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MULTICULTURAL CITIZENSHIP AND MUSLIM

IDENTITY POLITICS
a
Tariq Modood
a
University of Bristol, UK

Available online: 19 Jul 2010

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 articles M U LT I C U LT U R A L C I T I Z E N S H I P A N D
MUSLIM IDENTITY POLITICS
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Tariq Modood
University of Bristol, UK
................
British Muslim I offer a rebuttal of the view, now common among the political classes in Western
Europe, that Muslim assertiveness is incompatible with the universalism of liberal
citizenship democratic citizenship. I do so by sketching a view of multicultural citizenship in
which respect for difference is grounded in universalist values. My conception of
identity
political multiculturalism is based on the ideas of ‘difference’, ‘multi’ and a double
ideology conception of equality. Multiculturalism seeks the goal of positive difference and the
means to achieve it, which crucially involve the appreciation of the fact of multiplicity
Islam and groupness, the building of group pride among those marked by negative
difference, and political engagement with the sources of negatitivity and racism.
multiculturalism While the focus is not on anything so narrow as normally understood by ‘culture’,
and multicultural equality cannot be achieved without other forms of equality, such
as those relating to socioeconomic opportunities, its distinctive feature is about the
inclusion into and the making of a shared public space in terms of equality of respect
as well as equal dignity. I marry this conception of multiculturalism to a vision of
citizenship that is not confined to the state but dispersed across society, compatible
with the multiple forms of contemporary groupness and sustained through dialogue,
plural forms of representation that do not take one group as the model to whom all
others have to conform and new, reformed national identities. Citizenship consists of
a framework of rights and practices of participation, but also discourses and symbols

.............................................................................
interventions Vol. 12(2) 157
170 (ISSN 1369-801X print/1469-929X online)
Copyright # 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/1369801X.2010.489688
 i n t e r v e n t i o n s
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of belonging, ways of imagining and remaking ourselves as a country and expressing
our sense of commonalities, as well as differences in ways in which these identities
qualify each other and create inclusive public spaces. I show in some detail that some
British Muslims’ identity debates have precisely this character. Ideological and
violent extremism is indeed undermining the conditions and hopes for multi-
culturalism, but this extremism has nothing to do with multiculturalism and is
coming into the domestic arena from the international.
................

Blaming Multiculturalism, Blaming Muslims

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A central feature of the political discourses in contemporary Western Europe

1 This essay is based is a critique of multiculturalism that focuses on Muslims.1 It pre-dates the
on my book terrorist attacks of 9/11 and their aftermath, though in Britain at least 2001
Multiculturalism: A
Civic Idea (2007). is a pivotal year (in relation to other countries, see Modood 2007: 12
14).
The late spring of that year saw urban disturbances in a number of Northern
English towns and cities in which young Muslim
mainly Pakistani
men
played a central role. The dominant political response was that the riots were
due to a one-sided multiculturalism having facilitated, even encouraged,
segregated communities which shunned each other. All subsequent events
seem to point in the same direction. For example, Gilles Keppel (2005)
observed that the 7/7 bombers ‘were the children of Britain’s own
multicultural society’ and that the bombings have ‘smashed’ the implicit
social consensus that produced multiculturalism ‘to smithereens’. While not
all commentators are so gleeful in their reading of these events, it is
nevertheless true that virtually throughout the western world there is
disaffection with multiculturalism, even among its erstwhile supporters.
Indeed, it would be no exaggeration to speak of a ‘crisis of multiculturalism’
and to note that its prevalence is linked to the size or activities of the Muslim
population in specific countries (Kymlicka 2007: 55; for qualifications, see
Jedwab 2005).
I would like to respond to this state of affairs by restating a conception of
multiculturalism which, while not within certain narrow forms of liberalism,
places it squarely within an understanding of democratic citizenship and
nation-building and so offers a prospect of winning back the lost support for
multicultural politics.

Difference, Equality and Citizenship

Multiculturalism gives political importance to a respect for identities that are

important to people, as identified in minority assertiveness, arguing that they
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should not be disregarded in the name of integration or citizenship (Young

1990; Taylor 1994; Parekh 2000). Sociologically, we have to begin with the
fact of negative ‘difference’: with alienness, inferiorization, stigmatization,
stereotyping, exclusion, discrimination, racism and so on; but also the sense
of identity that groups so perceived have of themselves. The differences at
issue are those felt both by outsiders or group members to constitute
not just some form of distinctness but a kind of alienness or inferiority
that diminishes or makes difficult equal membership in the wider society
or polity. The differences in question are in the fields of race, ethnicity,
cultural heritage or religious community
typically, differences that overlap
between these categories, not least because they do not have singular, fixed
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meanings.
Multiculturalism refers to the struggle, the political mobilization but also
the policy and institutional outcomes, and forms of accommodation in
which ‘differences’ are not eliminated or washed away but to some extent
‘recognized’. The character of ‘difference’ is addressed through both group
assertiveness and mobilization, and through institutional and policy reforms
to address the claims of the newly settled, marginalized groups; ideally,
a negative difference is turned into a positive difference, though in most
contemporary situations something of each is likely to be simultaneously
present.
It should be clear from the above that the concept of equality has to be
applied to groups and not just individuals (Parekh 2000). Different theorists
have offered different formulations on this question. Charles Taylor (1994),
for example, argues that when we talk about equality in the context of race
and ethnicity, we are appealing to two different albeit related concepts,
which slightly altering Taylor’s nomenclature, I will call equal dignity and
equal respect. Equal dignity appeals to people’s humanity or to some specific
membership such as citizenship and applies to all members in a relatively
uniform way; a good example would be Martin Luther King Jr’s demand for
civil rights. We appeal to this universalist idea in relation to anti-
discrimination policies which depend on the principle that everybody should
be treated the same. However, Taylor and other theorists in differing ways
also posit the idea of equal respect. If equal dignity focuses on what people
have in common and so is gender-blind, colourblind and so on, equal respect
is based on an understanding that difference is also important in con-
ceptualizing and institutionalizing equal relations between individuals.
This is because individuals have group identities and these may be the
ground of existing and longstanding inequalities such as racism, or the ways
that some people have conceived and treated others as inferior, less rational
and culturally backward. While those conceptions persist they will affect the
dignity of non-white people, above all where they share imaginative and
social life with white people. The negative conceptions will lead to direct and
 i n t e r v e n t i o n s
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........................
indirect acts of discrimination
they will eat away at the possibilities
of equal dignity. They will affect the self-understanding of those who
breathe in and seek to be equal participants in a culture in which ideas
of their inferiority, or even just of their absence, their invisibility, are
pervasive. They will stand in need of self-respect and the respect of others,
of the dominant group; the latter will be crucial, for it is the source
of their damaged self-respect and it is where the power for change lies
(Du Bois 1999).
So, denigration of a group identity, its distortion or its denial, the pretence

often unconscious because part of a cultural rather than a personal way of
thinking
that a group does not exist, and the withholding of recognition or
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misrecognition, is a form of oppression (Taylor 1994). It is a form of

inequality in its own right, but also threatens the other form of equality

equal dignity
the fulfilment of which can be made impossible by
stereotyping or the failure to recognize the self-definitional strivings of
marginal groups.
The interaction and mutuality between the two kinds of equality run the
other way, too. Equal respect presupposes the framework of commonality
and rights embodied in equal dignity. Hence it is quite wrong to think of the
latter in terms of universalism and the former as a denial of universality. For
not only does the concept of equal respect grow out of a concern with equal
dignity, but it only makes sense because it rests on universalist foundations.
It is only because there is a fundamental equality between human beings or
between citizens that the claim for respect can be formulated. As Taylor says,
there is a demand for an acknowledgement of specificity, but it is powered
by the universal principle that an advantage that some currently enjoy should
not be a privilege but available to all (Taylor 1994: 38
9). Hence, we must
not lose sight of the fact that both equal dignity and equal respect are
essential to multiculturalism; while the latter marks out multiculturalism
from classical liberalism, it does not make multiculturalism normatively
particularistic or relativist.
Citizens are of course individuals and have individual rights, but they are
not uniform and their citizenship contours itself around them. Citizenship is
not a monistic identity that is completely apart from or transcends other
identities important to citizens; in the way that the theory
though not
always the practice
of French republicanism demands. The plurality is ever
present and each part of the plurality has a right to be a part of the whole
and to speak up for itself and for its vision of the whole. As the parties to
these dialogues are many, not just two, the process may be described as
multilogical. The multilogues allow for views to qualify each other, overlap,
synthesize, modify one’s own view in the light of having to coexist with that
of others’, hybridize, allow new adjustments to be made, new conversations
to take place. Such modulations and contestations are part of the internal,
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Tariq Modood
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161

evolutionary, ‘work-in-progress’ dynamic of citizenship. Moreover, we

perform and experience our citizenship, not just through law and politics
but also via civic debate and action initiated by our voluntary associations,
community organizations, trades unions, newspapers and media, churches,
temples, mosques and so on. Change and reform do not all have to be
brought about by state action. They can also occur as a result of public
debate, discursive contestations, pressure group mobilizations, and the
varied and (semi-) autonomous institutions of civil society.
There is, then, deep resonance between citizenship and multicultural
recognition. Not only do both presuppose complementary notions of unity
and plurality, and of equality and difference, but the idea of respect for the
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group self-identities that citizens value is central to each. Moreover, seeing

citizenship as a work in progress and as partly constituted, and certainly
extended, by contestatory multilogues and novel demands for due recogni-
tion as circumstances shift, means that citizenship can be understood as
conversation and renegotiation: not just about who is to be recognized but
about what is recognition, about the terms of citizenship itself. At one point,
it is the injuries of class that demand civic attention; at another there is a plea
for dropping a self-deluding ‘colourblindness’ and of addressing racialized
statuses through citizenship. The one thing that civic inclusion does not
consist of is an uncritical acceptance of an existing conception of citizenship,
of ‘the rules of the game’ and a one-sided ‘fitting-in’ of new entrants or the
new equals (the ex-subordinates). To be a citizen, no less than to have just
become a citizen, is to have a right to not just be recognized but to debate the
terms of recognition. Multiculturalism, then, seeks the goal of positive
difference and the means to achieve it, which crucially involve the
appreciation of the fact of multiplicity and groupness, the building of group
pride among those marked out by negative difference, and political
engagement with the sources of negativity and racism. Its distinctive feature
is the creation of a shared public space in terms of equality of respect as well
as equal dignity.

‘ 3 1 ’ : I m p l i c a t i on s f or L i b e r a l C i t i z e n s h i p

Multiculturalism arises within contemporary liberal egalitarianism, but it is

at the same time in tension with and a critique of some classical liberal
ideas. Specifically, it has four major implications for liberal citizenship.
Firstly, it is clearly a collective project and concerns groups and not just
individuals. Secondly, it is not colour/gender/sexual orientation-‘blind’ and
so breaches the liberal public-private identity distinction which prohibits
the recognition of particular group identities in order that no citizens are
treated in a more or less privileged way or divided from each other. These
 i n t e r v e n t i o n s
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........................
two implications are obvious from the discussion so far, but the next two
implications are less obvious and more controversial. The first of these is
that multiculturalism takes race, sex and sexuality beyond being merely
ascriptive sources of identity, merely categories. Liberal citizenship is not
interested in group identities and shuns identitarian politics; its interest in
‘race’ is confined to anti-discrimination simply as an aspect of the legal
equality of citizens. Strictly speaking, race is of interest to liberal citizenship
only because no one can choose their race; it is either a biological fact about
them or, more accurately, is a way of being categorized by the society
around them by reference to some real or perceived biological features, and
so one should not be discriminated against on something over which one
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has no control. But if, as I have argued, equality is also about celebrating
previously demeaned identities (for example, taking pride in one’s blackness
rather than accepting it as a merely ‘private’ matter), then what is being
addressed in anti-discrimination, or promoted as a public identity, is a
chosen response to one’s ascription: namely pride, identity renewal, the
challenging of hegemonic norms and asserting of marginalized identities
and so on. Of course, this is not peculiar to race/ethnicity. Exactly the same
applies to sex and sexuality. We may not choose our sex or sexual
orientation but we choose how to politically live with it. Do we keep it
private or do we make it the basis of a social movement and seek public
resources and representation for it? In many countries the initial liberal

and social democratic and socialist
response that the assertions of race,
political femininity, gay pride politics and so on were divisive and
deviations from the only political identity that mattered (citizenship and/
or class, in the case of socialists), soon gave way to an understanding that
these positions were a genuine and significant part of a plural, centre-left
egalitarian movement.
Marginalized and other religious groups
most notably Muslims
are
now utilizing the same kind of argument and making a claim that religious
identity, like gay identity, and certain forms of racial identity, should not
just be privatized or tolerated, but should be part of the public space. In
their case, however, they come into conflict with an additional fourth
dimension of liberal citizenship. This additional conflict with liberal
citizenship is best understood as a ‘31’ rather than merely a fourth
2 One of the latest difficulty because, while it is not clear that it actually raises a new
examples being the difficulty, for many on the centre-left this one, unlike the previous three, is
Euston Manifesto,
seen as a demand that should not be conceded.2 One would think that if a
online at www.
eustonmanifesto.org/ new group was pressing a claim which had already been granted to others,
joomla/index.php? then what would be at issue would be a practical adjustment, not
optioncom_ fundamental principle. However, as a matter of fact, the demand by
content&taskview
&id12&Itemid Muslims not just for toleration and religious freedom but for public
41. recognition is indeed taken to be philosophically very different to the same
 MULTICULTURAL C ITIZENSHIP AND MUSLIM IDENTITY POLITICS
Tariq Modood
.......................
163

demand made by black people, women and gays. It is seen as an attack on

the principle of secularism, the view that religion is a feature, perhaps
uniquely, of private and not public identity.
Hence it is commonly found in the op-ed pages of the broadsheets that
Muslims (and other religious groups) are simply not on a par with the
groups with which I have aligned them. It is argued that woman, black
and gay are ascribed involuntary identities, while being a Muslim is about
chosen beliefs, and that Muslims therefore need or ought to have less legal
protection than the other kinds of identities. I think this is sociologically
naive (and a political con). The position of Muslims today in countries
like Britain is similar to the other identities of ‘difference’ as Muslims
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catch up with and engage with the contemporary concept of equality. No

one chooses to be or not to be born into a Muslim family. Similarly,
no one chooses to be born into a society where to look like a Muslim or
to be a Muslim creates suspicion, hostility or failure to get the job you
applied for. Of course, how Muslims respond to these circumstances will
vary. Some will organize resistance, while others will try to stop looking
like Muslims (the equivalent of ‘passing’ for white); some will build an
ideology out of their subordination, others will not, just as a woman can
choose to be a feminist or not. Again, some Muslims may define their
Islam in terms of piety rather than politics; just as some women may see
no politics in their gender, while for others their gender will be at the
centre of their politics.
I therefore reject the contention that equality as recognition (uniquely)
does not apply to oppressed religious communities. Of course, many
people’s objections may be based on what they (sometimes correctly)
understand as conservative, even intolerant and inegalitarian views held by
some Muslims in relation to issues of personal sexual freedom. My concern
is with the argument that a commitment to a reasonable secularism
rules out extending multicultural equality to Muslims and other religious
groups.
I proceed on the basis of two assumptions: firstly, that a religious group’s
view on matters of gender and sexuality, which of course will not be
3 It is clear that uniform, are open to debate and change; and secondly, that conservative
‘moderate’ Muslim views cannot be a bar to multicultural recognition.3 Those who see the
public figures in current Muslim assertiveness as an unwanted and illegitimate child of
Britain are divided
on homosexuality in multiculturalism have only two choices if they wish to be consistent. They
just the way that all can repudiate the idea of equality as identity recognition and return to the
religions seem to be 1950s liberal idea of equality as colour/sex/religion-blindness (Barry 2001).
divided today.
Or they must appreciate that a programme of racial and multicultural
equality is not possible today without a discussion of the merits and limits of
secularism.
 i n t e r v e n t i o n s
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........................
Muslims, Identity and Ideology

How does this relate to Muslim identity politics, one of the central sources of
anxiety and disillusionment about multiculturalism? Even with those for
whom a Muslim identity is in many ways central to their sense of self, it does
not follow that it is the religious dimension that is most salient: it can be a
sense of family and community, or collective political advancement, or
righting the wrongs done to Muslims. Indeed, we cannot assume that being
‘Muslim’ means the same thing to them. For some Muslims
like most Jews
in Britain today
being Muslim is a matter of community membership and
heritage; for others, it is a few simple precepts about self, compassion, justice
and the afterlife; for some others, it is a worldwide movement armed with
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a counter-ideology of modernity; and so on.

British Muslim identity politics was virtually created by the Satanic Verses
affair of the late 1980s and beyond (Modood 1992). Muslims began to make
demands for recognition and civic inclusion into a polity which had up to
that point misrecognized them (as black or Asian) or had kept them invisible
and voiceless; a polity which was struggling to recognize gender, race and
ethnicity within the terms of citizenship but was not even aware that any
form of civic recognition was due to marginalized religious groups. The
conflict that erupted led many to think of themselves for the first time as
Muslims in a public way, to think that it was important in their relation to
other Muslims and to the rest of British and related societies. This is, for
example, movingly described by the author Rana Kabbani, whose Letter to
Christendom begins with a description of herself as ‘a woman who had been
a sort of underground Muslim before she was forced into the open by the
Salman Rushdie affair’ (Kabbani 1989: ix). Such shocks to Muslim identity
are hardly a thing of the past. The present situation of some Muslims in
Britain is nicely captured by Farmida Bi, a New Labour parliamentary
candidate in Mole Valley in 2005, who had not particularly made anything
of her Muslim background before 7/7 but was moved by the London
bombings to claim a Muslim identity and found the organization Progressive
British Muslims. Speaking of herself and others as ‘integrated, liberal British
Muslims’ who were forced to ask ‘am I a Muslim at all?’, she writes: ‘7/7
made most of us embrace our Muslim identity and become determined to
prove that its possible to live happily as a Muslim in the West’ (Bi 2006).
This sense of feeling that one must speak up as a Muslim has nothing
necessarily to do with religiosity. Like all forms of difference it comes into
being as a result of pressures from ‘outside’ a group as well as from ‘inside’.
In this particular case, both the ‘inside’ and the ‘outside’ have a powerful
geopolitical dimension. The emergence of British Muslim identity and
activism has been propelled by a strong concern for the plight of Muslims
elsewhere in the world, especially (but not only) where this plight is seen in
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terms of anti-imperialist emancipation and where the UK government is

perceived to be part of the problem
tolerant of, if not complicit or actively
engaged in, the destruction of Muslim hopes and lives, usually civilian. For
British, American and Australian (perhaps to some extent most western)
Muslims to develop a sense of national citizenship and to integrate into a
polity which has a confrontational posture against many Muslim countries
and is at war or occupying some of them in what is perceived by all sides to
be a long-term project, is an extremely daunting task and its success cannot
be taken for granted. Moreover, domestic terrorism, as well as political
opposition, has unfortunately become part of the context. The danger of
‘blowback’ from overseas military activity is, as events have shown,
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considerable and capable of severely damaging the movement towards

multicultural citizenship.
One of the reasons why I do not think we should simply give up and
pursue a less attractive political goal is that I am impressed by how many
British Muslims are responding to the crisis with a concern to stand up for
their community through civic engagement; with a refusal to give up either
their Muslim identity or being part of democratic citizenship. Despite this
partial dependency on overseas circumstances outside their control
which
might easily have led to passivity and a self-pitying introspection
many
British Muslims exhibit a dynamism and a confidence in rising to
the challenge of dual loyalties and not giving up on either set of
commitments. Ideological and violent extremism is indeed undermining
the conditions and hopes for multiculturalism, but, contrary to the
arguments of multiculturalism’s critics, this extremism has nothing to do
with the promotion of multiculturalism but is coming into the domestic
arena from the international.

The Danger of Ideology

Ideology is a cause for concern in the debate around the politics of difference
as it is in most political discussions. Ideological diagnoses and prescriptions
can often be exciting and appealing to a certain constituency, but they are
not a good basis for addressing problems and developing strategies for
reform because they are too abstract and disconnected from a specific
society, its institutions, norms and ways of working. This is often hidden
from those who subscribe to particular well-developed ideologies, which
often present themselves as total, self-referring, closed or semi-closed
systems. An ideology can achieve quite sophisticated levels of internal
coherence, as in certain forms of Marxism, but still have a poor sense of
connection with any existing society. Additionally, ideologies can be a
danger to the pluralist and multilogical nature of citizenship. This is
 i n t e r v e n t i o n s
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........................
particularly the case because ideologies typically dichotomize the social
world into key actors or groups. These may be workers and capitalists,
nation and aliens, male or female, black and white and so on. Each of these
dichotomies has a certain validity, but a wholesale application of them in the
arena of politics totalizes in such a way that each member of the pair is
utterly different
and usually opposed
to the other. All possibilities of
overlap, hybridity and plurality are put in abeyance and the paired identities
are said to have a sociological primacy which lends support to claims that for
members of these groups the relevant identity should always trump all
others.
As should be apparent from the above description of the current crisis of
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multiculturalism, the ideologies that pose the greatest danger are those
formed around a totalizing dichotomization of the West and Islam/Muslims.
On one side is Islamophobia or anti-Islamism as a set of attitudes, prejudices
and stereotypes that are being developed into an ideology in the context of a
neo-conservative geopolitical strategy to dominate Muslims. Talk of a ‘clash
of civilizations’, of Islam being deeply opposed to the ethos of democracy
and gender equality, of the presence of too many Muslims among migrants
and new citizens as a problem for democracy, are some examples of these
discourses. Obverse views include those that simply see the West as decadent
compared to the civilizational superiority of Islam and its products, or
characterizes the West as a colonial overlord. The two sets of discourses are
asymmetrical inasmuch as they are sustained by quite unequal intellectual,
political, economic and military forces, but each has a similar distorting
binary logic. Such dichotomies obscure, for example, the fact that there are a
variety of views in the West, including those that are hostile to the western
geopolitical domination of the Muslim world, just as there are a variety of
views among Muslims. With each ideological tendency, the totalizing of
West and Muslim into radical opposites undercuts efforts to build the cross-
cutting connections, syntheses and alliances which multicultural citizenship
facilitates and also needs. Just as earlier divisions
such as the ‘political
blackness’, an anti-racism in the 1970s and 1980s that separated British
people on the grounds of skin colour
had to be challenged, so some
versions of Islam that are not sufficiently respectful of, say, fellow British
citizens and the aspiration for a plural Britain have to be confronted even
while the legitimate grievances of Muslims are being addressed. Indeed,
attending to the latter is necessary to any effective change. I must re-
emphasize there is no special problem with Islam, let alone with religion as
such. It is religious ideologies, not religion, that can threaten the free, healthy
working through of multicultural citizenship. Secular ideologies are no less
dangerous than religious ones: indeed, in the twentieth century they proved
more of a menace. In fact, another of the current dangers to multicultural
citizenship is a radical secularism that seeks to destroy the historic
 MULTICULTURAL C ITIZENSHIP AND MUSLIM IDENTITY POLITICS
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compromises with organized religion which have been characteristic of

citizenship for the last hundred years, especially in Western Europe, and
form a promising basis for the accommodation of Muslims in those countries
(Modood 2007 and 2010).

National Identity and Being British

Multiculturalism has been broadly right and does not deserve the desertion
of support from the centre-left, let alone blame for the present crisis. It offers
a better basis for integration than its two current rivals, namely, ‘social
cohesion’ and ‘multiculture’ (Meer and Modood, 2009). For while the latter
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is appreciative of a diversity of interacting lifestyles and the emergence of

new, hybrid cultures in an atmosphere of ‘conviviality’, it is at a loss as to
how to deal sympathetically with the claims of newly settled ethno-religious
groups, especially Muslims, who are too readily stereotyped as ‘fundamen-
talists’ (Modood 1998). However, some advocacy of multiculturalism has
perhaps overlooked or at least underemphasized the other side of the coin,
which is not just equally necessary but is integral to multiculturalism. For
one cannot just talk about difference. Difference has to be related to things
we have in common. The commonality that most multiculturalists empha-
size is citizenship. This citizenship has to be seen in a plural, dispersed and
dialogical way and not reduced to legal rights, passports and the franchise
(important though these are). I would now like to go further in suggesting
that a good basis for or accompaniment to a multicultural citizenship is a
national identity.
We in Europe have overlooked that where multiculturalism has been
accepted and worked as a state or national project
Canada, Australia and
Malayasia, for example
it has not just been coincidental with but integral
to a nation-building project. Even in the US, where the federal state has had a
much lesser role in the multicultural project, the incorporation of ethno-
religious diversity and hyphenated Americans has been about civic inclusion
and making a claim upon the national identity. This is important because
some multiculturalists, or at least advocates of pluralism and multiculture
4 For a discussion of
the differences and
(the vocabulary of multiculturalism is not always used)4
even where they
tensions between have other fundamental disagreements with each other
argue as if the logic
communitarian of the national and the multicultural are incompatible. Partly as a result,
multiculturalism and
many Europeans think of multiculturalism as antithetical to rather than as a
‘multiculture’, see
Modood (1998) and reformer of, national identity.
Meer and Modood Moreover, it does not make sense to encourage strong multicultural or
(2009). minority identities and weak common or national identities. Strong
multicultural identities are a good thing
they are not intrinsically divisive,
reactionary or fifth columns
but they need a framework of vibrant,
 i n t e r v e n t i o n s
1 2: 2 168
........................
dynamic, national narratives and the ceremonies and rituals which
give expression to a national identity. It is clear that minority identities
are capable of having an emotional pull for the individuals for whom they
are important. Multicultural citizenship requires, therefore, if it is to be
equally attractive to the same individuals, a comparable counterbalancing
emotional pull. Many Britons, for example, say they are worried about
disaffection among some Muslim young men and more generally a lack of
identification with Britain among many Muslims in Britain. As a matter of
fact, surveys over many years have shown Muslims have been reaching out
for an identification with Britain. For example, in a Channel 4 NOP survey
done in spring 2006, 82 per cent of a national sample of Muslims said they
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very strongly (45 per cent) or fairly strongly (37 per cent) felt they
5 Full survey online belonged to Britain,5 although of course there is also much anger and fear,
at www.channel4. especially in relation to the aggressive US-UK foreign policies and anti-
com/news/microsites/
D/dispatches2006/ terrorism legislation. While I do not think that we are at all close to
muslim_survey/ undoing the mess we have got into with these policies, to not build on the
index.html. clear support there is for a sense of national belonging is to fail to offer an
obvious counterweight to the ideological calls for a violent jihad against
fellow Britons.
A sense of belonging to one’s country is necessary to make a success of a
multicultural society. An inclusive national identity is respectful of and
builds upon the identities that people value and does not trample on them.
Simultaneously respecting difference and inculcating Britishness is not a
naive hope but something that is happening even now and which leads
everyone to redefine themselves. Perhaps one of the lessons of the current
crisis is that in some countries, certainly Britain, multiculturalists and the left
in general have been too hesitant about embracing national identity and
allying it with progressive politics. The reaffirming of a plural, changing,
inclusive British identity, which can be as emotionally and politically
meaningful to British Muslims as the appeal of jihadi sentiments, is critical
to isolating and defeating extremism. The lack of a sense of belonging to
Britain that can stand up to the emotional appeal of transnational solidarities
has several causes, including some stemming from the majority society itself.
One of these is the exclusivist and racist notions of Britishness that hold that
non-white people are not really British and that Muslims, in particular, are
an alien wedge. Another is the conventional leftwing view that there is
something deeply wrong about defining ourselves in terms of a normative
concept of Britishness
that it is somehow racist, imperialist, elitist and so
on
and that the goal of seeking to be British is dangerous and demeaning to
newly settled groups (Preston 2007). But if the goal of wanting to be British
is not considered worthwhile for Commonwealth migrants and their
progeny then what are they being expected to integrate into? And if there
is nothing strong, purposive and inspiring to integrate into, why bother with
 MULTICULTURAL C ITIZENSHIP AND MUSLIM IDENTITY POLITICS
Tariq Modood
.......................
169

integration? We cannot ask new Britons to integrate and at the same time
suggest that being British is a hollowed-out, meaningless project whose time
has come to an end. This will only produce confusion and will detract from
the sociological and psychological processes of integration, while offering no
defence against the calls of other loyalties and missions. Today’s national
identities certainly need to be reimagined in a multicultural way, but if this is
thought impossible or unnecessary then multiculuralism is left not trium-
phant but with fewer emotive resources.
It is therefore to be welcomed when politicians of the left show an interest
in British national identity. A leading example of this is the former UK Prime
Minister, Gordon Brown. He has argued for the need to revive and revalue
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British national identity in a number of speeches (most notably, Brown

2006). Brown wants to derive a set of core values (liberty, fairness, enterprise
and so on) from a historical narrative, yet such values, even if they could
singly or in combination be given a distinctive British take, are too complex
and their interpretation and priority too contested to be amenable to be set
into a series of meaningful definitions. Every public culture must operate
through shared values, which are both embodied in and used to criticize its
institutions and practices, but they are not simple and uniform and their
meaning is discursively reworked as old interpretations are dropped, and
new circumstances unsettle one consensus and another is built up. Simply
saying that freedom or equality is a core British value is unlikely to settle any
controversy or tell us, for example, what is hate speech and how it should be
handled. Definitions of core values will either be too bland or too divisive
and the idea that there has to be a schedule of value statements to which
every citizen is expected to sign up is not in the spirit of a multilogical
citizenship. National identity should be woven in debate and discussion, not
reduced to a list. For central to it is a citizenship and the right to make a
claim on the national identity in which negative difference is challenged and
supplanted by positive difference. We cannot afford to leave out these
aspects of multicultural citizenship from an intellectual or political vision of
social reform and justice in the twenty-first century. Rather, the turning of
negative difference into positive difference should be one of the tests of social
justice in this century.

R e f e ren c e s

Barry, B. (2001) Culture Equality, Cambridge: Polity Brown, G. (2006) ‘The future of Britishness’, keynote
Press. speech, Fabian Conference on the Future of
Bi, F. (2006) ‘Alienation’, The London Bombs, one Britishness, January, London, online at www.
year on, in openDemocracy, 3 July, online at www. fabian-society.org.uk/press_office/news_latest_all.
opendemocracy.net/articles/ViewPopUpArticle.jsp? asp?pressid520.
id3&articleId3704.
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Du Bois, W. E. B. (1999) [1903] The Souls of Black Modood, T. (1998) ‘Anti-essentialism, multicultural-
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