ERM 101: Research Methods

Lecture notes: Data Analysis and Report Writing

Data analysis is an essential part of educational research that involves the collection, organization, and
interpretation of data related to various aspects of education. Educational research is the systematic
investigation of educational phenomena, such as teaching and learning, student achievement, curriculum
development, and educational policy. Data analysis in educational research may involve both quantitative
and qualitative methods. Quantitative data analysis involves the use of statistical methods to analyze
numerical data collected through surveys, tests, and other types of assessments. Qualitative data analysis
involves the interpretation of non-numerical data such as text, audio, and video recordings. The process
of data analysis in educational research typically involves the following steps:
- Data collection: This involves gathering data through various means, such as surveys, interviews,
and observations.
- Data cleaning and preparation: This involves reviewing the data to identify errors and
inconsistencies and preparing the data for analysis.
- Data analysis: This involves using statistical software or other tools to analyze the data and
identify patterns and trends.
- Interpretation of results: This involves drawing conclusions from the data and making inferences
about the research question or hypothesis.
- Reporting of results: This involves presenting the findings in a clear and concise manner, often
through charts, graphs, and other visual aids.

introduction to report writing: educational research

Report writing is an essential aspect of educational research, as it allows researchers to communicate
their findings and share insights with other researchers, educators, and policymakers. Educational
research reports typically include the following sections:
- Introduction: This section provides an overview of the research topic, background information,
research questions, and objectives of the study.
- Literature review: This section reviews relevant literature and research studies related to the
research topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge and identifies gaps in
the literature.
- Methodology: This section outlines the research design, data collection methods, sampling
techniques, and data analysis methods used in the study. It provides a detailed explanation of
how the study was conducted.
- Results: This section presents the findings of the study, including statistical analyses, graphs, and
tables. It provides a clear and concise summary of the main results of the study.
- Discussion: This section interprets the findings of the study, compares the results to previous
research, and discusses the implications of the study for education policy and practice.
- Conclusion: This section summarizes the key findings of the study and provides recommendations
for future research.
- References: This section lists all sources cited in the report, following a specific citation style such
as APA, MLA, or Chicago.
Introduction: The introduction section of an educational research report is a crucial part of the document.
Its purpose is to provide readers with an overview of the research project and to explain why the study
was conducted. The introduction should be written in a clear and concise manner, using language that is
easily understood by readers from a variety of backgrounds. The introduction section typically includes
the following elements:
- Background information: This provides context for the study by explaining the problem or issue
being investigated. It should include a brief literature review that summarizes previous research
on the topic and identifies gaps in the literature.
- Research question or hypothesis: This states the main research question or hypothesis that the
study aims to answer or test. It should be clear and concise, and should reflect the focus of the
study.
- Significance of the study: This explains the importance of the research and its potential
implications for education. It should demonstrate how the study adds to the existing body of
knowledge in the field, and why it is important to conduct the research.
- Objectives or aims: This outlines the specific objectives or aims of the study. It should be linked
to the research question or hypothesis and should provide a clear understanding of what the
study aims to achieve.
- Scope and limitations: This identifies the scope of the study, including the population, sample
size, and research methods used. It also highlights any limitations or potential sources of bias in
the study.
- Conceptual framework: In educational research, a conceptual framework is a theoretical
framework that provides a conceptual or theoretical foundation for the study. It outlines the key
concepts, theories, and assumptions that underlie the research questions and hypotheses, and
helps to guide the selection of research methods and data analysis techniques. The conceptual
framework is often developed at the beginning of the research process, and may evolve over time
as the research progresses. It is based on a review of existing literature and research, and may
draw on theories from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, and education. The conceptual
framework is typically presented as a diagram or visual representation that illustrates the
relationships between the key concepts and variables in the study. It may include constructs such
as attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, as well as environmental factors such as social and cultural
influences. In educational research, the conceptual framework is particularly important because
it helps to ensure that the research is grounded in theory and is not simply a collection of facts or
observations. It also provides a basis for comparing and interpreting results across different
studies, and can help to identify areas for future research.
- Operational definition of terms/variables: In educational research, operational definitions are
used to define variables in a way that allows them to be measured and observed. An operational
definition describes a variable in terms of the specific procedures or methods used to measure it.
For example, if we want to study the effect of a new teaching method on student achievement,
we need to operationally define the variables of interest. The independent variable is the teaching
method, and the dependent variable is student achievement. To operationalize the teaching
method, we would describe the specific strategies and techniques used in the new method, such
 as group work, problem-based learning, or flipped classroom instruction. To operationalize
student achievement, we would define the specific measures used to assess student learning
outcomes, such as standardized test scores, grades, or teacher evaluations. Other variables that
may need operational definitions in educational research include demographic variables such as
age, gender, socioeconomic status, and educational background. For example, age might be
operationalized as the number of years since birth, gender might be operationalized as male or
female, and socioeconomic status might be operationalized using a standardized measure such
as income or parental education level.

Literature review: In educational research, a literature review is a critical evaluation of the existing
research and scholarship related to a particular topic or research question. It is an essential component
of the research process because it helps to situate the research within the broader context of existing
knowledge and identify gaps and areas for further investigation. The literature review typically involves
searching and analyzing a wide range of academic sources, including journal articles, books, conference
proceedings, and other relevant publications. The review should be comprehensive and systematic, and
may include both quantitative and qualitative research studies. The purpose of the literature review in
educational research is to:
- Identify and summarize the key theories, concepts, and ideas related to the research topic or
question.
- Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of existing research and identify gaps or inconsistencies
in the literature.
- Provide a foundation for the research by establishing the theoretical and empirical basis for the
study.
- Help to refine the research questions or hypotheses and guide the selection of research methods
and data analysis techniques.
- Identify potential sources of bias or limitations in existing research and suggest ways to address
these issues in the study.

Literature review is an essential component of educational research because it helps to ensure that the
research is grounded in theory and is relevant to the broader academic community. It provides a critical
evaluation of the existing knowledge related to the research topic and helps to identify areas for further
investigation.

In educational research, the methodology section outlines the procedures and techniques used to
collect and analyze data in order to answer the research questions or hypotheses. It is an essential
component of the research process because it provides a detailed description of how the study was
conducted, including the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.

Methodology/Research design: The methodology section typically begins with a description of the
research design, which may be quantitative, qualitative, or a combination of both. The design should be
appropriate for the research questions or hypotheses, and should include a clear explanation of the
sampling procedures and data collection methods. Next, the methodology section should describe the
data collection methods used in the study, which may include surveys, interviews, observations, or
experimental procedures. The section should also describe any instruments or tools used to collect the
data, and provide a rationale for their selection. The data analysis techniques used in the study should
also be described in the methodology section. This may include statistical methods for quantitative data,
such as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and multivariate analysis, as well as qualitative data
analysis techniques, such as thematic analysis, content analysis, and discourse analysis. The methodology
section should also include a discussion of the ethical considerations involved in the study, such as
informed consent, confidentiality, and protection of human subjects.
The methodology section is an essential component of educational research because it provides a detailed
description of how the study was conducted and helps to establish the validity and reliability of the
findings. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, and should provide enough detail to allow
other researchers to replicate the study.

Data Analysis: In educational research, the data analysis section is where the collected data is analyzed in
order to draw conclusions and answer the research questions or hypotheses. It is an essential component
of the research process because it provides a detailed explanation of how the data was analyzed and how
the findings were interpreted. The data analysis section typically begins with a description of the data
cleaning and preparation procedures, which may include removing missing data, transforming variables,
or standardizing the data. This step ensures that the data is ready for analysis and that the results are
accurate. Next, the data analysis section should describe the statistical or qualitative methods used to
analyze the data. This may include descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, multivariate analysis,
thematic analysis, content analysis, or discourse analysis, depending on the research design and data
collected. The results of the data analysis should be presented in a clear and concise manner, using
appropriate tables, charts, and graphs to illustrate the findings. The findings should be interpreted in light
of the research questions or hypotheses, and should be compared to existing literature and research. The
limitations and potential sources of bias in the study should also be discussed in the data analysis section,
as well as any implications for future research or practice. The data analysis section is an essential
component of educational research because it provides a detailed explanation of how the data was
analyzed and how the findings were interpreted. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, using
appropriate statistical or qualitative methods, and should be presented in a way that is accessible to other
researchers and practitioners

Discussion: In educational research, the discussion section is where the findings of the study are
interpreted and their implications for theory, practice, and future research are discussed. It is an essential
component of the research process because it provides a detailed explanation of how the findings relate
to the research questions or hypotheses and how they contribute to the broader academic discourse. The
discussion section typically begins by summarizing the main findings of the study, highlighting any
significant patterns, trends, or relationships that were identified in the data. The findings should be
interpreted in light of the research questions or hypotheses, and compared to existing literature and
research. Next, the discussion section should explore the theoretical and practical implications of the
findings. This may include identifying any new insights or theories that were generated by the study, or
discussing how the findings can be applied to improve educational practice or policy. The discussion
section should also acknowledge any limitations or potential sources of bias in the study, and suggest
ways to address these issues in future research. It should also highlight any unanswered questions or areas
for further investigation, and suggest directions for future research in the field. The discussion section is
an essential component of educational research because it provides a detailed interpretation of the
findings and their implications for theory, practice, and future research. It should be written in a clear and
concise manner, using appropriate evidence and examples to support the conclusions drawn. The
discussion section should be accessible to other researchers and practitioners in the field, and should
provide a valuable contribution to the broader academic discourse. Educational research is an important
field that seeks to investigate various aspects of the educational process. From studying the effectiveness
of different teaching methods and strategies to examining the impact of technology on learning
outcomes, educational research plays a crucial role in shaping our understanding of how we can improve
the education system.

In this section, we have explored some of the key topics and issues in educational research, including
quantitative and qualitative research methods, experimental design, data analysis techniques, and ethical
considerations. We have also discussed some of the challenges and limitations of educational research,
such as the difficulty of measuring complex constructs like motivation and engagement, and the potential
for researcher bias to influence results.

Educational research is a dynamic and ever-evolving field that is essential for driving innovation and
improvement in education. As we continue to explore new research questions and methodologies, we
can gain valuable insights into how we can better support learners and educators alike, and ultimately
create a more effective and equitable education system for all.

References: The References section is an essential component of any educational research paper. It
provides a list of sources that were cited in the paper, allowing readers to access and verify the
information presented. In addition, the References section also highlights the breadth and depth of
research that was conducted in order to inform the paper. In educational research, the References section
may include a range of sources, such as peer-reviewed journal articles, books, conference proceedings,
and reports from government agencies or educational organizations. These sources may provide data,
theoretical frameworks, or other insights that help support the research findings and contribute to the
broader knowledge base of the field.
the References section serves as a critical resource for researchers, educators, and other stakeholders in
the field of education. By carefully citing and acknowledging the work of others, researchers can build on
existing knowledge and contribute to the ongoing conversation about how we can improve the education
system.

Self-reflection items
i) Pick up any four (4) research projects. Study the abstracts. What are the things that are common
to all of them?