Nga Riwai Maori Maori Potatoes

Graham Harris, Poai Pakeha Niha

The purpose of this Working Paper series is to stimulate discussion and comment. This work may be cited as: Harris, Niha, Nga Riwai Maori Maori Potatoes, The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand, Working Paper, August 1999. Comment on papers is invited and should be addressed to the author/s concerned. Comments on this paper and requests for further copies should be addressed to Graham Harris Senior Lecturer The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand Private Bag 31 914 Lower Hutt Email: [email protected] Printed and published by The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand, Lower Hutt. Copyright 1999 The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form by any means without the written permission of the CE of The Open Polytechnic. ISSN 11744103 ISBN 0909009236

Working Paper No: 2/99

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Abstract
It is generally accepted by scholars that potatoes were first introduced to New Zealand in the late eighteenth century by Captain James Cook and the French explorer, Marion du Fresne. Further introductions from a variety of sources, including possible direct introductions from South America, followed into the nineteenth century. Maori were quick to recognise the advantages these new introductions had over the kumara (Ipomoea batatas) and other traditional food sources. Potatoes soon became both a staple item in the Maori diet and a trade commodity. The various cultivars (cultivated varieties) were given Maori names and many of these early introductions are still grown by Maori today. These Maori potatoes with their deep-set eyes, often knobbly irregular shape and colourful tubers, are quite distinct in appearance from modern potatoes and are - known by Maori as riwai, taewa, parareka and ma hetau.

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Keywords
- Maori potato; riwai, taewa; mahetau; parareka; early history of potatoes in New Zealand; Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena.

Ethical statement
In conducting this research project the author has followed the principles of ethical conduct as stated by Ngahuia Te Awekotuku in He Tikanga Whakaaro Research Ethics in the Maori Community and in the Mataatua Declaration on Cultural Property and Intellectual Property Rights of Indigenous Peoples 1993 . It is recognised that some of the information in this paper is Ma tauranga Maori, and hence the aims of the study and the intention to publish the information were conveyed to informants at the time the information was collected. Some of the plant material was given to the author on the understanding that it was not to be commercially exploited and was solely for the purposes of academic research. The author has applied this principle to all plant material and to all information gathered in the course of this study.

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Contents
Acknowledgements Introduction Research objectives Origin of the potato History of the potato in Europe and the United Kingdom Introduction of the potato to Europe and the United Kingdom Early development of the potato in Europe and the United Kingdom Potato cultivars available in the United Kingdom in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries Introduction of potatoes to New Zealand Pre-European potato introductions Maori-developed cultivars Adoption of the potato by Maori Effects on Maori society Maori production systems Storage methods Cooking methods The potato as a trade commodity Characteristics of Maori potatoes Yields of Maori potatoes The Maori potato today vii 3 4 5 7 7 7 9 11 15 17 18 18 19 21 22 23 26 29 32

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Names of Maori potatoes Generic names Varietal names Acquisition of cultivars Description of cultivars Summary and conclusion References Appendices

34 34 35 37 38 48 51 55

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Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the following people and organisations who have contributed to this study. Poai Pakeha Niha and his whanau in Whangarei and Motatau, without whom this project would not have been possible. Special thanks to Ema Tipene (Nanny Ema). My parents-in-law Paratene and Rauhina Carter who tended the potato plots in Martinborough, Mariana McDermott who looked after the plots at Moiki near Greytown, and Mary Brown who helped with the plots at Upper Hutt. The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand which funded this project. My colleague Mike Burtenshaw, who critically reviewed this text. Dr Harry Orsman, lexicographer and author of the Dictionary of New Zealand English, and Dr Jack Garrick, former Professor of Zoology, Victoria University, both of whom took a personal interest in this project and provided useful technical and editorial comments on this paper. Dr Warwick Harris, scientist, Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research. Dr Ellen Frch who provided invaluable assistance in the early stages of the project. Dave Para, Department of Conservation. Dr Margaret Purser, Anthropology Department, Sonoma State University, California. Kevin Prime of Ngati Hine, well-known conservationist.

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Centro Internacional de la Papa The International Potato Centre (CIP), Lima, Peru. Dr Foss Leach, archaeologist, Te Papa Tongarewa, Museum of New Zealand. Dr Russell Genet, Crop and Food Research. Dr Gavin Ramsey and George Mackay, Scottish Crop Research Institute. Estia Joubert, ARC-Roodeplaat Vegetable & Ornamental Plant Institute, South Africa. Dr Murray Parsons, Manaaki Whenua, Landcare Research. Kay Baxter, Koanga Nurseries. Dave Turnbull, Scottish Agricultural Science Agency. Lyle Millar, Moyola Farm. Awhina Tamarapa-Parata, Te Papa Tongarewa, Museum of New Zealand. John Keating, The Agiculture and Food Development Authority, Dublin, Ireland.

Thanks also to the following people who sent me potato tubers John Maddocks, Betty Wilton, Russell Smith, J.J. Nicholls, B. L. Brasell, Kerry Marshall, Ernie Day, Dave Hapuku, Eleanor Jolly, Jock Edwards, L. S. Mayhew, Matt McGhie, Ann Montague, Tori Tuhaka, Ernie Day, Bill Blaine, Jack Garrick.

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I was somewhat intrigued when thumbing through Graham Harriss paper on riwai Maori to see words that I had not seen for several years. As the only person in our district with a large tractor and heavy duty rotary hoe in the 1960s, 70s and 80s, I was often called upon by the elderly to hoe up their land for gardens in early spring. The competitiveness of supermarkets in recent years has resulted in the provision of vegetables to Maori far more economically than was previously possible. But eliminating the need to cultivate, plant, weed, harvest and store garden produce has resulted in the loss of another chapter of our Maori language. Words like peruperu and kanohi parera brought back memories of other Maori words that are not heard any more in daily conversation because we no longer practice the culture of mahinga kai. These are examples that come to mind: paahika koomiri matahina kaakati ahuahu ahuahua kawaka karawhaea kaapahu huahake the act of clearing away weeds, prior to cultivation the act of sorting out or selecting suitable seeds or seedlings for planting a seed potato with long shoots that was discarded small bundles (for example, of kumara plants) the raised mounds of soil on which pumpkins or melons were planted the raised mounds of soil on which pumpkins or melons were planted the furrow between rows of planting scarifiers the main breakout tine of a plough taking or digging up root crops

I would like to encourage Graham Harris to continue to preserve remnants of our cultural heritage, which modern technology is causing us to abandon. Kia ora

Kevin Prime

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Nga Riwai Maori Maori Potatoes

Introduction
At a conference in Whangarei in April 1996 I met Poai Pakeha (Sonny) Niha. His whanau, who are Ngati Hine, had been growing Maori potatoes in Tai Tokerau for many years. Sonny sent me a selection of cultivars that his family were growing and my interest in these fascinating vegetables was kindled. In April 1997 Sonny Niha and I travelled around Northland and talked with Maori people who were growing these potatoes. We listened to their stories and collected more varieties. Many of the older people we visited preferred to speak in Maori and Sonny provided the translation. I continued to collect information about Maori potatoes and added to the cultivar collection which I maintained by growing an annual crop in the Wairarapa. General interest articles (see appendices) on Maori potatoes were published in the New Zealand Gardener, The Garden (the journal of the Royal Horticultural Society) and Te Karaka the Ngai Tahu magazine. The response to these articles from Maori and Pakeha in New Zealand, and also from overseas, indicated that there was wide general interest in the subject. Some of the people responding to the articles sent in potato tubers to add to the collection or for identification. An article, published in July 1998 in the Dominion, and illustrated with photos of 16 of the cultivars in the collection, prompted a large number of responses, and even a year later there are enquiries relating to that article. Graham Harris

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Research objectives
The research objectives of this study were to 1. review the origins and early history of the development of the potato 2. review historical and ethnological literature relating to the introduction of potatoes to New Zealand and their impact on Maori society 3. investigate anecdotal evidence that Maori introduced potatoes to New Zealand prior to European arrival 4. investigate the possibility that Maori developed potato cultivars from European introductions 5. collect and record information about the cultivars and compare their characteristics with those of modern potatoes 6. investigate the extent to which Maori potatoes are grown today 7. research the generic and varietal names that Maori gave to potatoes.

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Origin of the potato

Salaman (1987) and Hawkes (1990) have written extensively on the origins of the potato. They agree that the potato originated in the Andes of South America, from Peru and Colombia. Hawkes (1990:11) noted that at the time of the Spanish conquests of the Americas (in the sixteenth century), the potato was widely distributed throughout the Andes from Colombia to Peru. Salaman (1987:159) wrote that in South America, the original home of the potato, a great variety of potatoes are cultivated today (see Fig. 1). He noted that there were almost as many varieties in cultivation at the time of the Spanish conquest, which is not surprising considering that there is evidence that the potato was being cultivated 2,000 years ago in Peru (Wilson 1995:11).

Phaco Kahua

~ Alq a Pin a

~ Puka Pin a

Cjachi Chuccan

Salamanca Fig. 1

Puka Tarma

Papas nativas (native Andean potato cvs) labelled with their Quecha Indian names.

Photographs reproduced by permission of the copyright holder. Copyright International Potato Centre (CIP). All rights are reserved

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While the natural home of the potato is in the region of the tropics (Salaman 1987:68), Wilson (1995:11) pointed out that tropical heat and high humidity are unfavourable to the potato plant. Indigenous potatoes are grown in the Andes at very high altitudes (c.2,8004,500m) where temperatures and humidity are much lower than at sea level (Hawkes 1990:11). Hawkes contended there is little doubt that the first potatoes introduced to Europe were Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena from the Andes, and that they were very probably from Colombia. Salaman (1985:160) noted that the original potatoes which reached Europe were themselves varietal hybrids or compound species, while Mackay (1997:564) stated that the potatoes which reached Europe were the culmination of thousands of years of evolution in South America. He recorded It is now believed that the first introductions [to Europe] were of a species (still cultivated in the Andes) known as Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena.

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History of the potato in Europe and the United Kingdom

Introduction of the potato to Europe and the United Kingdom
Of the introduction of potatoes to Europe, Hawkes (1990:30) noted:
It is a generally accepted fact that the potato arrived in Europe some time towards the end of the sixteenth century. Nevertheless, the exact time of its introduction and the details of its arrival remain obscure and will probably never be fully elucidated.

He went on to state that the available evidence suggests that there were two early introductions of the potato into Europe. The first was into Spain about 1570; the second into England between 1588 and 1593, with a strong suggestion that the actual year might have been 1590. Wilson (1995:11) noted:
the arrival of the potato in Britain remains shrouded in mystery with legends involving Raleigh and Drake however most authorities agree that the date of introduction was likely to have been in the 1590s.

Phillips and Rix (1993:136) noted that there is a suggestion that the English potatoes were probably a separate introduction from those which reached Spain.

Early development of the potato in Europe and the United Kingdom

Because the Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena potato that was introduced to Europe and the United Kingdom, was of tropical origin, it was adapted to the short day conditions that are normal near the equator. The reaction of these plants to growing in the long summer days of northern Europe and the United Kingdom was to set tubers very late in the season, as the days shorten in late autumn (Mackay 1997:563). Other characteristic features were very small tubers which developed at the end of long stolons, numerous inflorescences and occasional shoots growing up above ground from the stolons (Hawkes 1990:39). All these characteristics which distinguish early introductions from the potato of today were described by Salaman (1987:67) as the reactions of a short-day plant doing its best to survive in a long-day environment. He also noted a constant feature of these early potatoes was the irregular knobbly appearance of the tubers and the great depth of their eyes. The potato was not readily accepted as a food source in Europe and the United Kingdom. Rhoades (1982:687) wrote: When introduced to Europe, the potato was cursed as an evil food. The Scots refused to eat it as it wasnt mentioned in

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the bible. Wilson (1995:12) noted: For several years the only potatoes growing in Britain were in the gardens of botanists interested in the plants, rather than the small knobbly tubers. It was recognised that the leaves of the potato were poisonous, and that the tubers became green and bitter when exposed to light. Wilson (1995:13) noted that these features caused much consternation and that much illness and sickness was attributed to the potato. Phillips and Rix (ibid) noted that the European potatoes were selected and bred from those forms that happened to arrive in Europe at an early date, not from forms that were selected for being either generally superior or likely to do well in northern Europe. It was because these potatoes were not well suited to cultivation in northern Europe that the potato was slow to become an important crop. Because these types set tubers late in autumn, crops grown in England and northern Europe often had their top growth killed by frosts before tubers had fully developed. By the early eighteenth century some development had been undertaken to improve the potato as a food crop. Salaman (1987:160) wrote:
In the early days of the potato in Europe, fortuitous methods at first held sway, but it was not long before skilled cultivators purposely planted the seed from the naturally formed berries, selecting from the resultant seedlings those plants possessing the characters they sought, early or late maturity, long or round, coloured or colourless tubers.

Wilson (1995:13) noted that although the potato was considered to be less important than the radish in 1716, it later came to be accepted as an exotic vegetable for luxury use. By the mid-eighteenth century it was a wellestablished and accepted food crop. By this time the potato had adapted to the long European growing days and offered real commercial potential. Phillips and Rix (ibid) referred to records showing that growers in the Manchester region in the 1760s repeatedly raised new varieties from seed and competing with one another to get saleable tubers earlier in the summer. By 1770 there were a number of named varieties available but, as noted by Salaman (1987:163), the practice of giving several local names to the same variety meant there were actually fewer different types available. One of the consequences of this fairly rapid evolution from limited initial importations was that the European potato of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries had a narrow genetic base (Mackay 1997:564). When late blight, a fungus disease, arrived in Europe in the mid-nineteenth century it decimated potato crops in Belgium, Holland, France and southern England. It then wiped out most of the crop in Ireland in 1845, and almost the entire crop the following year, and again in 1848. These catastrophic events occurred because there was

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insufficient genetic variation within the available cultivars for some to resist infection. Consequently, the entire crop was uniformly affected. Keating (1996:8) noted that the effects of the blight in Ireland were particularly tragic because the majority of the population depended almost entirely on the potato as a food source. It was this event that stimulated the scientific worlds serious interest in the cultivation of the potato and in the creation of new varieties. Salaman (1987:164) noted:
No spectacular development took place in variety raising until after the crisis caused by the pandemic blight (Phytophthora infestans) of 1845 and 1846. The failure of any of the existing varieties to exhibit the least resistance to this new and devastating disease gave both the stimulus and directive force to a new era of plant breeding.

Over time, by unconscious and conscious selection for higher yield, the shortday tubering forms of Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena that were originally introduced from South America were gradually developed into the day-neutral, high-yielding European Solanum tuberosum subsp. tuberosum (Mackay 1997:563). The origin and development of the potato can be summed up in this statement by Genet (1983:49):
It is now generally agreed that S. tuberosum originated in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia. These potatoes are short-day types and constitute the subspecies andigena. Man subsequently introduced them to Chile and after many generations of selection, long day types evolved which are now classified as subspecies tuberosum. The early introductions to Europe were most likely subspecies andigena and as in Chile, seedlings more adapted to the long day conditions of Europe were selected.

It seems likely that the long-day tuberosum types were developed independently in Chile and in Europe.

Potato cultivars available in the United Kingdom in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
By the latter part of the eighteenth century, at the time when the first introductions of potatoes to New Zealand were recorded, the following eight named cultivars were recorded as being available and commonly grown in the United Kingdom. These were listed and detailed with the year of their introduction in the United Kingdom by Wilson (1995:15):
The Howard 1765; White Kidney c.1765; The Irish Apple 1768; Red Nosed Kidney c.1775; The Manly c.1776; The Yam c.1771; Early Champion c.1787; Ox Noble 1787.

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Keating (1996:26) recorded, with their year of introduction, the following potatoes as the main cultivars grown in Ireland at the time of the famine in the mid-nineteenth century. The Block (pre 1730); The Apple 1768; The Cup (pre 1808) and The Lumper 1808. (See Appendix B.)

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Introduction of potatoes to New Zealand

There are a number of reported introductions of potatoes to New Zealand in the late eighteenth century, and while scholars often disagree as to the most likely first successful introduction, from the available evidence it is probable that there was at least one successful introduction during that period. Listed below are details of reported introductions between 1769 and 1793.

de Surville 1769
It is often reported (Yen 1961/62:2; Smith 1995:85) that potatoes were first introduced to New Zealand by the French explorer, Jean de Surville, who arrived in Hokianga Harbour on 12 December 1769 on his ship Saint-Jean Baptiste. However, journals of that voyage (Dunmore 1981:43) indicate that while he introduced wheat, rice and peas as well as pigs and hens, there is no reference to potatoes. This fact was noted by Best (1925:279).

Cook 1769
Thomson (1859:158) reported that during his first voyage to New Zealand in 1769, Captain James Cook gave two handfuls of potatoes to a chief in Mercury Bay, and that Maori recollection of this event indicated these were planted for three consecutive years before being distributed. Leach (1984:98), noted that this gift may well note the first successful introduction of a European food plant to New Zealand. However, Best (1925:282) stated: there is no word of Cook having introduced the potato on his first voyage to New Zealand, and in the same paper he further observed Dr Thomsons [Thomson 1859] statement that Cook left potatoes with North Island natives during his first voyage is probably an error. He did not provide any further explanation. Thompson (1988:182) wrote: We know the potato was introduced by James Cook and the recorded reminiscences of Te Horeta Taniwha gave an eye witness account of this introduction at Whitianga in 1769. He also noted that at least one Pakeha historian (presumably Best) disputes the veracity of this record but that other scholars accept it.

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Marion du Fresne 1772

Leach (1984:98) noted that 2 years after Cooks visit, Crozet of the Marc Marion du Fresne expedition established the first European garden on Moturua Island in the Bay of Islands in March 1772. In Rouxs journal of that expedition (in McNab 1914:399) it was recorded:
As the natives are extremely intelligent, we were able to make them understand that the plantations we had made on Marion Island [Moturua Island], of wheat, maize, potatoes and various kinds of nuts, might be very useful to them... All these plants had grown very well, although it was winter. The natives seemed highly pleased, and informed us that they would take care of our cultivations, but I do not know whether they have preserved all these plants, which would be all the more valuable to them seeing that they have only the sweet potato and fern root.

Leach commented that even though the Bay of Islands was going through a turbulent period, the fact that the potatoes were growing in a model garden would have improved their chances of survival. An early French missionary at Hokianga from 1838 to 1842, Father Catherin Servant, recorded that Maori of that time considered the potatoes they grew came from Marion du Fresnes introduction.

Cook 1773
Several authors recorded and commented on the gardens established at locations in Queen Charlotte Sound during Cooks second visit to New Zealand in 1773. (Bayly in McNabb 1914:207; Begg and Begg 1969:117,122; Barrat 1979:83; Beaglehole 1969:287; Burney in McNab 1914:197 and Barrat 1979:38,44). On Cooks instructions, the crew of the Adventure (captained by Furneaux), planted potatoes along with other European vegetables and grains at several locations in Queen Charlotte Sound. Cook recorded:
these potatoes were first brought from the Cape of Good Hope and had been greatly improved by the change of soil, and with proper cultivation would be superior to those produced in most countries.

The potatoes that Cooks expedition procured from South Africa while en route to New Zealand were likely to have been of Dutch origin as stated by E. Joubert 1999 (pers. comm.): It can be accepted, with an amount of certainty, that the first potatoes for planting purposes at the Cape came from Holland and were in fact planted here as food for mariners.

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When Cook revisited Queen Charlotte Sounds during his third visit in 1777, Best (1925:281) reported that he found not a vestige of the gardens remained and with reference to potatoes that though the New Zealanders (Maori) are fond of this root, it was evident that they had not taken the trouble to plant a single one. However, this was disputed by Best who wrote:
it is by no means assured that these potatoes were not perpetuated. Any natives seen at the Sound by Cook must have been acquainted with the arts of agriculture and the potato would assuredly appeal to them more than any other of the new food plants. We cannot positively state that the potatoes planted by Crozet in 1772 at the Bay of Islands, and by Cook at Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773 were preserved and propagated by the natives, but it seems highly probable that at least those planted in the northern port were so perpetuated.

W. Harris (1997: pers. comm.) noted that the timing of the Queen Charlotte Sounds plantings by Furneaux (April) would not have been conducive to the production of a potato crop in the Marlborough Sounds. However, Leach (1975:99) pointed out that the potato did survive in the Sounds as in 1820 the Russian explorer Bellingshausen found that the Maori community at Ship Cove were growing potatoes for their own consumption. Leach also referred to a garden planted in 1773 at Pickersgills Harbour, Dusky Sound, on the instructions of Cook, although less than 20 years later Dr Archibald Menzies reported no signs of introduced European plants at this spot. During his visit to New Zealand in 1813 the Rev. Samuel Marsden commented on the extent to which potatoes were cultivated by Maori, and stated that the official introduction of the potato was credited to Lt King, Governor of Norfolk Island, who visited the far north of New Zealand in 1793 and gave the natives various seeds and implements (Elder 1932:526). However, according to Best (1925:282), Kings journals do not mention potatoes at all.

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Table 1 Eighteenth-century introductions of potatoes to New Zealand, as reported by Leach 1984, Best 1925, Elder 1932.
Year 1769 1769 1772 1773 Name de Surville James Cook Marion du Fresne James Cook Location of reported introduction Doubtless Bay, Far North. Mercury Bay, Whitianga. Moturua Island, Bay of Islands. Marlborough Sounds and Dusky Sound, Fiordland. Bay of Islands

1793

Lt Governor King

Sources: Leach 1984, Best 1925, Elder 1932.

Following these early introductions it is likely that there were many more introductions of potatoes. Genet (1996:30) wrote that whalers and sealers introduced potatoes and often, because of the plants ability to perpetuate itself and provide nutritionally good food, planted them as a food source for shipwrecked sailors. Yen (1961:2) noted that there were opportunities for considerably more introductions of potatoes from ...diverse and interesting directions during the early settlement period in the nineteenth century and that:
This South American plant travelled many routes to reach New Zealand. Not only could they have come with the settlers who would have brought established Western European varieties, but also some from South Africa (Cooks early introduction is recorded as being of South African stock). Perhaps the whalers who ranged the Pacific at this period had the opportunity of bringing the most interesting material. As ships stores, potatoes could have been brought from North, South and Central America since Callao in Peru and Acapulco in Mexico were provisioning ports for whaling vessels, many of whose home bases were in the eastern U.S.A. Records of their chance introductions may never be discovered.

Leach (1984:127), in writing of edible plants that have had a long association with New Zealand, wrote: Although potatoes are residents of a mere 200 years, standing, they are intrinsically interesting survivors of the days of exploration, whaling and sealing.

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Pre-European potato introductions

While it is generally accepted that potatoes were introduced to New Zealand by Europeans, some Maori maintain that they were introduced to New Zealand by their own ancestors along with the kumara, although there is no firm evidence that this was so. Hammond (1894:2378) recorded that Maori on the Patea coast said they had several varieties and referred to an ancestor, Te Reke Tatairongo, who obtained a tuber from the hidden world which he cultivated and distributed among his people. Hammond noted that the Tatairongo potato was still cultivated (1894) at Patea and Waitotara. He also listed 15 named varieties which were cultivated before the introduction of European varieties. In a footnote to Hammonds paper (published in the Journal of the Polynesian Society), the editors noted that they had been told by Te Karehana Whakataki (living at Porirua) and by Rangipito (living in the Hutt Valley) that Maori possessed potatoes before the arrival of Europeans. Both men gave the names of several varieties of pre-European potatoes grown by Maori. The editors however, noted:
In giving this information, these old men intended to imply that the Maoris possessed these varieties before the times of Captains Cook and De Surville, but it seems to us questionable if they are not varieties produced from those brought here by those two navigators.

Best (1925:284) recorded:

In the Bay of Plenty district it is a popular belief that the araro and rokoroko varieties of the potato (Solanum) were cultivated there prior to the arrival of Europeans, but old Tutakangahau of Maunga-pohatu stated that they were obtained during the early years of intercourse with Europeans.

In Song of Waitaha, a collection of the teachings of Iharaira Te Heihana, Brailsford (1994) recorded several references to the Waitaha peoples claim to have introduced the potato to New Zealand/Aotearoa from Waitangi ki Roto, their ancestral homeland. Along with the kumara and other introduced plants, he refers to ... peru, the potato which went happily to new soils (p. 136) and he recorded descriptions of several varieties (p. 143):
In the fine soils below makomako we planted the small black potato, the old one named peruperu that needs less water than the others. Its neighbour was the little yellow potato, the taewa that gave great energy to those doing heavy work. On the middle slopes were the small kumara and the big red potato called parete.

Best (1925:284) doubted that Maori possessed potatoes before the arrival of Europeans and commented:

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If the potatoes planted in Queen Charlotte Sound by Cook in 1773 were perpetuated, then the tribes of Cook Strait must have cultivated them for nearly fifty years before the coming of whalers and traders. Little wonder they claim a pre-European potato.

While claims of pre-European potatoes persist, and there is some anecdotal evidence as to their existence, some facts that indicate Maori were unlikely to have possessed potatoes prior to their introduction from Europe include: 1. The introduction of the potato from Europe in the late eighteenth century had an immediate and profound effect on Maori society (see Adoption of the potato by Maori). 2. There is no scientific evidence (such as pollen records or the discovery of remnants of early carbonised potato tubers) to indicate pre-European potatoes. 3. Early European explorers, whose expeditions included competent botanists who kept detailed records, found no evidence of pre-European potatoes. 4. Other plants introduced by Maori, including kumara Ipomoea batatas, taro Colocasia esculenta, yam Dioscorea alata, hue Lagenaria siceraria and aute Broussonetia papyrifera were from the warm, humid tropics. The potato, however, although of tropical origin, was a high altitude plant which would not have grown successfully in the warm humid conditions of tropical Polynesia.

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Maori-developed cultivars
It seems likely that Maori developed some cultivars by sowing true seed of the potatoes that were available to them and making selections from the seedlings. This was reported by Colenso (1880:14), who noted:
The northern tribes, especially the Ngapuhi, had more than forty years ago, obtained several new varieties of potatoes by sowing its seed; to which, however, they were first led by accident, having noticed some young plants which had sprung from selfsown seeds of the ripe potato berries and from them they had obtained several good and prized sorts.

Yen (1988:39) also referred to the Maori development of cultivars. He noted that, while the many potato varieties grown by Maori were regarded as simply relicts of direct and early European introduction, a Mrs Henare spoke of potato apples with seed in reference to her plantings of potatoes at Motatau in Northland. He suggested that, through Maori selection, these potato seedlings produced the Maori varieties. He described this as a redomestication. Salaman (1987:159) noted that this practice by native cultivators of intentionally raising new potato varieties by sowing true seeds from the potato berry, has been undertaken for many years, and referred to Colombian native people who collect potato berries, from the Andes mountains, selecting from the seedlings the better types and the heavier yields. Observations by the present author while growing 18 varieties of Maori potatoes for three seasons indicate that few of these types actually set seed. While all varieties produced flowers each year only four varieties set seed during this period. This observation was confirmed by Salaman (ibid.) who noted that in Europe (the source of potatoes introduced to New Zealand) fruitbearing varieties were not common due to a dominant mutation which occurred after its introduction (to Europe and the United Kingdom), which inhibited the full development of the anthers. While it is possible that some of the potato varieties perpetuated by Maori resulted from intentional seedling selection, Yens apparent claim that all or most of these varieties were produced by this method is unlikely, as there are no records of the practice being widespread (it has been recorded as having undertaken only by northern iwi) and few seed-bearing varieties would have been available.

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Adoption of the potato by Maori

Effects on Maori society
Maori were quick to recognise the advantages of the introduced potatoes over the kumara. They were easier to grow, yielded more heavily and were easier to store. Yen (1961:4), in referring to the introduction of the potato, considered that agriculturally the impact of the plant must have been spectacular. Best (1925:284), in reporting accounts of the voyage of the Venus (183639), wrote:
the Maori certainly appreciated the potato and it is at the present time his most favoured food supply. When he found that it not only suited his palate, but was also most prolific and was capable of being cultivated to advantage at all altitudes and at all places occupied by the native people, he recognised its great superiority over the kumara, which requires much more care in its cultivation.

The significant impact of this introduction on Maori society was recorded by Firth (1929:488), who wrote:
The results of the introduction of the potato bring out with clarity, the manner in which new culture items affected the economic life and even the environment of the native. The potato is of such hardy nature that it can be grown in all districts and moreover it is prolific, yielding a plentiful return for the labour expended. Hence it was speedily introduced into districts which like Tuhoe had formerly possessed no cultivated foods and also tended to replace the kumara among other tribes. Again it effectively supplanted the aruhe, the fern root (Pteris esculenta) as one of the staple vegetable foods.

Firth also considered some negative aspects of the introduction of the potato on Maori society and on the environment. He noted that formerly the forest had been strictly conserved as a source of wild foods such as berries, birds and rats. However, following the introduction of the potato, this care became unnecessary and year after year more forest was destroyed to make way for potato plantations. Cameron (1964:98) wrote of destruction of indigenous forests by Maori agriculturalists of the nineteenth century:
The introduction of the potato to New Zealand at the end of the eighteenth century caused considerable changes in Maori agriculture. There was a great expansion in shifting cultivation over forest land and there are records of Maori fires having destroyed very large areas of forest.

Firth suggested that, because cultivation and production of the potato crop required less care and attention, there was more time for other less energetic

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pursuits. He considered that this contributed to a general decline in physical fitness of the race. Belich (1996:159) in writing of Maori warfare, considered that the introduction of the potato (and the pig) gave Maori a reliable surplus, helped in feeding long-range expeditions and meant that because less labour was required for food production, warriors were available to take part in warfare expeditions. He suggested that in 1818 acreages of potatoes and other crops may well have become really substantial and reliable among the Northland groups and noted that Potato wars might therefore be more accurate than Musket wars a suggestion that the potatos part in Maori warfare was at least as significant as the musket.

Ma ori production systems

Because the method of propagation and production of the potato was similar to that of kumara, it was able to fit into the existing agriculture system of the Maori with little modification. Best (1925:99) described methods of planting potatoes that were identical to those used for kumara. He noted that the implements used for cultivation, and the ceremonial rituals, were also the same. Potatoes were particularly welcome in the southern regions of the South Island where kumara would not grow. Records show that the early potatoes grown by Maori in Otago and Southland were grown on mounds according to traditional kumara culture, and it is suggested they were introduced to the south by Ngai Tahu from the Kaikoura region who were known to raise ku mara. While Best and others have said that Maori adapted kumara production methods to growing potatoes, Cameron (1964:102) pointed out that this is not strictly correct. He noted that the two vegetables require different soil conditions with kumara growing best on warm, well-aerated soils while potatoes prefer cool moist soils and will not grow well on the same soils year after year. For potato production new land was used at least every second year, and this made greater inroads into the forest than had kumara production which involved using the same piece of land for several years. Maori also developed innovative cultivation methods. Best (1925:285) recorded that the Maori became adept in the cultivation of the potato and adopted some methods not employed by European settlers. He wrote:
in order to obtain a very early crop he planted seed tubers as early as June in scrub land or light bush, then felled the bush which was burned in early spring. The fire destroyed the haulm of the plants that had grown up through the felled timber, but a new growth soon followed, whereas exposure to frost would have spoiled the crop. His method is called whakapara in the Bay of Plenty and whakaota at Taupo.

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Leach (1984:109) in referring to new plant introductions including the potato, noted that by the nineteenth century Maori were using the new plants to great advantage and that the new plants and tools were slotted into place within the traditional systems. She described Maori gardening of the time as a robust and adaptable tradition. In writing of acceptance of new crops in Polynesia, Leach (1983:145) stated:
Forty years after the Maoris first exposure in Northland to European plants, the five pre-European food plants were still grown but had been joined in Maori gardens by two other root crops, potatoes and turnips, by a green crop cabbage and by the tall maize. The most successful introduction of all was the potato

By the early 1800s Maori were growing large crops of potatoes, and an area of 50 hectares in potato production was not uncommon. An article titled Historical records of New Zealand South, in the Sydney Gazette, September 1813, records the visit that year of a flax dresser, named Williams, to the Bluff. Best (1925:285) quotes this article when he says:
The natives attend to cultivation of the potato with as much diligence and care as I have ever seen. A field of considerably more than 100 acres presented one well cultivated bed, filled with rising crops of various age, some of which were ready for digging, while others had been newly planted. Dried fish and potatoes form their chief support.

While it is well documented that by the early part of the nineteenth century, the potato was grown extensively by Maori, at this period they still relied principally on traditional food crops, and Shawcross (1967:333) contended that it was not until after 1820 that introduced food crops displaced fernroot (Pteris esculenta) as the principal staple food item in the diet of the Maori. Hargreaves (1963:104) considered that by the 1830s the potato was the basic food crop of New Zealand, preferred by the Maoris above all their traditional crops.

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Dfrichement dun champ de patates (Digging a field of potatoes). Women working with the ko, digging sticks. This lithograph by Louis de Sainson, published in 1839, derives from the voyage of the corvette LAstrolabe to New Zealand in 182627. It gives the impression that the women are being supervised; they may be war-captives. The taking of captives, so as to increase the labour forces available to produce food for the ships, developed extensively in the north during the 1820s.

Fig. 2
Source: Binney, J., Basset, J., Olsen, E. The people and the land Te Tangata me te Whenua: An Illustrated History of New Zealand 18201920. Wellington: Allen and Unwin NZ, 1990: p. 22. Reproduced by permission of the copyright holder. Copyright The Hocken Library. All rights reserved.

Storage methods
Similar storage methods to those developed for kumara were used for overwinter storage of potatoes. Leach (1979:112113) described a circular raised-rim storage pit on a bank of the Makotukutuku stream in Palliser Bay. He interpreted this as a potato store that was probably in use in 1840 when it was recorded that potatoes were grown in the area. A layer of fern stalks was found on the floor of the pit. Leach noted the use of fern as a floor covering suggests a continuation of an earlier practice designed to keep tubers off the damp floor of storage pits. Describing numerous potato storage pits at

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Waimate, Marshall (1836:21) recorded they were found in all directions as to completely honeycomb the whole of the ground. He described these potatoes as being for consumption, while seed potatoes were put in baskets covered with fern. Maori also stored potatoes on raised platforms called whata. Savage (1807:56) remarked their mode of preserving them is upon a platform erected on a single pole, about ten feet in height. Marshall (1836:170) made similar observations and referred to several wata or stages, supporting baskets of seed potatoes carefully sewn up with dried grass and covered with fern leaf. The practice of covering stored seed potatoes with fern leaf is interesting as the practice is still undertaken today by Maori in Northland. The following explanation was given by a kuia (elderly woman) at Motatau. The dust from the fern leaves keeps the riwai healthy. She further explained that the fern must be mamaku (Cyathea dealbata) and that wheki (Dicksonia squarrosa) should be used for kumara storage. Presumably the dust from the fern leaves she referred to is fern spores.

Fig. 3

Fern covering potatoes in storage

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Cooking methods
Iron pots were not common in Maori villages until the 1830s (Leach 1984:106) so potatoes were initially cooked using traditional methods. Leach noted that until the iron pot was commonplace vegetables which most appealed to cooks were those that could be prepared in traditional ways, either roasted over embers, eaten raw or steamed in the earth oven. The method of cooking using an earth oven was described by Leach (1982:152154). Thomson (1859:159) considered that prior to the introduction of iron pots
The science of cookery was in a primitive state among the New Zealanders, for being destitute of vessels capable of resisting fire, the cookery of the whole race, except for those living near the boiling springs at Taupo or Rotorua was limited to steaming and roasting.

He went on to describe the earth oven. He also described the method of roasting: Roasting was effected by placing the articles near fire, but the New Zealanders despise this mode of cooking, and called it a make-shift, a dinner for slaves or men in a hurry. By the 1830s, boiling in iron pots appeared to have become a common method of cooking potatoes. Marshall (1836:70) observed a couple of women boiling potatoes on an English swing pot and commented:
the lately savage inhabitants of a savage country, not only feeding on a root for which they were indebted to an Englishman, but also cooking it after the English fashion in a vessel of English manufacture.

Riley (1994:425) described a unique water steeping method used as an alternative method of preparing potatoes for eating.
The potatoes remain submerged for five or six weeks, depending on the quality of the water and the variety of potato. They became very white and pulpy in this time, and if correctly treated would have no offensive smell. After the skins had been peeled off, they were made into cakes and cooked in the ashes of a fire. Wild honey was sometimes added to these kotero taewa or kopi taewa.

The potato as a trade commodity

As well as becoming the staple item in the diet of the Maori, it is well documented that potatoes became an important trade commodity, not only within Maori communities but for European colonists and for provisioning European ships. (Cameron 1964; Grey 1994; Hargreaves 1959, 1963; Watson and Patterson 1985; Belich 1996). Evison (1993:28) noted that by the 1840s, Maori agricultural production was based mainly on potatoes; wheat was thriving in

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Otago and Southland and several Maori groups were operating their own sailing vessels to transport their crops. Murihiku (Southland) potatoes were regarded as being of particularly good quality and were in demand in the population centres further to the north. The Chatham Islands also became an important region for potato production. When the Taranaki tribes, Ngati Tama and Ngati Mutunga, sailed on the ship Rodney to colonise the Chathams in 1835, 78 tonnes of seed potatoes were included in their provisions. (King 1989:59). During the 1850s and 1860s Maori on the Chathams were producing hundreds of tons, much of which was exported to Australia. In the early nineteenth century when Maori realised that potatoes were a valuable trade commodity, it appears that they would store them for this purpose rather than eat them. Savage (1807:56):
Though the natives are exceedingly fond of this root, they eat them but sparingly, on account of their great value in procuring iron by barter from European ships that touch at this part of the coast. The utility of this metal is found to be so great that they would rather suffer almost any privation, or inconvenience, for the possession of it particularly when wrought into axes, adzes or small hatchets: the potatoes are consequently preserved with great care against the arrival of a vessel.

Sometimes, Maori were so anxious to conduct trade that potatoes were often dug before the tubers were fully developed (Hargreaves 1963:105). By the beginning of the nineteenth century McNab (1914:108) considered that Maori agriculture was becoming commercialised and losing its wholly subsistence nature. He noted that extensive fields of potatoes were being grown in the Thames area and he referred to the purchase by a trading vessel from New South Wales of some seven to eight tons of very fine Maori-grown potatoes.

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Gilfillan called this pencil drawing A settler bartering tobacco for potatoes and pumpkins. A piglet is also on offer.

Fig. 4
Source: Binney, J., Basset, J., Olsen, E. The people and the land Te Tangata me te Whenua: An Illustrated History of New Zealand 18201920. Wellington: Allen and Unwin NZ, 1990: p. 86. Reproduced by permission of the copyright holder. Copyright The Alexander Turnbull Library. All rights reserved.

Maori production of potatoes continued to increase into the nineteenth century, and in 1834 Edward Markham (a naval officer and adventurer) saw a store of 4,000 bags of potatoes in one Hokianga village which Cameron (1964:103) estimated to be about 100 tons. Hargreaves (1959:61) wrote that Maori-grown produce played a significant part in feeding the European population of Auckland Province and provided an important contribution to exports. While no statistics are available for the Auckland region for the period, in 1857 the New Zealander (Hargreaves 1959:5) recorded that 3,050 acres of potatoes were grown in the Lakes (Rotorua) and Bay of Plenty districts. Watson and Paterson (1985:525) recorded that in the Wellington region in 1847 Maoris dominated the market for pigs, potatoes and sea food. Maori-grown produce from all over the region was transported to Wellington, and in 1841 pigs and potatoes from inland Wanganui were canoed down river then transhipped to Wellington.

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Maori food production (of which potatoes were the major commodity) peaked in the late 1850s and declined precipitously thereafter (Grey 1994:204). The land wars of the 1860s and subsequent loss of productive land is often regarded as the cause. However, Hargreaves (1959:76) wrote:
Although the Maori Wars of the early 1860s are often regarded as the cause of the decline of Maori agriculture, particularly in the Waikato and Bay of Plenty, it is suggested here that in reality they only gave the final death blow to an already waning industry. This decline was in part due to a lower quality product less efficiently prepared for the market than that which the European farmer was producing or which could be imported relatively cheaply; and in part due to a general disillusionment and loss of interest in the Europeans ways, including his agriculture, in the rising tide of Maori nationalism.

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Characteristics of Maori potatoes

In the Dictionary of New Zealand English Orsman (1997:480) described Maori potatoes as
Any of several varieties of mealy potatoes with reddish or purple skins and some interior colouration, grown originally and traditionally by the Maori, the present varieties possibly descended from stock introduced in the late 18th or early 19th centuries.

Yen (1961:4) in describing Maori potatoes noted In such characters as plant habit and vigour, flower colour, tuber shape, colour and texture, the Maori varieties exhibit a considerable range in variation. Flesh type varies greatly, and ranges from the hard waxy (low dry-matter content) Huakaroro which remains firm when boiled, to the floury textured (high dry-matter content) Urenika which tends to disintegrate when boiled. Figures 9 and 10 (at the end of this section) show that the tubers of the various Maori potato cultivars vary. They range from spherical, through flat oval, to elongated shapes, and they generally have a knobbly appearance with very deep set eyes. Skin colour varies greatly while the colour of the flesh includes white, yellow and purple. Some cultivars have coloured flesh inside the vascular ring and white outside it (See Fig. 6).

Fig. 5

Urenika flesh

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Fig. 6

Karupoti flesh

Blue is the most common flower colour, ranging from the light blue of Moemoe, through to the mid-blue of Maori, to the dark blue of Raupi. Karupoti has very large white flowers while Urenika (Fig. 12) and Pa whero have cream flowers with grey/brown striations on the inner parts of the petals. Most cultivars develop tubers at the ends of long stolons and they tend to set tubers in autumn when days are shortening. Some, such as Uwhi, Whataroa and Urenika, set small tubers in the axils of the leaves at the same time as they are developing subterranean tubers (see Fig. 7). The haulms (tops) of the plants vary in appearance; and some cultivars develop short upright stems while others have long and prostrate stems.

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Fig. 7 Some Maori potato cvs such as Urenika develop small tubers in the leaf axils Maori potatoes appear to have some resistance to certain diseases which affect modern potato cultivars and Yen (1961/62:5) wrote:
The Maori claims that their potatoes are resistant to diseases appear to have some foundation since their perpetuation has been accomplished to the present day without the aid of any form of disease control. In preliminary experiments, the potato and vegetable sections of this division [Crop Research Division of the New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research] have found that varying degrees of resistance to blight and some viruses exist in over 20 of these varieties.

In referring to Maori potatoes, Genet (1985:23) noted that early introductions were of diverse origins; often of andigena types, and some still survive. Certainly, from the characteristics described above it is apparent that the Maori potatoes have many similarities to the andigena types grown in the United Kingdom in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries at the time when many of those cultivars were likely to have been introduced to New Zealand.

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Yields of Maori potatoes

The yields obtained from Maori potatoes are generally low compared to those from modern potato cultivars. Genet (1984:32) noted:
yields are usually quite low by todays standards but some of this can be attributed to viruses contained in many of these varieties. Grown in good free-draining, but well watered soils yields are acceptable.

Most of the Maori potatoes appear to be relicts of European cultivars dating from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and Burgess (1987:21) noted that in 1894 the yield was only 15 tonnes per hectare compared to around 40 tonnes per hectare today. Williams (1993:142) considered that, today, yields of over 100 tonnes per hectare are possible. This is due to more productive varieties and improved growing techniques. To compare the yield of Maori potatoes with that of a modern cultivar, an informal trial was conducted over three seasons. Eight Maori cultivars were grown in a plot alongside a modern cultivar. The modern cultivar selected was Rua, which was certified in 1966 (Genet 1983:55). It was selected because it is a late type setting tubers in autumn at a similar time to most of the Maori types. Six plants of each cultivar were grown. A formalised random layout was not used as the purpose of the experiment was to be indicative only. The first trial was planted at Upper Hutt, on a clay loam soil, on September 28 1996, and the tubers were harvested on 28 March 1997. The second planting was at Martinborough, in the Wairarapa, on a silt loam soil. Tubers were planted on September 25 1997, and harvested the following year on 26 March. The final planting was at Moiki, near Greytown, in the Wairarapa on a silt loam soil. Tubers were planted on September 26 1998, and harvested on March 28 1999. Results (yield in kg per plant) are summarised in the following table. For the purposes of calculating average yield, the Maori cultivar Kowiniwini was not included as these plants showed obvious signs of virus infection (mottling, crinkling and slight yellowing of the leaves typical symptoms of potato virus Y) and the yield per plant was much lower than that of the other cultivars.

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Table 2 Yield per plant (kg) averaged over 3-yearly crops of 8 Maori cvs and one modern cv.
Cultivar Karupoti Kowiniwini Pa whero Poiwa Nga Oti Oti Raupi Urenika Moemoe Rua 1997 0.75kg 0.31 0.94 0.62 0.50 0.88 0.58 0.75 1.40 1998 0.64 0.36 0.87 0.79 0.61 0.93 0.69 0.93 1.79 1999 0.82 0.41 1.08 0.59 0.48 0.82 0.60 0.79 1.39 average yield 0.73 0.36 0.96 0.67 0.53 0.88 0.62 0.82 1.52

Results indicate that Rua consistently produced a considerably greater yield than the Maori cultivars over the three seasons. The average yield of the Maori cultivars was 0.74 kg per plant while the average yield for Rua was more than twice that at 1.52 kg per plant.

Fig. 8

Informal trial plots

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The Maori potato today

A wide range of Maori potatoes are still grown today in many parts of New Zealand. Orsman (1997:480) observed that they are still found growing in some home gardens, more especially in the rural areas of the north. While they are mainly grown by Maori families, there are numerous Pakeha enthusiasts maintaining Maori potato collections, and a collection is maintained by the New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research at Lincoln. Part of the justification for maintaining this collection is to provide a broad gene pool for possible use in potato breeding programmes (Genet and Anderson 1985:28). While Orsmans selected quotations tend to show that these potatoes are mainly grown in the rural north, they are also grown by numerous Maori families on the East Coast of the North Island mainly in the East Cape/Gisborne/ Hawkes Bay areas but also in the Bay of Plenty and, to a lesser extent, on the west coast from Taranaki to Wellington. They are also grown in some rural areas in the Waikato. Some are grown in the South Island and there are Maori families on the Chatham Islands still maintaining the old cultivars. In fact, in any rural area where there are groups of Maori people, these potatoes can be found in their vegetable gardens. Maori potatoes, being relicts of cultivars introduced from Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (with some possibly having been developed by Maori selection from seedlings), have been maintained within wha nau (families) for possibly over 200 years perhaps eight to nine generations. Most of the Maori families visited as part of this study who were growing the old cultivars, were also growing modern cultivars for their greater yield. Various reasons were given for maintaining the old cultivars but the main reason appeared to be that, because these tubers had been passed down through the generations, there was a responsibility to maintain them and continue to pass them on. Several people referred to them as a taonga (something highly prized or treasured) that had been left to them by their tipuna (ancestors). Obviously these plants have a value to some Maori that is more than their value as a food source. There is precedence in history for this concept, and Leach (1989:35) in referring to the low yield provided by the kumara in pre-European Maori horticulture, noted:
Value may be a measure of religious significance, of social or ceremonial meaning, or of sentimental importance to the Maori, the kumaras non-economic values so clearly outweighed its poor yields that they persisted in growing it.

In this context, it seems likely that the old potato cultivars have at least sentimental value.

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Roskruge (1999:3) reported that taewa (Maori potatoes) are grown (by Maori) as a regional speciality to show a hosts hospitality, as a reason for whanaungatanga working together as a community. He also considered that, in addition to their importance in Maori culture, they could be of commercial value. Certainly today there are numerous community and marae-based groups growing the old varieties for sale at markets and roadside stalls, and growers have reported that they have no problems in selling all they can produce usually at a considerable premium above that paid for modern potatoes. Yen (1961/62:4) in writing of the present-day survival of Maori potatoes, stated:
They are grown annually in small household garden plots and many varietal names are known. They form a minor part of the diet but are regarded to be of better culinary quality than modern commercial varieties.

Some Maori consider that the old potatoes have a better taste than modern types and as the many cultivars still grown have a range of culinary properties, it is likely that some may well be considered to be superior in this regard. Certainly the hard waxy types such as Huakaroro are considered to be better than modern types for boiling with meat such as pork, and greens such as puha Sonchus oleraceus and watercress Nasturtium officianale.

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Names of Ma-ori potatoes

In writing of the adoption of the potato by Maori, Yen (1961/2:4) stated: Further evidence of the adoption of the potato by Maori may be seen in the conferring of varietal names by the Maoris. Some conferred names were descriptive, while others were names of traditional root crops which were transferred to varieties of the potato as the people saw similarities (M. Parsons 1996: pers. comm.) In the preface to his dictionary, A Dictionary of the Maori Language, Williams (1971) justified the large numbers of names of flax, kumara and potato varieties in the dictionary by saying:
Many of these words are purely fanciful, or of limited local use; at the same time some are interesting, and in the case of the potato, afford examples of the habits practised by the Maori in giving names, apparently of Polynesian form, to introduced objects.

Generic names
Generic names were also given to potatoes, and in the north of the North Island they are generally known as riwai or peruperu (P. Niha 1996: pers. comm.) Orsman (1997:686) referred to riwai as a possible loanword. Peruperu is named after the white throat feathers of the tui. On the East Coast potatoes are known as parareka (D. Para 1999: pers. comm.) This name is also applied to the starchy rhizomes of the horse-shoe fern Marratia salicina, which was cultivated by Maori as a food source an example of the name of a traditional root crop being applied to a potato variety. In this context the prefix para usually means an edible tuber (it is often applied to those of various edible fern tubers or rhizomes) while reka means sweet or palatable. Parareka is also a name given to a specific Maori potato cultivar. Taylor (1858:37) recorded that in the Cook Strait region potatoes were known as taewa. Hammond (1894:238238), in writing of Maori potato production in Taranaki and Porirua, also referred to potatoes as taewa. Today, this name appears to be used from Taranaki to the Cook Strait region and also on the Chathams perhaps reflecting the colonisation of these islands by iwi from Taranaki in 1835. Taewa means foreigner which may indicate the foreign origin of the potato. Another explanation (Orsman: ibid) is that the word represents the name of one Stivers, who is said to have visited the Bay of Islands before Cook. Stivers is also mentioned by Elder (1932:208) in his letters and journals of Samuel Marsden. He recorded in a footnote: Staivers (sic) hence another name for the potato, taewa, since he apparently supplied some seed.

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- The Ngai Tahu people of the South Island refer to the potato as ma he tau (Potiki - 1996:30; Beattie 1920:463). Ma he tau means like a string of fishing sinkers, referring to the numerous tubers on the ends of long stolons which are apparent when the plants are lifted at harvest time. There are other names used as generic names by Maori for potatoes, but those described above appear to be the most common.

Varietal names
Maori gave numerous varietal names to potatoes, and the same potato was often given different local names. Biggs (1987:146), listed 53 Maori varietal names for potatoes although some of these may well be synonyms. Some of the early cultivar introductions, like Early Rose and Skerry Blue, which were adopted by Maori, have been grown for many years by Maori families, and in some instances they appear to have retained those names although it is likely they were also given Maori names. Beattie (1920:462) recorded that the English cultivar Derwent became Kopara or Katote, White Rock became Waitaha, Old Red became Pa whero and Red Rock became known as Wherei. Some of the names were descriptive, for example Karuparera means eye of the duck as does Kanohi Parera. Karupoti is eye of the cat (poti is a transliteration of pussy). When this potato is cut in half, it has a purple centre within the vascular ring with creamy white flesh around the outside. It has the appearance of a cats eye. Huakaroro or egg of the seagull is usually abbreviated to Karoro and is sometimes called White Maori. The name of the cultivar Moemoe means to sleep which possibly refers to planting the tubers in the soil. Raupi is to cover up which may have similar connotations. Whataroa may be derived from the whata or platform on which potatoes were placed on for short-term storage (see Storage methods earlier in this paper). The name of the very commonly grown Urenika, which has elongated tubers with dark purple skin and flesh (see Fig. 4), is derived from ure, (penis), and nika (a Maori transliteration of the derogatory name nigger used by crew on American whaling ships to refer to fellow crew members of African descent). This name is thought to originate from the early to mid-nineteenth century when African-Americans were often members of American whaling ship crews (W. Harris 1997: pers. comm.). Urenika is also known as Keretawha, Tuarua, Waikato and Ringaringakatira (Genet 1996:32). There are numerous examples of synonyms, as Maori often gave different local names to the same cultivar. But some cultivars that may appear to be the same when the most obvious morphological features are compared can be quite distinct types. For example, Poiwa and Nga Oti Oti have very similar tubers, leaves, flowers and growth

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habit. However, the tubers of Nga Oti Oti have white flesh which becomes floury when cooked, while those of Poiwa have a slight yellow tinge to the flesh, are more waxy and remain quite firm after boiling. Moemoe also appears to be similar to Poiwa and Nga Oti Oti although it grows more vigorously and produces larger tubers. Uwhi, a potato grown through the winter in Northland in the early nineteenth century was a name transferred from the yam Discorea alata a pre-European introduction. Uwhi is similar in shape and colour to the yam. It is often - referred to as Uwhiwhero (whero means red). Ngangarangi (another name for yam) was also transferred to a potato cultivar. Some potatoes were named for the way they resembled pre-European kumara varieties. Two examples are Katoto and Poranga (Williams 1971:104; 293). The meanings of some commonly grown cultivars such as Kowiniwini (also known as Kaupari) and Poiwa are not known. K. Prime (1999: pers. comm.) noted that some words relating to potato varieties and to potato culture are slowly dying out and becoming lost because many Maori no longer have gardens and the words are no longer used.

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Acquisition of cultivars
The present collection of 18 named Maori potato cultivars and several unnamed types was acquired over 3 years from a variety of sources. The first three cultivars were contributed in 1996 by Poai Pakeha Niha from Whangarei. The following year Poai Pakeha accompanied me on a journey around Northland, during which we visited several elderly Maori people who grew Maori potatoes. On that journey several more cultivars were collected and information was gathered. Further cultivars were obtained from Dr Russell Genet at the New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research at Lincoln in Canterbury. Some cultivars were purchased from roadside stalls and from weekend markets. Articles published in the New Zealand Gardener, Te Karaka and the Dominion (see appendices) prompted numerous responses and a number of potato tubers were contributed to the collection by both Maori and Pakeha people as a result. Tubers of some unnamed acquisitions were compared with those in the collection and matching types were grown alongside named cultivars to compare other morphological features. Tubers were acquired from all over the country including the Chatham Islands and Stewart Island. Most of the potatoes that were sent were the same as those already in the collection but some were new types. Observations indicated that the most commonly grown Maori potato cultivar is Urenika, followed by Moemoe, Huakaroro and Peruperu. It is important to note that some cultivars contributed by Maori were given on the condition that they were not to be used for commercial purposes and not to be given to others without consultation. These conditions have been respected and complied with.

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Description of cultivars
Following are descriptions of the 18 named Maori potato cultivars collected as part of this study.

Moemoe
One of the more commonly grown of the Maori potatoes, this cultivar is also - Toko. Tubers are round-to-slightly-elongated known as Mui Mui and Nga and have a yellow-and-reddish mottled flesh and deep-set eyes. The flesh of the tubers is yellow and there are often purple flecks around the vascular ring. They are a waxy potato which remains firm after boiling. The plants have small, dark green leaves and the flowers are light blue.

Karupoti
This potato has round-to-oval tubers which have a dark red skin and moderately deep-set eyes. The flesh colour within the vascular ring is a dark reddish purple surrounded by white flesh (see Fig. 6). The name Karupoti (eye of the cat) is derived from this feature. The potatoes become floury when cooked, indicating they are low in moisture and sugar content, and high in starch. They tend to disintegrate when boiled. The plants grow larger than average and produce large white flowers.

Whataroa
The slightly elongated tubers are usually wider at one end, with most of the deeply set eyes concentrated towards the narrow end. The skin colour is pink, mottled with yellow. The flesh is yellow and when boiled the tubers remain reasonably firm. The petals of the flowers are white with light purple margins, and the main stems of the plant are red. Small tubers develop in the leaf axils on the stems in autumn when the subterranean tubers are developing.

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Peruperu
This cultivar is very commonly grown in Northland. The slightly elongated tubers are a creamy-yellow splashed with purple while the flesh colour is creamy-white, sometimes with yellow streaks. The potatoes tend to become floury when cooked. Flowers are a mid-blue.

Karuparera
Another cultivar common in the North, this is also known as Kanohi Parera. Both names mean the eye of the duck (parera is the grey duck). The eyes of the purple tubers are usually surrounded by yellow, giving rise to its names. The flesh of the tubers is white and they tend towards becoming floury when boiled.

Huakaroro
This potato has a yellow skin which is often splashed with pink and usually covered in numerous small brown dots. It is sometimes called White Maori. It has a very knobbly, slightly elongated shape and the eyes are set very deep. It yields more heavily than most of the other Maori cultivars, and the tubers are often very large. When boiled, the hard waxy tubers, which have yellow flesh, remain firm. It is a favourite for boil ups (that is, potatoes boiled with pork bones or other meats and puha or watercress).

Kowiniwini
The tubers of Kowiniwini are very distinctive. The medium deep-set eyes are surrounded by bright yellow while the basic colour of the tubers is a deep purplish-red. The plants in the collection produced a much lower yield than other cultivars (see Yields of Maori potatoes earlier in this paper) probably because the plants appeared to be virus-infected. The flesh of the tubers is creamy-white and they tend to disintegrate when boiled. This cultivar is also known as Kaupari.

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Uwhi
Also known as Uwhiwhero, this is another cultivar commonly grown in the north. It produces good yields compared to most other Maori cultivars. The pink to orange-pink tubers have moderately deep eyes with white flesh. The waxy tubers have a pleasantly distinctive taste when cooked. Like Whataroa, the plant produces small tubers in the leaf axils in autumn. The flowers are a mid-blue.

Maori
With their shallow eyes and uniformly round shape, the tubers of this potato are quite different in appearance to most of the other Maori potatoes and it is possible that this cultivar is a more modern type. The skin of the tubers is red with a rough texture. When they are boiled, the potatoes become floury even after they have been stored for several months. The plants have mid-blue flowers and produce a good yield of tubers.

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Parareka

Rokeroke

Maori

Whanako

Peruperu

Huakaroro

Urenika Fig. 9 Maori potato cultivars

Whataroa

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Karupoti

Kowiniwini

Maori Chief

Raupi

Pawhero

Nga Oti Oti

Moemoe

Uwhi

Poiwa Fig. 10 Maori potato cultivars

Karuparera

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Nga Oti Oti

Sometimes called Nga Outi Outi, this potato has yellow and pink mottled tubers with deep-set eyes. It has white flesh which sometimes has red flecks outside the vascular ring. The potato is not suitable for boiling as the tubers very quickly disintegrate. The plant produces a relatively small haulm, and has very small dark green leaves and light blue flowers.

Poiwa
This cultivar has features that are very similar to Nga Oti Oti, the main difference being that the tubers have white flesh and are more waxy, remaining relatively firm when boiled.

Pa whero
Also called Old Red, this potato produces long red tubers which tend to be rather narrow at one end. They have relatively few, shallow eyes and are often mistaken for a kumara. They have white flesh which sometimes has red flecks in the centre of the tuber. The plant grows vigorously, and has red stems and cream flowers with grey-brown striations on the inner parts of the petals. The flowers have very large prominent anthers. The potatoes remain reasonably firm when boiled.

Maori Chief
Sometimes known as Rangatira, this potato has oval shaped yellow tubers which are splashed with red, and it has shallow eyes. It is said to be the same as, or similar to, Northern Star, a relatively modern cultivar that was released in the United Kingdom in 1902, and was described by Salaman (1987:169) as being a variety of little merit. The flesh of the tubers is white with purple flecks. Being a floury type, it is not suitable for boiling.

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Raupi
The tubers of this cultivar have a yellow skin, often with purple blotches or splashes. The eyes are deep-set and the flesh colour is yellow, often with purple dots around the vascular ring. When boiled the tubers remain relatively firm. The plants have dark blue flowers and small crinkled leaves.

Parareka
This cultivar produces small elongated tubers with shallow eyes. They have pink skin with yellow markings. The flesh colour is white, and they have a floury texture.

Whanako
With its smooth skin, shallow eyes and regular round shape, this cultivar appears to be a more modern type. It has white flesh and remains firm when boiled.

Rokeroke
This potato has tubers that are similar in appearance to Whanako. It also has white, waxy flesh.

Urenika
By far the most widely planted of the Maori potatoes, this cultivar is grown by Maori communities all over New Zealand. It is a potato that will persist in the ground for long periods without being cultivated, and is sometimes found growing wild on old Maori occupation sites and on the sites of abandoned gardens. It is also known as Tuarua Waikato, Keretewha, Rongo Blue and Tutaekuri.

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Fig. 11 Urenika plants growing wild near Turangi With its elongated tubers with dark purple skin and flesh (see Fig. 5) which sometimes has white flecks, Urenika is quite different to the other Maori potatoes and was described by Thomson (1988:182) as a cultivar that shows what are probably ancestral characters of the potato. The tubers look similar in appearance to types grown by indigenous people in the Andes of Peru (See Fig. 1), and it was possibly introduced directly to New Zealand from South America by early sailors and traders who often provisioned their ships at South American ports. The plants have purple stems, and small tubers are produced in the leaf axils in the late autumn. Tubers are produced at the ends of long stolons and the flowers are white with grey striations in the centre of the petals. The tubers have a very floury flesh, and they will almost totally disintegrate if they are boiled when newly dug. The dark purple colour of the flesh is retained in cooking.

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Fig. 12 A flower and leaf of Urenika Genet (1996: pers. comm.) considered that Urenika is possibly synonymous with Congo a United Kingdom cultivar introduced pre-1900 (P. Haddon 1999: pers. comm.). Congo plants grown by the author showed identical morphological features to plants of Urenika (grown from tubers collected from a range of locations within New Zealand) suggesting that Congo and Urenika have a common stock. However Congo tubers were consistently larger than those produced by Urenika plants. In Australia a cultivar known as Purple Congo is popular with the Italian communities, where it is used to make gnocchi, a type of potato pasta. Yen (1961/62:5) noted that Urenika resembles the storied (iodine) potato of Ireland, used as a talisman against illness.

Fig. 13 Congo tubers are larger than those of Urenika

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Fig. 14 Purple Congo tubers for sale in a market in Melbourne

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Summary and conclusion

The potato is of South American origin, from the Andes region that extends from Peru to Colombia, where it has been cultivated for over 2000 years. While its natural habitat is in the region of the equator, it is found at high altitudes where the temperature range and humidity are moderate. The potato introduced to Europe and the United Kingdom in the late sixteenth century was a Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena type, and being a short-day plant because of its origins near the equator, its reaction to growing in the long day conditions of the European summer was to set tubers late in autumn as days became shorter. By the time the potato was introduced to New Zealand in the late eighteenth century, it had become adapted to long day conditions, and a number of named cultivars had been developed which were classified as Solanum tuberosum subsp. tuberosum. These potatoes still retained many of the features of the andigena subspecies, such as irregular shaped knobbly tubers with very deep-set eyes and long stolons and they still tended to set tubers fairly late in the season. Potatoes at this stage had a very narrow genetic base, having been developed from a very limited number of types introduced from South America two centuries earlier. Several introductions to New Zealand were recorded as being made between 1769 and 1773. While de Surville is often credited with being the first to introduce potatoes to New Zealand, journals of his expedition record that while he introduced wheat, rice and peas, potatoes are not mentioned. Potatoes given to a Maori chief at Mercury Bay by Captain James Cook in 1769 are thought by some scholars to have possibly been the first successful introduction, but the evidence is not conclusive. Further introductions of potatoes were made by Marion du Fresnes expedition in 1772 and by James Cooks second expedition in 1773. While there is considerable debate about the early European introductions of potatoes it seems likely from the available records that at least one successful introduction was made between 1769 and 1773. During the late eighteenth century there were opportunities for considerably more introductions of potatoes from a variety of locations. While it is generally accepted that potatoes were introduced to New Zealand by Europeans, some Maori maintain that they were first brought by their ancestors along with the kumara. However, there is no scientific evidence that this was so. Other factors that suggest this was unlikely include the profound effect that European-introduced potatoes had on Maori society, the absence of any

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documentation by early botanists recording the existence of potatoes, and the fact that the other plants introduced by Maori were from the warm humid tropics whereas the potato was adapted to a much more temperate climate and most unlikely to have grown successfully in tropical Polynesia. It is more likely that Maori developed some of their own cultivars by selection from seedlings of European-introduced varieties. The effects of the introduction of potatoes on Maori society was dramatic. They were easier to grow than the kumara, could be grown over a greater range of conditions and yielded a much greater return for the effort expended in their production. Several authors have stated that the methods of propagation and production of the potato were similar to that of the kumara and hence it was able to fit into the agricultural system of the Maori with little modification. However, the two crops require different soil conditions, and while a number of kumara crops could be produced from the same piece of cultivated land, for potato production new land was used at least every second year. Maori developed some innovative cultivation methods for potato production which were not used by European growers for the production of early crops. By the early nineteenth century, Maori had extensive areas of land in potato production much of which was grown for trade. Maori-grown potatoes and other crops played an important part in feeding the European populations of the major cities in New Zealand and a significant proportion of the crop was exported to Sydney. Maori production of potatoes peaked in the late 1850s and then declined rapidly following the land wars, although several scholars have suggested that the land wars only gave the final death blow to an already waning industry. Many of the old potato varieties are still grown by Maori today especially in the rural communities. With their deep-set eyes, irregular shape, long stolons and often colourful tubers, and their tendency to tuberise in the autumn, most of these Maori potatoes exhibit the characteristics of the potato cultivars that were developed in the United Kingdom and Europe in the late eighteenth century. It appears likely that some of these cultivars have been grown by Maori whanau and passed on through many generations. They have been referred to as a taonga or something precious that has been passed on by their tipuna (ancestors) and this, in spite of the fact that they produced a much lower yield than modern potatoes, provides some justification for their continued production. In addition, many Maori claim that the old varieties have a better taste than modern types. This claim is likely to have some justification, as a wide range of cultivars with differing culinary characteristics are still being grown.

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Maori potatoes appear to have some commercial value, and occasionally they can be found for sale at roadside stalls and at weekend markets where they are sold at a considerable premium above that paid for modern potatoes. However, because their yields are generally low it is unlikely that their production would be commercially viable. Maori conferred numerous generic and varietal names on potatoes. In the north, potatoes were generally known as riwai or peruperu whereas they were called - ma he tau by the Ngai Tahu people of the South Island. On the east coast of the North Island, parareka was the most common generic name, while taewa was used from Taranaki to the Cook Strait region. Numerous varietal names were given to the potato and the same potato was often given different varietal names. Some of these names were descriptive while others were names of traditional root crops which were then transferred to varieties of the potato as people saw similarities among them. During the acquisition of a collection of Maori potato cultivars as part of this study, it became apparent that the cultivar Urenika is the most widely and commonly grown, followed by Huakaroro, Moemoe and Peruperu. Some cultivars, such as Maori Chief and Maori, with their regular round shapes, shallow eyes and higher yields, appear to be more modern types, and as such probably should not be categorised as Maori potatoes. The Maori potatoes, most of which appear to be relicts of relatively undeveloped types introduced from United Kingdom and Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, represent an important part of New Zealands history. It is encouraging to find that they are still perpetuated by both Maori and Pakeha throughout the country, and that there is wide general interest in these plants.

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References
Barrat, G., 1979. Bellingshausen: A Visit to New Zealand: 1820. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press. Beattie, J.H., 1920. Traditional Lifeways of the Southern Maori. The Otago University Museum Ethnological Project 1920. 1:1581. Dunedin: Otago University Press. Belich, J., 1996. Making Peoples. Auckland: Penguin Press. Best, E., 1925. Maori agriculture. Dominion Museum Bulletin. 9:279286. Biggs, B., 1987. Complete English-Maori Dictionary. Auckland: University of Auckland. Brailsford, B., 1994. Song of Waitaha: The histories of a nation. Christchurch: Ngatapuwae Trust. Burgess, J., 1987. Dont bash the spud! Readers Digest. June (105)1922. Cameron, R.J., 1964. Destruction of the indigenous forests for Maori agriculture during the nineteenth century. New Zealand Journal of Forestry. 9:98109. Colenso, W., 1880. On the vegetable food of the ancient New Zealanders. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 13: 338. Dunmore, J., (ed), 1981. The Expeditions of the St Jean-Baptiste to the Pacific 1769: from journals of Jean de Surville and Guillaume Labe. London: The Hakluyt Society. Elder, J. R., 1932. Letters and Journals of Samuel Marsden. Wellington: A. H. Reed. Evison, H. C., 1993. Te Waipounamu: The Greenstone Island. Christchurch: Aoraki Press. Firth, R., 1929. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. Wellington: New Zealand Government Printer. Genet, R. A. and J. A. D. Anderson, 1985. Potato breeding in New Zealand, in Potato Growing: A Changing Scene. Agronomy Society of New Zealand. Special Bulletin. 1:156. Genet, R. A., 1983. Potatoes, in G. S. Wratt and H. C. Smith (eds.), Plant Breeding. 1:4955. Wellington: Butterworths; DSIR.

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_____., 1984. Old Maori varieties of interest to plant breeders. DSIR Field Crop News. 8:1820. Grey, A. H., 1994. Aotearoa and New Zealand: A historical geography. Christchurch: Canterbury University Press. Hammond, T. G., 1894. The kumara, Perei and Taewa. Journal of the Polynesian Society. 3:236238. Hargreaves, R. P., 1959. The Maori agriculture of the Auckland province in the mid-nineteenth century. Journal of the Polynesian Society. 68: 6179. _____., R. P., 1963. Changing Maori agriculture in pre-Waitangi New Zealand. Journal of the Polynesian Society. 72:100117. Hawkes, J.G. 1990., The Potato: Evolution, biodiversity and genetic resources. London: Belhaven Press. Keating, J., 1996. Irish Famine Facts. Dublin: Teageasc. King, M., 1989. Moriori: A people rediscovered. Wellington: Viking. Leach, B. F., 1979. Excavations in the Washpool Valley, in B. F. Leach and H. M. Leach (eds.), Prehistoric Man in Palliser Bay. National Museum of New Zealand Bulletin 21:67136. Leach, H., 1983. Model gardens and the acceptability of new crops to Polynesian horticulturalists. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology. 5:139149. _____., H., 1984. 1000 Years of Gardening in New Zealand. 1:59126. Wellington: A.W. & A. H. Reed. _____., H., 1989. Traditional Maori horticulture: success and failure in Aotearoa. New Zealand Agricultural Science. 23:3435. Mackay, G., 1997. Peruvian treasures. The Garden Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. 122(8) 562565. McNab, R., 1914. Historical Records of New Zealand. Vol.2. Wellington: New Zealand Government Printer. Marshall, W. B., 1836. A Personal Narrative of Two Visits to New Zealand in His Majestys ship Alligator. London: James Nisbet. Orsman, H. W., 1997. The Dictionary of New Zealand English: A dictionary of New Zealandisms on Historical Principles. Auckland: N.Z. Oxford University Press.
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Phillips, R. and Rix, M., 1993. Vegetables. London: Pan Macmillan. Potiki, Tahu, 1996. Te Reo Rakatira ki te Wai Pounamu. Te Karaka. 4:2830. Riley, M., 1994. Ma ori Healing and Herbal: New Zealand ethnobotanical sourcebook. Paraparaumu, New Zealand: Viking Sevenseas. Rhoades, R. E., 1982. The incredible potato. National Geographic. 161(5):669694. Roskruge, N., 1999. Promising future for Maori speciality. Massey News. May. Salaman, R. N., 1987. The History and Social Influence of the Potato. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Savage, J., 1807. Some Account of New Zealand. London: J. Murray. Shawcross, K., 1967. Fern-root, and the total scheme of eighteenth century Maori food production in agricultural areas. Journal of the Polynesian Society. 76:330352. Smith, K.1995., Keith Smiths Classic Vegetable Catalogue. Port Melbourne: National Library of Australia. Taylor, R., 1858. Te Ika a Maui or New Zealand and its Inhabitants. 1:190. London: Wertheim and Macintosh. Te Awekotuku, Ngahuia., 1991. He Tikanga Whakaaro: Research ethics in the Maori community. 1:128. Wellington: Manatu Maori; Ministry of Maori Affairs. Thompson, A., 1988. Potato viruses, in W. Harris and P. Kapoor (eds.), Nga Mahi Maori o te nui a Tane. Proceedings of an international workshop on ethnobotany 1988. 1:182. Christchurch. Thomson, A. S., 1859. The Story of New Zealand: Past and present savage and civilised. (Vol 1). London: John Murray. Watson, M. K. and B. R. Patterson, 1985. The growth and subordination of the Maori economy in the Wellington region of New Zealand, 184052. Pacific Viewpoint. 26(3):521545. Williams, C. M. J., 1993. One hundred tonnes of tubers per hectare: how to get it (using new cultivars and management systems) and the constraints. Proceedings. 7th National Potato Research Workshop, Ulverstone, Tasmania, p 1427.

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Williams, H. W., 1971. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. Wellington: Government Printer. Wilson, A., 1993. The Story of the Potato through Illustrated Varieties. England: Balding and Mansell. Yen, D. A., 1961/62. The potato of early New Zealand. The Potato Journal. 1:25. _____., 1988. The achievements of the Maori agriculturalist, in W. Harris and P. Kapoor (eds.), Nga Mahi Maori o te nui a Tane. Proceedings of an international workshop on ethnobotany 1988. 1:3742. Christchurch.

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Appendices
A. Characteristics of Maori potato cultivars. Copyright 1997 G.F. Harris. All rights reserved. Three of the common potato cultivars grown in Ireland at the mid 19th century. Photographs reproduced courtesy of The Agriculture and Food Development Authority, Dublin, Ireland Copyright 1999 TEAGASC. All rights reserved. Harris, G.F., 1997. Maori potatoes. The Garden. 123(1) 8. Copyright 1997 G.F. Harris. All rights reserved. - Harris, G.F., 1997. Mahetau: the introduction of the potato to Te Waipounamu and its adoption by Maori. Te Karaka. 8:3638. Copyright 1997 G.F. Harris. All rights reserved. Harris, G.F., 1997. Riwai: the Maori potatoes. New Zealand Gardener. August. 8:5455. Copyright 1997 G.F. Harris. All rights reserved. Harris, G.F., 1998. Digging the real dirt on potatoes. Dominion, 3 July p.10. Copyright 1998 G.F. Harris. All rights reserved.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

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Cultivar yellow/red mottled dark red yellow/pink mottled creamy yellow with purple splashes purple with yellow around eyes yellow, red splashed yellow with purple splashes pink/yellow mottled brown, pink tinge pink, yellow blotches purple/red with yellow eyes - distinctive orange-pink red russeted yellow/pink mottled yellow/pink mottled red yellow Purple, sometimes with white blotches white, red flecks white, red flecks white, red flecks white shallow deep deep shallow deep medium white medium creamy white medium white shallow mid-blue mid-blue (seldom flowers) lilac with white centre stripe mid-blue light blue light blue cream, grey stripes lilac with white tips on petals white, grey stripes white shallow white shallow very large white yellow deep dark blue waxy floury white purple flecks shallow (seldom flowers) floury white deep mid-blue floury round oval round oval oval waxy floury waxy floury floury waxy waxy waxy very floury oval oval oval round round round elongated round knobbly very elongated creamy white yellow streaks deep mid-blue floury yellow deep white/purple waxy slightly elongated slightly elongated white/purple centre medium large white floury round/oval yellow deep light blue waxy slightly elongated

Synonyms

Skin colour

flesh colour

eye depth

flowers

texture*

Tuber shape

Moemoe

Mui Mui, Nga Toko

56
no flowers observed waxy Purple

Karupoti

Whataroa

Peruperu

Karuparera

Kanohi Parera

Ma ori Chief

Rangatira, Parihaka

Raupi

Parareka

Appendix A Characteristics of Ma-ori potato cultivars

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Whanako

Rokeroke

Kowiniwini

Kaupari

Uwhi

Uwhiwhero

Maori

Nga Oti Oti

Nga Outi Outi

Poiwa

Pawhero

Old Red

Huakaroro

Karoro, White Ma ori Yellow, with pink blotches

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Urenika

Tuarua Waikato, Keretewha, Rongo Blue, Tutaekuri.

* Tubers tested had been in storage for 90 days after harvesting.

Appendix B

Lumper

The Cup

The Block

Three of the common potato cultivars grown in Ireland at the time of the famine in the mid-nineteeth century. Photographs reproduced courtesy of the Agriculture and Food Development Authority, Dublin, Ireland.

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Appendix C

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Appendix F

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Title Authors Date of publication March 98 ISBN Series no 1-98 Perception of the Average Drivers speed compared to Perceived Driver Safety and Driving Skill The learning styles of first year distance education students Stakeholders Influences on Assessment Methodology Locating Plant Materials for the Reconstruction of the Makotukutuku Wharepuni Developments in the Provision of Quality Electronic Summative Assessments Dr. D Walton & J Bathhurst 0-900009-08-2

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