by the Spanish National Institute of
Italy). Both devices were calibrated before each exercise Aerospace Technology. After performing the comparisons
session according to the manufacturer’s specifications. Re- with 18 different T-Force units, the mean relative error
liability was calculated by assessing twice 15 different in the velocity measurements was found to be G0.25%,
samples over the physiological range (1.3–17.0 mmolILj1 whereas displacement was accurate to T0.5 mm. In addi-
for lactate and 35–150 KmolILj1 for ammonia). The coef- tion, when simultaneously performing 30 repetitions with two
ficient of variation (CV) ranged from 2.6% to 4.1% for lactate devices (range = 0.3–2.3 mIsj1 mean velocity), an intraclass
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and from 3.0% to 5.2% for ammonia. correlation coefficient (ICC) of 1.00 (95% confidence in-
terval = 1.00–1.00) and CV of 0.57% were obtained for
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Measurement Equipment and Data Acquisition MPV, whereas an ICC of 1.00 (95% confidence interval =
0.99–1.00) and CV of 1.75% were found for peak velocity.
Height was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm during a
The velocities reported in the present study correspond to the
maximal inhalation using a wall-mounted stadiometer (Seca
mean velocity of the propulsive phase for each repetition.
202; Seca Ltd., Hamburg, Germany). Body weight was de-
Mean propulsive values are preferable to mean concentric
termined, and fat percentage was estimated using an eight-
values because they avoid underestimating an individual’s
contact electrode segmental body composition analyzer
true neuromuscular potential when lifting light and medium
(Tanita BC-418; Tanita Corp., Tokyo, Japan). Jump height
loads, as well as being more stable and reliable than peak
was measured using an infrared timing system (Optojump;
values (31). The propulsive phase was defined as that
Microgate, Bolzano, Italy). A Smith machine (Multipower
portion of the concentric phase during which barbell ac-
Fitness Line, Peroga, Spain) that ensures a smooth vertical
celeration (a) is greater than acceleration due to gravity
displacement of the bar along a fixed pathway was used
(i.e., a 9 j9.81 mIsj2).
for all sessions. A dynamic measurement system (T-Force
System; Ergotech, Murcia, Spain) automatically calculated
Statistical Analysis
the relevant kinematic parameters of every repetition, pro-
vided auditory velocity and displacement feedback, and Correlations are reported using Pearson product–moment
stored data on disk for analysis. This system consists of a correlation coefficients (r). Relationships between mecha-
linear velocity transducer interfaced to a personal computer nical losses and ammonia concentration were studied by
using a 14-bit resolution analog-to-digital data acquisition fitting second-order polynomials to data. An independent-
board and custom software. Instantaneous velocity was sam- samples t-test was used to examine differences between
pled at a frequency of 1000 Hz and subsequently smoothed exercises, whereas a related-samples t-test was used to ana-
with a fourth-order low-pass Butterworth filter with a cutoff lyze velocity and CMJ height pre–post changes as well as to
frequency of 10 Hz. A digital filter with no phase shift was compare preexercise and postexercise lactate and ammonia
then applied to the data. Validity and reliability were estab- levels. Data are presented as mean T SD. Significance was
lished by comparing the displacement measurements obtained accepted at P e 0.05. Analyses were performed using SPSS
by this device with a high-precision digital height gauge software version 15.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL).

TABLE 1. Mechanical and metabolic measurements of fatigue after each REP.

Loss of MPV over Loss of MPV with V1 mIsj1
Three Sets (%) Load (%) Loss of CMJ Height (%) Lactate (mmolILj1) Ammonia (KmolILj1)
REP SQ BP SQ BP SQ SQ BP SQ BP
3  12[12] 46.5 T 3.8 ***63.3 T 4.0 21.3 T 9.1 **32.8 T 8.5 19.3 T 4.4 12.5 T 1.9 ***8.2 T 1.3 †††125 T 34 †††111 T 20
3  10[12] 37.1 T 7.7 ***51.1 T 5.5 14.6 T 5.5 **24.9 T 6.9 16.6 T 3.9 10.6 T 1.2 ***6.7 T 1.0 †62 T 14 †††71 T 11
3  8[12] 32.3 T 7.6 36.5 T 4.3 10.6 T 1.9 **15.3 T 3.6 11.4 T 1.9 8.0 T 1.4 **5.7 T 1.4 49 T 16 49 T 18
3  6[12] 20.2 T 4.3 *24.2 T 2.3 9.7 T 2.1 8.1 T 1.4 9.6 T 1.4 4.9 T 0.3 4.2 T 0.9 46 T 14 45 T 12
3  10[10] 45.7 T 7.0 ***58.4 T 4.5 21.0 T 8.9 *30.5 T 8.3 17.0 T 3.6 11.7 T 2.2 ***7.8 T 1.2 †††97 T 19 †††89 T 16
T T T T T T T T 20 ††64 T 17
APPLIED SCIENCES

3  8[10] 32.3 5.5 ***46.1 4.2 15.2 4.3 17.7 3.9 13.6 1.9 8.6 1.3 ***6.0 0.6 62
3  6[10] 22.0 T 8.0 *29.8 T 4.5 11.0 T 4.1 13.6 T 2.6 10.3 T 2.1 6.3 T 1.6 **4.6 T 0.8 48 T 10 47 T 13
3  8[8] 39.8 T 4.0 ***56.9 T 3.7 18.2 T 5.0 *26.8 T 7.9 15.8 T 4.0 10.4 T 2.1 **7.5 T 1.4 †78 T 28 †††79 T 20
3  6[8] 29.4 T 9.4 *39.0 T 4.5 10.5 T 1.2 *13.9 T 3.2 11.3 T 2.2 7.1 T 2.1 **4.8 T 1.0 52 T 22 54 T 19
3  4[8] 21.2 T 8.6 24.8 T 2.9 9.2 T 1.7 9.6 T 1.5 6.0 T 2.0 4.5 T 0.8 *3.4 T 0.9 42 T 11 49 T 19
3  6[6] 41.9 T 4.9 ***56.8 T 5.7 14.7 T 5.4 **24.7 T 6.6 13.2 T 2.6 10.0 T 1.7 ***6.9 T 1.1 65 T 23 ††68 T 14
3  4[6] 28.1 T 6.1 *33.8 T 3.6 10.3 T 3.0 9.2 T 2.8 9.9 T 2.7 5.2 T 0.9 *4.0 T 0.9 56 T 21 52 T 17
3  3[6] 19.6 T 7.1 23.7 T 3.0 8.0 T 2.6 7.2 T 1.4 6.4 T 2.2 3.5 T 0.6 3.1 T 0.7 47 T 16 51 T 21
3  4[4] 32.0 T 5.1 ***49.8 T 6.6 9.5 T 1.9 ***18.8 T 3.8 10.6 T 3.4 6.9 T 1.7 **4.9 T 1.0 61 T 28 53 T 16
3  2[4] 16.6 T 4.5 18.9 T 4.4 6.1 T 1.8 5.2 T 1.2 5.7 T 1.3 3.0 T 0.6 2.6 T 0.7 41 T 12 48 T 14
Data are mean T SD. Losses are reported as positive values.
BP, bench press (n = 10); SQ, squat (n = 8).
Significant differences between SQ and BP exercises: * P e 0.05, ** P e 0.01, *** P e 0.001.
Significant differences between preexercise and postexercise ammonia: † P e 0.05, †† P e 0.01, ††† P e 0.001.
Postexercise lactate significantly different (P e 0.001) from preexercise for all REP and both exercises except 3  2[4] in BP (P e 0.01).
Loss of MPV over three sets, loss of MPV with V1 mIsj1 load, and loss of CMJ height were significant (P e 0.001) for all REP and both exercises.

1728 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org

 RESULTS
Velocity and CMJ height losses. Both percent loss
of MPV over three sets and loss of MPV pre–post exercise
with the V1 mIsj1 load, gradually increased as the number
of performed repetitions in each set approached the maxi-
mum predicted number of repetitions for each type of REP
(Table 1). Velocity losses were significantly greater for BP
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compared with SQ for most types of REP. This difference in

the magnitude of loss of velocity between exercises in-
creased as the number of performed repetitions approached
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the maximum (Table 1). MPV losses, both over three sets
and pre–post with V1 mIsj1 load, were statistically signifi-
cant (P e 0.001) for all REP and both exercises. The de-
crease in CMJ height pre–post exercise was greater as the
number of performed repetitions approached the maximum
for each REP. Postexercise CMJ height was significantly
different (P e 0.001) from preexercise after all REP.
Relationships between mechanical measurements
of fatigue. A very high correlation was found between rela-
tive loss of MPV over three sets and loss of MPV pre–post
exercise with the V1 mIsj1 load for both SQ (r = 0.91; Fig. 2A)
and BP (r = 0.97; Fig. 2B) exercises. For the SQ group, simi-
larly high correlations were found between percent loss of
CMJ height pre–post exercise and (a) MPV loss over three
sets (r = 0.92, P e 0.001; Fig. 3A) and (b) loss of MPV pre–
post with the V1 mIsj1 load (r = 0.93, P e 0.001; Fig. 3B).
Blood lactate and ammonia response. Peak post-
exercise lactate concentration linearly increased as the
number of performed repetitions in each set approached the FIGURE 2—Relationships between relative loss of MPV over three sets
and loss of MPV pre–post exercise against the V1 mIsj1 load in SQ (A)
maximum predicted number of repetitions, both in SQ and and BP (B) exercises. Each data point corresponds to one of the 15
in BP (Table 1). For any REP, lactate levels were always different REP analyzed. Different symbol colors are used to differen-
higher after the SQ compared with the BP exercise, these tiate between the maximum predicted number of repetitions (P ) for
each REP: black (P = 4), brown (P = 6), green (P = 8), blue (P = 10), and
differences being significant for most of the protocols ana- red (P = 12).
lyzed (Table 1). Postexercise ammonia levels were signifi-
cantly higher than preexercise resting values for the 3  over three sets of È30% (SQ) or È35% (BP), blood am-
12[12], 3  10[12], 3  10[10], 3  8[10], 3  8[8], and monia levels started to increase steadily above resting val-
3  6[6] REP in BP; and 3  12[12], 3  10[12], 3  ues (Fig. 4B). When considering the loss of MPV pre–post
10[10], and 3  8[8] REP in SQ (Table 1). Peak postexercise with the V1 mIsj1 load, the magnitudes of velocity loss
ammonia concentration did not increase above basal resting from which ammonia increased above resting values were
values (e50 KmolILj1) when the number of performed re- È15% (SQ) and È20% (BP) (Fig. 4D). Percent loss of CMJ
petitions in each set was half the maximum predicted number. height pre–post exercise was highly correlated with lactate
No statistically significant differences in postexercise am- (r = 0.97, P G 0.001; Fig. 3C). Ammonia showed a curvi-
monia were found between SQ and BP for any REP. linear response to loss of CMJ height so that from È12%
Relationships between mechanical and meta- loss of CMJ height, ammonia increased steadily above
APPLIED SCIENCES
bolic measures of fatigue. A nearly perfect correlation resting levels (Fig. 3D).
between MPV loss over three sets and postexercise peak
lactate was found for both SQ (r = 0.97, P G 0.001) and BP
(r = 0.95, P G 0.001) exercises (Fig. 4A). Very high cor- DISCUSSION
relations were also found between loss of MPV pre–post To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to
exercise with the V1 mIsj1 load and lactate for SQ (r = 0.93, analyze the acute response to manipulating the number of
P G 0.001) and BP (r = 0.97, P G 0.001) (Fig. 4C). Unlike repetitions actually performed in each training set with re-
lactate, which linearly increased with greater velocity loss gard to the maximum number of repetitions that can be
(Figs. 4A, C), the response of ammonia to loss of veloc- completed. Although some research has compared the effect
ity followed a curvilinear relationship and better fitted a of failure versus nonfailure training approaches on strength
quadratic regression (Figs. 4B, D). Thus, from a MPV loss gains (9,10,14,20,21,38), the mechanical and metabolic

VELOCITY-BASED RESISTANCE TRAINING Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised 1729
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FIGURE 3—Relationships between relative loss of CMJ height pre–post exercise and loss of MPV over three sets (A), loss of MPV pre–post exercise
against the V1 mIsj1 load (B), lactate (C), and ammonia (D) for the SQ exercise group. Each data point corresponds to one of the 15 different REP
analyzed.

responses to different repetition schemes in which a set is lying the onset of muscle fatigue, they bear little resem-
ended before reaching muscular failure had not been previ- blance to the majority of muscle actions performed in actual
ously analyzed. In the present study, a detailed examination sports training and competition settings. Hence, there is a
of 15 different types of REP was conducted under con- need to use fatigue protocols and outcome measures closer
trolled conditions to assess whether loss of repetition ve- to isoinertial in vivo training movements (7,27). Because
locity could be used as an objective indicator of the extent fatigue is postulated to be a continuous rather than a failure-
of neuromuscular fatigue induced by typical RT sessions. point phenomenon (7), the gradual decrease in repetition
Our results indicate that, by monitoring repetition velocity velocity that takes place during repeated dynamic con-
during training, it is possible to reasonably estimate the tractions can be interpreted as evidence of impaired neuro-
metabolic stress and neuromuscular fatigue induced by re- muscular function and its measurement could provide a
sistance exercise. A unique finding of this study is that relatively simple yet objective means of quantifying the ex-
ammonia, unlike lactate, shows a curvilinear response to tent of fatigue.
loss of repetition velocity during RT. Some REP, especially The present study confirms that the magnitude of veloc-
those consisting of eight or more repetitions per set leading ity loss experienced during RT gradually increases as the
to failure (3  12[12], 3  10[10], and 3  8[8]), caused number of performed repetitions in a set approaches the
ammonia to significantly rise above resting values, which maximum predicted number. This was an expected result
APPLIED SCIENCES

could indicate an accelerated purine nucleotide degradation, because it is known that velocity naturally slows down
thereby suggesting that such protocols may require longer during a training set as fatigue develops (11,18,26). How-
recovery times. ever, to the authors’ knowledge, the actual values of velocity
Most of the literature examining neuromuscular fatigue loss (Table 1) after a wide range of REP performed within
has traditionally used isolated muscle preparations, both the most typical RT intensity range (È70%–90% 1RM) had
in vitro and in situ, as well as electrically stimulated muscle not been previously described. A finding worth noting is that
fibers. Isometric or isokinetic contractions made before greater MPV losses were experienced for BP compared with
and immediately after the fatiguing task, as well as during SQ for all protocols analyzed (Table 1). This is in agreement
the activity, have been commonly used to quantify fatigue with previous results from Izquierdo et al. (18) who com-
(27,29). Although such laboratory experiments are certainly pared the pattern of repetition velocity decline when per-
necessary to identify the physiological mechanisms under- forming sets to failure with loads corresponding to 60%,

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FIGURE 4—Relationships between relative loss of MPV over three sets and peak postexercise: lactate (A) and ammonia (B); and between MPV pre–
post exercise against the V1 mIsj1 load and lactate (C) and ammonia (D) for the BP and SQ exercises. Each data point corresponds to one of the 15
different REP analyzed.

65%, 70%, and 75% 1RM in the BP and half-squat ex- exercise decline in movement velocity experienced against
ercises. The greater velocity loss in the BP could be be- a given submaximal load (in this case, the V1 mIsj1 load)
cause 1RM for this exercise is attained at a considerably can be considered as a good expression of neuromuscular
slower mean velocity (È0.16 mIsj1) than that for the SQ fatigue. Indeed, in addition to force reduction, other aspects
(È0.35 mIsj1) (15,18). The lower 1RM mean velocity in of neuromuscular performance that are affected by fatigue
the BP could be related to the greater movement control are muscle-shortening velocity (decreases) and relaxation
and smaller muscle groups involved in this exercise (more time (increases) (2). Because of fatigue, the load that was
localized fatigue) compared with the SQ (fatigue distributed lifted at È1.00 mIsj1 in a rested, preexercise state, will be
among a greater amount of muscle mass). The relative moved at a considerably slower velocity after the REP. The
position of the ‘‘sticking region’’ in these exercises may subject will undoubtedly perceive a greater effort when
also explain these velocity differences, as the squat allows moving the same absolute load in the fatigued state, a situ-
more time/distance for force production after such region. We ation that corresponds well with the definition of Enoka and
must finally consider that the BP was performed in a con- Stuart (13). Besides being a relatively easy-to-move and
centric-only (no rebound) action, whereas the SQ exercise is well-tolerated load for most RT exercises, the V1 mIsj1 load
influenced by the stretch–shortening cycle that takes place is quick to determine as part of the warm-up and facilitates
APPLIED SCIENCES
when transitioning from an eccentric to a concentric action. the calculation of percentage losses.
In essence, all models of fatigue entail two components: Similar to loss of MPV over three sets, the magnitude of
fatigue induction and fatigue quantification (27). In the loss of MPV pre–post with the V1 mIsj1 load gradually in-
present study, fatigue was quantified using two different creased as the number of performed repetitions in each set
methods: 1) percent decline in MPV over the three consec- approached the maximum predicted number for each type of
utive exercise sets and 2) percent change in MPV pre–post REP (Table 1). Relative loss of velocity with the V1 mIsj1
exercise attained with the V1 mIsj1 load, as well as percent load was of lesser magnitude than MPV loss over three sets
change in CMJ height pre–post (SQ group only). Because and higher for BP compared with SQ, especially as the
fatigue has been traditionally defined as a loss of force- number of performed repetitions increased toward maxi-
generating capability with an eventual inability to sustain mum (Table 1). The same pattern of decline was observed
exercise at the required or expected level (4,13), the post- when analyzing loss of CMJ height pre–post exercise for

VELOCITY-BASED RESISTANCE TRAINING Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised 1731
 the SQ group, which seems to follow the same rationale. of fatigue and metabolic stress (acute lactate and ammonia
Loss of CMJ height is equivalent to loss of vertical velocity responses) (Figs. 3C, D and 4). Lactate increased linearly
at take-off, so in essence we are quantifying fatigue by the as the number of performed repetitions approached the
loss of muscle-shortening velocity. Several studies have used maximum predicted for each type of REP (Table 1) and
measurements of vertical jump height pre–post exercise to showed extremely high correlations (r = 0.93–0.97) with
quantify the extent of fatigue. Smilios (33) observed CMJ loss of MPV over three sets (Fig. 4A), loss of MPV pre–post
height losses of 33% and 23% after exercise to failure in the exercise with the V1 mIsj1 load (Fig. 4C), and loss of CMJ
leg press with loads of 70% and 90% RM, respectively. These height (Fig. 3C). The highest peak lactate values (È10.5–
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reductions are greater than those obtained in the present 12.5 mmolILj1 in SQ and È7.5–8.0 mmolILj1 in BP) were
study (19% and 11%) in the equivalent REP of 12[12] obtained when performing 8–12 repetitions per set. Lac-
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(È70% RM) and 4[4] (È90% RM). However, in Smilios’s tate levels were significantly higher for SQ than BP after
study (33), participants were not required to perform each most REP analyzed (Table 1), which can be attributed to
repetition with maximal voluntary effort, and the number of the greater muscle mass involved in the full squat. The REP
repetitions actually performed with each load was not re- that resulted in the highest lactate response were 3  12[12],
ported, which makes it difficult to compare with our data. 3  10[12], 3  10[10], and 3  8[8], i.e., the type of
Rodacki et al. (30) induced fatigue by requesting subjects protocols commonly used to induce muscle hypertrophy,
to extend and flex their knees to failure in a weight ma- which is in line with previous research (23,24,34). Interest-
chine. The loads used corresponded to È50% (extensors) and ingly, peak lactate values after the 3  6[12] BP protocol
È40% (flexors) of each subject’s body mass. Mean losses in (4.2 T 0.9 mmolILj1) were very similar to those found by
CMJ height of 14% (extensors) and 6% (flexors) were found. Abdessemed et al. (1) when performing 10  6[12] under
Data from Rodacki et al. (30) suggest that the incurred fatigue different interset recovery conditions. They found that
and degree of effort was highly variable between participants blood lactate did not significantly increase after the third
(È10–26 repetitions in extension; È18–36 repetitions in set when using 3-min (4.7 T 0.8 mmolILj1) or 5-min (3.6 T
flexion) and thus precludes direct comparison with our data. 0.7 mmolILj1) rests. However, the 1-min rest condition
Gorostiaga et al. (16) examined CMJ height loss after typical resulted in a significantly greater lactate elevation in sets 4
sprint training workouts in 400-m elite runners. They found to 10, concomitant with much greater reductions in mean
reductions of 5%–19% in CMJ height pre–post exercise, with repetition power output.
no clear relationship to sprint distance. Comparing our find- A unique and interesting finding of the present study is
ings with those of these investigations is difficult because that ammonia response, unlike lactate, shows a curvilinear
the protocols used to induce fatigue, the samples, and even relationship to loss of velocity (Figs. 4B, D) and seems in-
the type of actions and movement velocities greatly differed dependent of the exercise (BP or SQ). Peak postexercise
between studies. Nevertheless, it seems clear from this body ammonia only increased above basal resting levels when the
of research that loss of CMJ height can be used as an indi- number of performed repetitions in each set was at least two
cator of neuromuscular fatigue. higher than half the maximum predicted number (Table 1),
In the present study, very high and significant cor- thus suggesting the existence of a certain ‘‘level of effort
relations (r = 0.91–0.97) were found between the three threshold’’ to be exceeded for blood ammonia to respond.
different types of mechanical measures used to assess This nonlinear response of ammonia is similar to that found
neuromuscular fatigue (Figs. 2 and 3A, B). These rela- in some studies, which analyzed the physiological response
tionships are an important finding for the quantification and to incremental exercise (3,6,32), but to our knowledge, it
monitoring of training load during RT. The fact that there had not been previously documented for RT. An increase
exists such a close relationship between loss of MPV over in blood ammonia levels during short-term high-intensity
three sets and loss of MPV with the V1 mIsj1 load in two exercise is usually interpreted as indicative of an acceler-
exercises as different as SQ (Fig. 2A) and BP (Fig. 2B), ated ammonia production by muscle resulting from the
as well as between both variables and loss of CMJ height deamination of AMP to IMP. A loss of purines has been
in the SQ group (Figs. 3A, B), is a novel finding that documented after high-intensity exercise sessions such as
APPLIED SCIENCES

emphasizes the validity of using percent loss of repeti- repeated sprints (17,36). Because de novo synthesis of
tion velocity within a set as an indicator of neuromuscular nucleotides is a slow and energy-consuming process, mus-
fatigue. The relationships observed in Figure 2 also mean cle performance can remain significantly reduced up to
that, for a given percent loss of velocity within a set, the 48–72 h after exercise (17). According to the results of this
degree of fatigue incurred during RT is very similar irre- study, the REP that resulted in blood ammonia significantly
spective of the number of repetitions the subject is able to higher than resting levels were 3  12[12], 3  10[12], 3 
perform (shown in different colors in Fig. 2), at least in a 10[10], and 3  8[8] in SQ and 3  12[12], 3  10[12], 3 
range from 4 (È90% RM) to 12 (È70% RM) repetitions. 10[10], 3  8[10], 3  8[8], and 3  6[6] in BP, with
The validity of using percent velocity loss to quantify considerably greater values for those leading to failure in
neuromuscular fatigue during RT is further supported by each set (Table 1). It seems plausible to suggest that these
the relationships observed between mechanical measures types of protocols may cause an accelerated purine nucleotide

1732 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org

 degradation that would increase the amount of time needed back the athlete receives during each session may increase
for recovery after training. The mean peak postexercise the potential for adaptation. With this training approach,
ammonia concentrations in this study (125 KmolILj1 in SQ, instead of a certain amount of weight to be lifted, strength
110 KmolILj1 in BP for the 3  12[12] REP) are similar to and conditioning coaches should prescribe resistance exer-
those obtained by Izquierdo et al. (19) but lower than the cise in terms of two variables: 1) first repetition’s mean ve-
extremely high values (9200 KmolILj1) found after 3  locity, which is intrinsically related to loading intensity (15);
10RM or 3  5RM in multiple exercises with only 1-min and 2) a maximum percent velocity loss to be allowed in
recovery (24). each set. When this percent loss limit is exceed the set must
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Although some studies have reported the point within a be terminated. The limit of repetition velocity loss should be
set where a significant reduction in velocity (18) or power set beforehand depending on the primary training goal being
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output (1,26) was observed, the optimal time to terminate pursued, the particular exercise to be performed, as well as
a set before reaching failure has never been clearly estab- the training experience and performance level of the athlete.
lished. Although the present study does not come up with a More studies are warranted to further explore this velocity-
definitive answer to that question, it does, however, pro- based approach to RT.
vide us with some valuable information that may indicate In conclusion, the present data show that the relationship
when it could be appropriate to end a set. According to our between the number of repetitions actually performed in a
results (Table 1; Figs. 3 and 4), a maximum MPV loss of set and the maximum predicted number that can be com-
È30% for SQ and È35% for BP could be established to pleted is an important aspect to take into account when
prevent blood ammonia to significantly rise above resting prescribing resistance exercise because the velocity loss and
levels. These theoretical thresholds for velocity loss could be metabolic stress clearly differ when manipulating these
used as a preliminary reference to undertake a longitudinal variables. The high correlations found between mechanical
study aimed to examine the effect of training with differ- (velocity and CMJ height losses) and metabolic (lactate,
ent repetition velocity losses (e.g., 15%, 30%, and 45%) on ammonia) measures of fatigue support the validity of using
neuromuscular performance (1RM strength, rate of force velocity loss to objectively quantify neuromuscular fatigue
development, maximal power production, etc.). during RT. The nonlinear response of blood ammonia to
Monitoring repetition velocity during resistance exercise loss of repetition velocity could perhaps be used as a refer-
seems important because both the neuromuscular demands ence to indicate the point within a set where the exercise
and the training effect itself largely depend on the velocity at should be terminated when the main training objective is to
which loads are lifted. A velocity- or power-based approach improve movement velocity or maximal power production.
to RT is not entirely new, and authors such as Bosco (5) and Future experimental research should compare the effects of
Tidow (37) already provided some initial guidelines for training with different magnitudes of velocity loss on neu-
putting it into practice. However, the role placed by move- romuscular performance. The present study is expected to
ment velocity has not been sufficiently investigated (28). contribute to the field of exercise science by allowing a more
The findings obtained in the present study strongly support rational characterization of the RT stimulus.
the use of velocity monitoring to control the degree of in-
curred fatigue. Because loads must be specific to ensure
an optimal training stimulus, setting a certain velocity loss No funding was received for this work from any of the following
threshold during RT can serve to avoid performing unnec- organizations or any other institution: the National Institutes of Health,
Wellcome Trust, or Howard Hughes Medical Institute.
essary repetitions that may not be contributing to the desired The results of the present study do not constitute endorsement
training effect. Furthermore, the immediate velocity feed- by the American College of Sports Medicine.

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APPLIED SCIENCES

1734 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org