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LESSON 1: MEANING OF HISTORY
Definition and Subject Matter
 History has always been known as the study of the past.
 Students of general education often dread the subject for its notoriety in requiring them to
memorize dates, places, names, and events from distant eras.
 This low appreciation of the discipline may be rooted in the shallow understanding of history's
relevance to their lives and their respective contexts.
 While the popular definition of history as the study of the past is not wrong, it does not give justice
to the complexity of the subject and its importance to human civilization.
 History was derived from the Greek word historia which means "knowledge acquired through
inquiry or investigation."
 History as a discipline existed for around 2,400 years and is as old as mathematics and philosophy.
This term was then adapted to classical Latin where it acquired a new definition.
 Historia became known as the account of the past of a person or of a group of people through
written documents and historical evidences.
 History became an important academic discipline. It became the historian's duty to write about
the lives of important individuals like monarchs, heroes, saints, and nobilities.
 History was also focused on writing about wars, revolutions, and other important breakthroughs.
It is thus important to ask: What counts as history?
 Traditional historians lived with the mantra of "no document, no history." It means that unless a
written document can prove a certain historical event, then it cannot be considered as a historical
fact.
 But as any other academic disciplines, history progressed and opened up to the possibility of valid
historical sources, which were not limited to written documents, like government records,
chroniclers' accounts, or personal letters.
 Giving premium to written documents essentially invalidates the history of other civilizations that
do not keep written records. Some were keener on passing their history by word of mouth. Others
got their historical documents burned or destroyed in the events of war or colonization.
 Restricting historical evidence as exclusively written is also discrimination against other social
classes who were not recorded in paper. Nobilities, monarchs, the elite, and even the middle class
would have their birth, education, marriage, and death as matters of government and historical
record.
 But what of peasant families or indigenous groups who were not given much thought about being
registered to government records? Does the absence of written documents about them mean that
they were people of no history or past? Did they even exist?
 This loophole was recognized by historians who started using other kinds of historical sources,
which may not be in written form but were just as valid.

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 A few of these examples are oral traditions in forms of epics and songs, artifacts, architecture, and
memory.
 History thus became more inclusive and started collaborating with other disciplines as its auxiliary
disciplines.
 With the aid of archaeologists,
 historians can use artifacts from a bygone era to study ancient civilizations that were formerly
ignored in history because of lack of documents.
 Linguists
 can also be helpful in tracing historical evolutions, past connections among different groups,
and flow of cultural influence by studying language and the changes that it has undergone.
 Even scientists like biologists and biochemists
 can help with the study of the past through analyzing genetic and DNA patterns of human
societies.
Questions and Issues in History
 Indeed, history as a discipline has already turned into a complex and dynamic inquiry.
 This dynamism inevitably produced various perspectives on the discipline regarding different
questions like: What is history? Why study history? And history for whom?
 These questions can be answered by historiography.
Historiography
 In simple terms, historiography is the history of history.
 History and historiography should not be confused with each other. The former's object of study is
the past, the events that happened in the past, and the causes of such events. The latter's object
of study, on the other hand, is history itself
 (i.e., How was a certain historical text written? Who wrote it? What was the context of its
publication? What particular historical method was employed? What were the sources used?).
 History has played various roles in the past. States use history to unite a nation. It can be used as a
tool to legitimize regimes and forge a sense of collective identity through collective memory.
 Lessons from the past can be used to make sense of the present. Learning of past mistakes can
help people to not repeat them. Being reminded of a great past can inspire people to their good
practices to move forward.
 Finally, history helps humanity to acquire a sense of self knowledge. As British historian R. G.
Collingwood elegantly put it,
"Knowing yourself means knowing what you can do; and since nobody knows what he can do until he
tries, the only clue to what man can do is what man has done. The value of history, then, is that it
teaches us what man has done and thus what man is."

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Positivism
 Positivism is the school of thought that emerged between the eighteenth and nineteenth century.
This thought requires empirical and observable evidence before one can claim that a particular
knowledge is true.
 Positivism also entails an objective means of arriving at a conclusion. In the discipline of history,
the mantra "no document, no history" stems from this very same truth, where historians were
required to show written primary documents in order to write a particular historical narrative.
 Positivist historians are also expected to be objective and impartial not just in their arguments but
also on their conduct of historical research.
 As a narrative, any history that has been taught and written is always intended for a certain group
of audience.
 When the ilustrados, like Jose Rizal, Isabelo de los Reyes, and Pedro Paterno wrote history, they
intended it for the Spaniards so that they would realize that Filipinos are people of their own
intellect and culture,
 When American historians depicted the Filipino people as uncivilized in their publications, they
intended that narrative for their fellow Americans to justify their colonization of the islands. They
wanted the colonization to appear not as a means of undermining the Philippines' sovereignty, but
as a civilizing mission to fulfill what they called as the "white man's burden."
 The same is true for nations which prescribe official versions of their history like North Korea, the
Nazi Germany during the war period, and Thailand.
 The same was attempted by Marcos in the Philippines during the 1970s.
 One of the problems confronted by history is the accusation that the history is always written by
victors.
 This connotes that the narrative of the past is always written from the bias of the powerful and the
more dominant player.
 For instance, the history of the Second World War in the Philippines always depicts the United
States as the hero and the Imperial Japanese Army as the oppressors. Filipinos who collaborated
with the Japanese were lumped in the category of traitors or collaborators.
 However, a more thorough historical investigation will reveal a more nuanced account of the
history of that period instead of a simplified narrative as a story of hero versus villain.
History and the Historian
 If history is written with agenda or is heavily influenced by the historian, is it possible to come up
with an absolute historical truth?
 Is history an objective discipline?
 If it is not, is it still worthwhile to study history?
 These questions have haunted historians for many generations.

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 Indeed, an exact and accurate account of the past is impossible for the very simple reason that we
cannot go back to the past. We cannot access the past directly as our subject matter. Historians
only get to access representation of the past through historical Sources and evidences.
 Therefore, it is the historian's job not just to seek historical evidences and facts but also to
interpret these facts.
 "Facts cannot speak for themselves."
 It is the job of the historian to give meaning to these facts and organize them into a timeline,
establish causes, and write history.
 Meanwhile, the historian is not a blank paper who mechanically interprets and analyzes present
historical fact.
 He is a person of his own who is influenced by his own context, environment, ideology, education,
and influences, among others.
 In that sense, his interpretation of the historical fact is affected by his context and circumstances.
 His subjectivity will inevitably influence the process of his historical research: the methodology
that he will use, the facts that he shall select and deem relevant, his interpretation, and even the
form of his writings.
 Thus, in one way or another, history is always subjective. If that is so, can history still be
considered as an academic and scientific inquiry?
 Historical research requires rigor.
 Despite the fact that historians cannot ascertain absolute objectivity, the study of history remains
scientific because of the rigor of research and methodology that historians employ.
 Historical methodology comprises certain techniques and rules that historians follow in order to
properly utilize sources and historical evidences in writing history. Certain rules apply in cases of
conflicting accounts in different sources, and on how to properly treat eyewitness accounts and
oral sources as valid historical evidence.
 In doing so, historical claims done by historians and the arguments that they forward in their
historical writings, while may be influenced by the historian's inclinations, can still be validated by
using reliable evidences and employing correct and meticulous historical methodology.
 For example, if a historian chooses to use an oral account as his data in studying the ethnic history
of the Ifugaos in the Cordilleras during the American Occupation, he needs to validate the claims
of his informant through comparing and corroborating it with written sources.
 Therefore, while bias is inevitable, the historian can balance this out by relying to evidences that
back up his claim. In this sense, the historian need not let his bias blind his judgment and such bias
is only acceptable if he maintains his rigor as a researcher.
Historical Sources
 With the past as history's subject matter, the historian's most important research tools are
historical sources. In general, historical sources can be classified between primary and secondary
sources. The classification of Sources between these two categories depends on the historical
subject being studied.
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 Primary sources are those sources produced at the same time as the event, period, or subject
being studied.
 For example, if a historian wishes to study the Commonwealth Constitution Convention of 1935,
his primary sources can include:
 the minutes of the convention, newspaper clippings, Philippine Commission reports of the U.S.
Commissioners, records of the convention, the draft of the Constitution, and even photographs of
the event. Eyewitness accounts of convention delegates and their memoirs can also be used as
primary sources.
 The same goes with other subjects of historical study. Archival documents, artifacts, memorabilia,
letters, census, and government records, among others are the most common examples of
primary sources.
 On the other hand, secondary sources are those sources, which were produced by an author who
used primary sources to produce the material.
 In other words, secondary sources are historical sources, which studied a certain historical subject.
 For example, on the subject of the Philippine Revolution of 1896, students can read Teodoro
Agoncillo's Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan published originally in
1956.
 The Philippine Revolution happened in the last years of the nineteenth century while Agoncillo
published his work in 1956, which makes the Revolt of the Masses a secondary Source.
 More than this, in writing the book, Agoncillo used primary sources with his research like
documents of the Katipunan, interview with the veterans of the Revolution, and correspondence
between and among Katipuneros.
 However, a student should not be confused about what counts as a primary or a secondary source.
As mentioned above, the classification of sources between primary and secondary depends not on
the period when the source was produced or the type of the source but on the subject of the
historical research.
 For example, a textbook is usually classified as a secondary source, a tertiary source even.
However, this classification is usual but not automatic.
 If a historian chooses to write the history of education in the 1980s, he can utilize textbooks used
in that period as a primary source.
 If a historian wishes to study the historiography of the Filipino-American War for example, he can
use works of different authors on the topic as his primary source as well.
 Both primary and secondary sources are useful in writing and learning history. However, historians
and students of history need to thoroughly scrutinize these historical sources to avoid deception
and to come up with the historical truth.
 The historian should be able to conduct an external and internal criticism of the source, especially
primary sources which can age in centuries.

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 External criticism is the practice of verifying the authenticity of evidence by examining its physical
characteristics; consistency with the historical characteristic of the time when it was produced;
and the materials used for the evidence.
 Examples of the things that will be examined when conducting external criticism of a document
include the quality of the paper, the type of the ink, and the language and words used in the
material, among others.
 Internal criticism, on the other hand, is the examination of the truthfulness of the evidence. It
looks at the content of the source and examines the circumstance of its production.
 Internal criticism looks at the truthfulness and factuality of the evidence by looking at the author
of the source, its context, the agenda behind its creation, the knowledge which informed it, and its
intended purpose, among others.
 For example, Japanese reports and declarations during the period of the war should not be taken
as a historical fact hastily.
 Internal criticism entails that the historian acknowledge and analyze how such reports can be
manipulated to be used as war propaganda.
 Validating historical sources is important because the use of unverified, falsified, and untruthful
historical sources can lead to equally false conclusions. Without thorough criticisms of historical
evidences, historical deceptions and lies will be highly probable.
 One of the most scandalous cases of deception in Philippine history is the hoax Code of Kalantiaw.
The code was a set of rules contained in an epic, Maragtas, which was allegedly written by a
certain Datu Kalantiaw.
 The document was sold to the National Library and was regarded as an important precolonial
document until 1968, when American historian William Henry Scott debunked the authenticity of
the code due to anachronism and lack of evidence to prove that the code existed in the
precolonial Philippine society.
 Ferdinand Marcos also claimed that he was a decorated World War II soldier who led a guerilla
unit called Ang Maharlika.
 This was widely believed by students of history and Marcos had war medals to show. This claim,
however, was disproven when historians counterchecked Marcos's claims with the war records of
the United States.
 These cases prove how deceptions can propagate without rigorous historical research.
 The task of the historian is to look at the available historical sources and select the most relevant
and meaningful for history and for the subject matter that he is studying.
 History, like other academic discipline, has come a long way but still has a lot of remaining tasks to
do. It does not claim to render absolute and exact judgment because as long as questions are
continuously asked, and as long as time unfolds, the study of history can never be complete.
 The task of the historian is to organize the past that is being created so that it can offer lessons for
nations, societies, and civilization.

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 It is the historian's job to seek for the meaning of recovering the past to let the people see the
continuing relevance of provenance, memory, remembering, and historical understanding for both
the present and the future.
Antonio Pigafetta's First Voyage Around the World by Magellan
This book was taken from the chronicles of contemporary voyagers and navigators of the sixteenth
century. One of them was Italian nobleman Antonio Pigafetta, who accompanied Ferdinand Magellan
in his fateful circumnavigation of the world. Pigafetta's work instantly became a classic that prominent
literary men in the West, like William Shakespeare, Michel de Montaigne, and Giambattista Vico,
referred to the book in their interpretation of the new world. Pigafetta's travelogue is one of the most
important primary sources in the study of the pre-colonial Philippines. His account became a major
reference to the events leading to Magellan's arrival in the Philippines, his encounter with local leaders,
his death in the hands of Lapulapu's forces in the Battle of Mactan, and in the departure of what was
left of Magellan's fleet from the islands.

Examining the document reveals several insights not just in the character of the Philippines during the
pre-colonial period, but also on how the fresh eyes of the Europeans regard a deeply unfamiliar terrain,
environment, people, and culture. Locating Pigafetta's account in the context of its writing warrants a
familiarity on the dominant frame of mind in the age of exploration, which pervaded Europe in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Students of history need to realize that primary sources used in the
subsequent written histories depart from certain perspectives Thus, Pigafetta's account was a product
of the context of its production. The First Voyage Around the World by Magellan was published after
Pigafetta returned to Italy. We will focus on the chronicles of Antonio Pigafetta as he wrote his
firsthand observation and general impression of the Philippines, and their experiences in the Visayas.

In Pigafetta's account, their fleet reached what he called the Ladrone Island of the Island of Thieves.
He recounted:
These people have no arms, but use sticks, which have a fishbone at the end. They are poor, but
ingenious, and great thieves, and for the sake of that we called these three islands the Ladrone
Islands.

The Ladrone Islands are presently known as the Marianas Islands. These islands are located
Southsoutheast of Japan, West-southwest of Hawaii, North of New Guinea, and East of the Philippines.

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Ten days after they reached Ladrone Islands, Pigafetta reported that they reached what Pigafetta
called the isle of Zamal, now Samar, but Magellan decided to land in another uninhabited island for
greater security where they can rest for a few days. Pigafetta recounted that after two days, 18 March
1521, nine men came to them and showed joy and eagerness in seeing them. Magellan realized that
the men were reasonable and welcomed them with food, drinks, and gifts. In turn, the natives gave
them fish, palm wine (uraca), figs, and two cochos. The natives also gave them rice (umai), cocos, and
other food supplies. Pigafetta detailed in amazement and fascination the palm tree, which bore fruits
called cocho, and wine. He also described what seemed like a coconut. His description reads:

This palm produces a fruit named cocho, which is as large as the head, or thereabouts: its first husk is
green, and two fingers in thickness, in it they find certain threads, with which they make the cords for
fastening their boats. Under this husk there is another very hard, and thicker than that of a walnut.
They burn this second rind, and make with it a powder which is useful to them. Under this rind there is
a white marrow of a finger's thickness, which they eat fresh with meat and fish, as we do bread, and it
has the taste of an almond, and if anyone dried it he might make bread of it.

Pigafetta characterized the people as "very familiar and friendly" and willingly showed them different
islands and the names of these islands. The fleet went to Humunu island (Homonhon), and there they
found what Pigafetta referred to as the Watering Place of Good Signs. It is in this place where Pigafetta
wrote that they found the first signs of gold on the island. They named the island with the nearby
islands as the archipelago of St. Lazarus. They left the island, then on 25 March, Pigafetta recounted
that they saw two Ballanghai (balangay), a longboat full of people in Mazzava/Mazaua. The leader,
whom Pigafetta referred to as the king of the Ballanghai (balangay), sent his men to the ship of
Magellan. The Europeans entertained these men and gave them gifts. When the king of the balangay
offered to provide Magellan with a bar of gold and a chest of ginger, Magellan declined. Magellan sent
the interpreter to the king and asked for money for the needs of his ships and expressed that he came
into the islands as a friend and not as an enemy. The king responded by giving Magellan the needed
provisions of food in chinaware. Magellan exchanged gifts of robes in Turkish. fashion, red cap, and
gave the people knives and mirrors. The two then expressed their desire to become brothers.
Magellan also boasted of his men in armor who cannot be struck with swords and daggers. The king

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was fascinated and remarked that men in such armor could be worth 100 of his men.. Magellan also
showed the king his other weapons and artillery. Magellan also shared with the king his charts and
maps and shared how they found the islands.
After a few days, Magellan was introduced to the king's brother, who was also a king of another island.
They went to this island, and Pigafetta reported that they saw mines of gold. The gold was so
abundant that parts of the ship and the house of the second king were made of gold. Pigafetta
described this king as the most handsome of all the men that he saw in this place. He was also adorned
with silk and gold accessories like a golden dagger, which he carries with him in a polished wooden
sheath. This king is named Raia Calambu, king of Zuluan and Calagan (Butuan and Caragua), and the
first king was Raia Siagu. On 31 March, which happened to be Easter Sunday, Magellan ordered the
chaplain to say a Mass by the shore. The king heard of this plan and sent two dead pigs and attended
the Mass with the other king. Pigafetta reported that both kings participated in the Mass. He wrote:

...when the offertory of the mass came, the two kings, went to kiss the cross like us, but they
offered nothing, and at the elevation of the body of our Lord they were kneeling like us, and
adored our Lord with joined hands.

After the Mass, Magellan ordered that the cross be brought, with nails and crown in place. Magellan
explained that the cross, the nail, and the crown were the signs of his emperor and that he was
ordered to plant it in the places that he will reach. Magellan further explained that the cross would be
beneficial for their people because once other Spaniards saw this cross, then they would know that
they have been in this land and would not cause them troubles, and any person who might be held
captives by them will be released. The king concurred and allowed for the cross to be planted. This
Mass will go down in history as the first Mass in the Philippines, and the cross will be the famed
Magellan's cross still preserved in the present day.

After seven days, Magellan and his men decided to move and look for islands where they can acquire
more supplies and provisions. They learned of the islands of Ceylon (Leyte), Bohol, and Zubu (Cebu)
and intended to go there. Raia Calambu offered to pilot them in going to Cebu, the largest and the
richest of the islands. By 7 April, Magellan and his men reached Cebu. The king of Cebu, through
Magellan's interpreter, demanded that they pay tribute as it was customary, but Magellan refused.

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Magellan said that he was a captain of a king himself and, thus, would not pay tribute to other kings.
Magellan's interpreter explained to the king of Cebu that Magellan's king led a vast empire and that it
would do them better to make friends with them. The king of Cebu consulted his council. The next day,
Magellan's men and the king of Cebu, together with other principal men of Cebu, met in an open space.
There, the king offered a bit of his blood and demanded that Magellan do the same. Pigafetta
recounts:
Then the king said that he was content, and as a greater sign of affection he sent him a little of
his blood from his right arm, and wished he should do the like. Our people answered that he
would do it. Besides that, he said that all the captains who came to his country had been
accustomed to make a present to him, and he to them, and therefore they should ask their
captain if he would observe the custom. Our people answered that he would, but as the king
wished to keep up the custom, let him begin and make a present, and then the captain would
do his duty.

The following day, Magellan spoke before the people of Cebu about peace and God. Pigafetta reported
that the people took pleasure in Magellan's speech.. Magellan then asked the people who would
succeed the king after his reign, and the people responded that the eldest child of the king, who
happened to be a daughter, would be the next in line. Pigafetta also related how the people talked
about, how at old age, parents are no longer taken into account and had to follow the orders of their
children as the new leaders of the land. Magellan responded to this by saying that his faith entailed
children to render honor and obedience to their mother and father. Magellan preached about their
faith further, and people were reportedly convinced. Pigafetta wrote that their men were thrilled,
seeing that the people wished to become Christians through their free will and not because they were
forced or intimidated.

On 14 April, the people gathered with the king and other principal men of the islands. Magellan
encouraged the king to be a good Christian by burning all of the idols and worship the cross instead.
The king of Cebu was then baptized as a Christian. Pigafetta wrote:

To that the king and all his people answered that they would obey the commands of the
captain and do all that he told them. The captain took the king by the hand, and they walked

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about on the scaffolding, and when he was baptized he said that he would name him Don
Carlos, as the emperor his sovereign was named; and he named the prince Don Fernando
Fernando, after the brother of the emperor, and the King of Mazavva, Jehan: to the Moor he
gave the name of Christopher, and to the others each a name of his fancy.

After eight days, Pigafetta counted that all of the island's inhabitants were already baptized. He
admitted that they burned a village down for obeying neither the king nor Magellan. The Mass started
to be conducted by the shore every day. When the queen came to Mass one day, Magellan gave her
an image of the Infant Jesus Pigafetta carved himself. The king of Cebu swore that he would always be
faithful to Magellan. Magellan reiterated that all of the newly baptized Christians needed to burn their
idols, but the natives gave excuses telling Magellan that they required the idols to heal a sick man who
was a relative to the king. Magellan insisted that they should instead put their faith in Jesus Christ.
They went to the sick man and baptized him, and Pigafetta recorded that the man was able to speak
again. He called this a miracle.

On 26 April, Zula, a principal man from the island of Matan (Mactan), went to see Magellan and asked
him for a boat full of men so that he could fight the chief named Silapulapu (Lapulapu). Such chief,
according to Zula, refused to obey the king and was also preventing him from doing so. Magellan
offered three boats instead and expressed his desire to go to Mactan himself to fight the said chief.
Magellan's forces arrived in Mactan in daylight. They numbered 49 in total, and the islanders of
Mactan were estimated to number 1500. The battle began. Pigafetta recounted:
When we reached land, we found the islanders fifteen hundred in number, drawn up in three
squadrons; they came down upon us with terrible shouts, two squadrons attacking us on the
flanks, and the third in front. The captain then divided his men in two bands. Our musketeers
and crossbowmen fired for half an hour from a distance, but did nothing, since the bullets and
arrows, though they passed through their shields made of thin wood, and perhaps wounded
their arms, yet did not stop them. The captain shouted not to fire, but he was not listened to.
The islanders seeing that the shots of our guns did them little or no harm would not retire, but
shouted more loudly, and springing from one side to the other to avoid our shots, they at the
same time drew nearer to us, throwing arrows, javelins, spears hardened in fire, stones, and

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even mud, so that we could hardly defend ourselves. Some of them cast lances pointed with
iron at the captain general.

Magellan died in that battle. The natives, perceiving that the bodies of the enemies were protected
with armors, aimed for their legs instead. Magellan was pierced with a poisoned arrow in his right leg.
A few of their men charged at the natives and tried to intimidate them by burning an entire village, but
this only enraged the natives further. Magellan was specifically targeted because the natives knew that
he was the captain general. Magellan was hit with a lance in the face. Magellan retaliated and pierced
the same native with his lance in the breast and tried to draw his sword but could not lift it because of
his wounded arm. Seeing that the captain has already deteriorated, more natives came to attack him.
One native with a great sword delivered a blow in Magellan's left leg, brought him face down, and the
natives ceaselessly attacked Magellan with lances, swords, and even with their bare hands. Pigafetta
recounted the last moments of Magellan:

Whilst the Indians were thus overpowering him, several times he turned around towards us to
see if we were all in safety, as though his obstinate fight had no other object than to give an
opportunity for the retreat of his men.

Pigafetta also said that the king of Cebu who was baptized could have sent help, but Magellan
instructed him not to join the battle and stay in the balangay to see them fight. The king offered the
people of Mactan gifts of any value and amount in exchange for Magellan's body, but the chief refused.
They wanted to keep Magellan's body as a memento of their victory. Magellan's men elected Duarte
Barbosa as the new captain. Pigafetta also described how Magellan's slave and an interpreter named
Henry betrayed them and told the king of Cebu that they intend to leave as quickly as possible.
Pigafetta alleged that the slave told the king that if he followed the slave's advice, then the king could
acquire the ships and the goods of Magellan's fleet. The two conspired and betrayed what was left of
Magellan's men. The king invited these men to a gathering where he said he would present the jewels
that he would send for the king of Spain. Pigafetta was not able to join the 24 men who attended
because he was nursing his battle wounds. It was only a short time when they heard cries. The natives
had slain all of the men except the interpreter and Juan Serrano, who were already wounded. Serrano
was presented and shouted at the men in the ship, asking them to pay the ransom so he would be

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spared. However, they refused, and the fleet departed and abandoned Serrano. They left Cebu to
continue their journey around the world.

Antonio Pigaretta First Voyage around the World by Magellan

An Analysis
Analysis of Pigafetta's Chronicle
 The chronicle of Pigafetta was one of the most cited documents by historians who wished to study
the pre colonial Philippines.
 As one of the earliest written accounts, Pigafetta was seen as a credible source for a period, which
was unchronicled and undocumented.
 Moreover, being the earliest detailed documentation, it was believed that Pigafetta's writings
account for the "purest" pre-colonial society.
 Indeed, Pigafetta's work is of great importance in the study and writing of Philippine history.
However, there needs to be a more nuanced reading of the source within a contextual backdrop.
 Students of history should recognize certain biases accompanying the authors and their identities,
loyalties, and circumstances, and how these affected the text that they produced.
 In the case of Pigafetta, the reader needs to understand that he was a chronicler commissioned by
the king of Spain to accompany and document a voyage intended to expand the Spanish empire.
 He was also of noble descent who came from a wealthy family in Italy. These attributes influenced
his narrative, his selection of details to be included in the text, his characterization of the people
that he encountered, and his interpretation and retelling of the events.
 With his cartography and geography background, Pigafetta wrote a detailed geography and
climate conditions of the places their voyage reached
 In reading Pigafetta's description of the people, one has to keep in mind that he was coming from
the sixteenth century European perspective. Hence, the reader might notice how Pigafetta,
whether implicitly or explicitly, regarded the indigenous belief systems and way of life as inferior
to that of Christianity and the Europeans.
 He would always remark on the nakedness of the natives or how he was fascinated by their exotic
culture. Pigafetta also noticeably emphasized the natives' amazement and ignorance of European
artillery, merchandise, and other goods.
 In the same way, Pigafetta repeatedly mentioned the abundance of spices like ginger and precious
metals like gold. His observations on indigenous cultures employed European standards.
 Hence, when they saw the indigenous attires of the natives, Pigafetta saw them as being naked
because, from a European standpoint, they were wearing fewer clothes indeed. Pigafetta's
perspective was too narrow to realize that such attire was appropriate for the tropical climate of
the islands.
 The same was true for materials that the natives used for their houses like palm and bamboo.
These materials would let more air come through the house and compensate for the hot climate.

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 Such observations were rooted in the context of Pigafetta and his era. Europe, for example, was
dominated by the Holy Roman Empire, whose loyalty and purpose was the domination of the
Catholic Church all over the world.
 Hence, other belief systems different from that of Christianity were perceived to be blasphemous
and barbaric, even demonic. Aside from this, the sixteenth century European economy was
mercantilist. Such a system measures the wealth of kingdoms based on their accumulation of
bullions or precious metals like gold and silver.

 It was not surprising, therefore, that Pigafetta would always mention the abundance of gold in the
islands as shown in his description of leaders wearing gold rings and golden daggers, and of the
rich gold mines.
 An empire like that of Spain would need new lands where they could acquire more gold and
wealth to be on top of all other European nations.
 The obsession with spices might be odd for Filipinos because of its ordinariness in the Philippines,
but understanding the context would reveal that spices were scarce in Europe and hence, were
seen as prestige goods.
 In that era, Spain and Portugal coveted control of the spice islands because it would have led to a
certain increase in wealth, influence, and power. These contexts should be used and understood
to have a more qualified reading of Pigafetta's account.

Juan de Plasencia's Customs of the Tagalog

Upon the arrival of the Spaniards in 1521, colonization in 1565, and establishment by Miguel Lopez de
Legazpi, the Manila area as the capital of the Spanish colony in the Philippines, the practical move was
to study the subjects of this new colony. Hence, several Spanish writers wrote about the Filipinos
during that mid-millennium. Foremost of them belonged to religious orders such as the Franciscan
missionary Juan de Plasencia. This same priest authored the first book ever printed in the archipelago
in 1593, the Doctrina Cristiana. He was known to have lived modestly and was concerned with the
welfare of the Filipino, even suggesting that aside from the Christian doctrine, reading and writing
Spanish should also be taught to Filipinos. Plasencia asserted that in the process of compiling the
Customs, he had to "obtain the simple truth by weeding out much of the foolishness, in regard to their
government, administration of justice, inheritances, slaves, and dowries."

Plasencia's Customs of the Tagalog (1589) was the earliest descriptive written work on early Filipino
society, giving us the witness view of our ancestors'customs and traditions. He used "Tagalog" because
Tagalogs inhabited Manila, the established capital. His work had no particular order elaborating on
certain aspects of early Filipino life. The socio-political structure of early Tagalogs, according to

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Plasencia, was led by revered chiefs referred to as dato, who served as war captains. They ruled as
many as a hundred houses, a "tribal" gathering called a barangay. Plasencia also identified three
"castes" or classes: the nobles or the maharlica; the commoners or the aliping namamahay who served
their master; and the slaves called aliping sa guiguilir (saguiguilid) who also served their master, but
they could be sold. We have to understand that Plasencia was writing from a Spaniard's view and
assigned terms to the Filipinos that were otherwise actually foreign such as "knights" and "castes."
Springing from the previous lesson on the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, we read that Plasencia also
mentions in a frustrating voice his distress regarding loans:

In what concerns loans, there was formerly, and is today, an excess of usury, which is a great
hindrance to baptism as well as to confession; for it turns. out in the same way as I have showed in the
case of the one under judgment, who gives half of his cultivated lands and profits until he pays the
debt. The debtor is condemned to a life of toil; and thus borrowers become slaves, and after the death
of the father the children pay the debt. Not doing so, double the amount must be paid. This system
should and can be reformed. Plasencia continues with paragraphs on marriage and constitution of the
family. giving scenarios of couples who divorced and matters concerning inheritance and dowry. He
also relates how disputes in the community were settled:
Investigations made and sentences passed by the dato must take place in the presence of
those of his barangay. If any of the litigants felt himself aggrieved, an arbiter was unanimously
named from another village or barangay, whether he were a dato or not; since they had for
this purpose some persons, known as fair and just men, who were said to give true judgment
according to their customs. If the controversy lay between two chiefs, when they wished to
avoid war, they also convoked judges to act as arbiters; they did the same if the disputants
belonged to two different barangays. In this ceremony they always had to drink, the plaintiff
inviting the others.

Regarding the elaborate belief system of the Filipinos, Plasencia explained:

In all the villages, or in other parts of the Filipinas Islands, there are no temples consecrated
to the performing of sacrifices, the adoration of their idols, or the general practice of idolatry. It is true
that they have the name simbahan, which means a temple or place of adoration; but this is because,
formerly, when they wished to celebrate a festival, which they called pandot, or "worship," they

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celebrated it in the large house of a chief.... During this time the whole barangay, or family, united and
joined in the worship which they call nagaanitos.... Among their many idols there was one called
Badhala, whom they especially worshiped. The title seems to signify "all powerful," or "maker of all
things." They also worshiped the sun, which, on account of its beauty, is almost universally respected
and honored by heathens. They worshiped, too, the moon, especially when it was new, at which time
they held great rejoicings, adoring it and bidding it welcome. Some of them also adored the stars,
although they did not know them by their names, as the Spaniards and other nations know the
planets-with the one exception of the morning star, which they called Tala. They knew, too, the "seven
little goats" [the Pleiades]-as we call them-and, consequently, the change of seasons, which they call
Mapolon; and Balatic, which is our Greater Bear. They possessed many idols called lic-ha, which were
images with different shapes; and at times they worshiped any little trifle, in which they adored....

These infidels said that they knew that there was another life of rest which they called maca, just as if
we should say "paradise," or, in other words, "village of rest." They say that those who go to this place
are the just, and the valiant, and those who lived without doing harm, or who possessed other moral
virtues. They said also that in the other life and mortality, there was a place of punishment, grief, and
affliction, called casanaan, which was "a place of anguish;".... they said that all the wicked went to that
place, and there dwelt the demons, whom they called sitan.

He closed his letter with the following:

Others, perchance, may offer a more extended narrative, but leaving aside irrelevant matters
concerning government and justice among them, a summary of the whole truth is contained in the
above. I am sending the account in this clear and concise form because I had received no orders to
pursue the work further. Whatever may be decided upon, it is certainly important that it should be
given to the alcaldes-mayor, accompanied by an explanation....

Analysis of the Customs of the Tagalogs

 The Spanish government commissioned Plasencia's work to identify the best strategy to organize
their newly founded colony.
 Compared with the Chinese annals that spoke mostly of trade matters, the Spanish were more
interested in the socio political structure of the early Filipinos (whom they called indios).

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 Although recognizing the datus, the Spanish looked at the structures as weak and segmented,
reflecting other Southeast Asian forms of political organization based on alliance networks over
territorial expansion.
 The title holds that Plasencia's work is a lengthy treatise on Tagalog customs covering several
topics, from marriage to burial.
 It was evidence that the early Filipinos had a system of governance, customs, and beliefs. Notably,
Plasencia narrated that Filipinos would enslave each other because of unpaid debts and how this
created a slave status that is inherited by children unless the debt is paid. But he looked at these
systems from the European perspective.
 For example, referring to Filipino astrology, he said, "they adore the stars although they don't
know their names (only a few)." He labeled spiritual practitioners as "priests of the devil" to
include the catalonan, mangcocolam, etc., but acknowledged that they did believe in a special
being called Badhala and that there was an afterlife.
 His presentation of these both gives us a glimpse of but at the same time obscures us from
understanding the true nature of these cultural practices.
 Through the centuries under Spanish rule, these practices were inherited, combining them with
Catholic beliefs-labeled folk Catholicism. A simple example would be the crucifix being used by the
Filipinos as a form of the indigenous concept of anting-anting.
 One of the most formative concepts that stemmed from Plasencia was the idea of the "barangay."
An authority on pre-sixteenth century Philippines, William Henry Scott wrote that the word was
misused to refer to the smallest social structure of the society as it merely meant a boat.
 But as the Spanish continued to write about the Filipinos, they replicated Plasencia's error.
Plasencia, as well as those who succeeded him, may have chosen the wrong concept and construct,
but more than a mistake, it was also an attempt to impose a Western structure to explain the
Filipino political units.
 Scott said that in his studies, what appears to refer to early Filipino political structure was the
word bayan. Unfortunately, Plasencia's work became the seed of scholarship on Filipino political
structure that writers after him, whether Spanish, American, or Filipino, had enabled the concept
of "barangay" to persist.
 The barangay is so embedded in Philippine history that probably all textbooks begin the discussion
on pre sixteenth century Philippines using this construct, a testimony to how the foreign lens or
perspective shaped realities using misconstrued concepts in history.
 Imagine other indigenous concepts that had the same fate. Revisiting and reanalyzing primary
sources allow us to contextualize the same concepts we use today.
 Ultimately, we have to understand that Plasencia's work was just a fraction of the whole and was
not in any way representative of all the other indigenous peoples of the Philippine pre-sixteenth
century.
The KKK and the “Kartilya ng Katipunan”
The Philippine Revolution is one of the most important nodal points in Philippine History. It signaled
the end of the long Spanish era and served as the climax of the occasional revolts that occurred in the
centuries of Spanish colonization The revolution started in August 1896, upon the discovery of the

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Katipunan. This erstwhile secret organization led the revolution through Andres Bonifacio in its early
stages. Later, internal conflict in the movement escalated to the tragic execution of Bonifacio in May
1897 and the leadership takeover by Emilio Aguinaldo.
The Kataastaasan, Kagalang-galang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK), or Katipunan, is
arguably the most crucial organization formed in Philippine history. While anti-colonial movements,
efforts, and organizations have already been formed centuries before the foundation of the Katipunan,
it was only this organization that envisioned a united Filipino nation that would revolt against the
Spaniards for the total independence of the country from Spain. None before the Katipunan
envisioned a unified Filipino nation revolting against the colonizers. On the one hand, the imagination
of the nation was mostly absent in the aspirations of the local revolts before Katipunan. On the other
hand, the propaganda movement led by the ilustrados such as Marcelo H. del Pilar, Graciano López
Jaena, and Jose Rizal did not envision a total separation of the Philippines from Spain. They only
demanded equal rights, representation, and protection from the abuses of the friars.
In the conduct of their struggle, the Katipunan created a complex structure and a defined value system
that would guide the organization as a collective, which aspired for a single goal. One of the essential
Katipunan documents was the Kartilya ng Katipunan. The original title of the text was Manga Aral Nang
Katipunan ng mga Anak Nang Bayan or "Lessons of the Organization of the Sons of Country." Emilio
Jacinto wrote the document in 1896. Jacinto was only 18 years old when he joined the movement. He
was a law student at the University of Santo Tomas. Despite his youth, Jacinto exhibited valuable
intellect that upon seeing that his Kartilya was much better than Bonifacio's Decalogue, Bonifacio
willingly favored the Kartilya to be distributed to their fellow Katipuneros. Jacinto became the
secretary of the organization and took charge of the shortlived printing press of the Katipunan. On
April 15, 1897, Bonifacio appointed Jacinto as a commander of the Katipunan in Northern Luzon.
Jacinto was 22 years old. He died of Malaria at a young age of 24 in Magdalena, Laguna.
The Kartilya can be treated as the Katipunan's code of conduct. It contained 14 rules that instruct the
way a Katipunero should behave and the values that he should uphold. Generally, the rules that are
listed in the Kartilya can be classified into two. The first group are rules that will make the member an
upright individual The second includes rules that will guide the way they treat their fellow. Below is th
translated version of the regulations in the Kartilya:
I. The life that is not consecrated to a lofty and reasonable purpose is a tree without a shade, if
not a poisonous weed.
II. To do good for personal gain and not for its own sake is not virtue.
III. It is rational to be charitable and love one's fellow creature, and to adjust one's conduct, acts
and words to what is in itself reasonable.
IV. Whether our skin be black or white, we are all born equal: superiority in knowledge, wealth
and beauty are to be understood, but not superiority by nature.
V. The honorable man prefers honor to personal gain; the scoundrel, gain to honor.
VI. To the honorable man, his word is sacred.
VII. Do not waste thy time: wealth can be recovered but not time lost.
VIII. Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor before the law or in the field.
IX. The prudent man is sparing in words and faithful in keeping secrets.

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X. On the thorny path of life, man is the guide of woman and the children, and if the guide leads
to the precipice, those whom he guides will also go there.
XI. Thou must not look upon woman as a mere plaything, but as a faithful companion who will
share with thee the penalties of life: her (physical) weakness will increase thy interest in her
and she will remind thee of the mother who bore thee and reared thee.
XII. What thou dost not desire done unto thy wife, children, brothers and sisters, that do not unto
the wife, children, brothers and sisters of thy neighbor.
XIII. Man is not worth more because he is a king, because his nose is aquiline, and his color white,
not because he is a priest, a servant of God, nor because of the high prerogative that he enjoys
upon earth, but he is worth most who is a man of proven and real value, who does good,
keeps his words, is worthy and honest; he who does not oppress nor consent to being
oppressed, he who loves and cherishes his fatherland, though he be born in the wilderness
and know no tongue but his own.
XIV. When these rules of conduct shall be known to all, the longed-for sun of Liberty shall rise
brilliant over this most unhappy portion of the globe and its rays shall diffuse everlasting joy
among the confederated brethren of the same rays, the lives of those who have gone before,
the fatigues and the well-paid sufferings will remain. If he who desires to enter has informed
himself of all this and believes he will be able to perform what will be his duties, he may fill out
the application for admission.
As the primary governing document, which determines the rules of conduct in the Katipunan, the
Kartilya will, thus, help us in understanding the values, ideals, aspirations, and even the ideology of the
organization
Analysis of the Kartilya ng Katipunan
 It is worthwhile to read the Kartilya in terms of content and context.
 As a document written for a fraternity whose primary purpose was to overthrow a colonial regime,
we can explain the content and provisions of the Kartilya as a reaction and response to certain
value systems that they found despicable in the state of things that wanted to fight.
 For example, the fourth and 13th rule in the Kartilya is an invocation of the inherent equality
between and among men regardless of race, occupation, or status.
 In the context of the Spanish colonial era, when the indios were treated as inferior to Europeans,
the Katipunan saw to it that the alternative order that they wished to promulgate through their
revolution necessarily destroys this kind of unjust hierarchy.
 Moreover, one can analyze the values upheld in the document as consistent with the burgeoning
rational and liberal ideals in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
 Equality, tolerance, freedom, and liberty were values that first emerged in the French Revolution,
which spread throughout Europe and reached the educated class of the colonies.
 Jacinto, an ilustrado himself, certainly got an understanding of these values. Aside from the liberal
values that can be dissected in the document, we can also decipher indigenous values like dangal.
 For example, various provisions in the Kartilya repeatedly emphasized the importance of honor in
words and actions.

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 The teaching of the Katipunan on how women should be treated with honor and respect, while
positive in many respects and certainly a significant stride from the practice of raping and
physically abusing women. is still telling of the Katipunan's secondary regard for women in relation
to men.
 For example, in the 10th rule, the document explicitly stated that men should be the guide of
women and children and that he should set a good example. Otherwise, women and children
would proceed to a path of evil.
 This pronouncement assumes that women are subordinate to men and are predisposed toward
committing wrongdoing.
 Nevertheless, the same document stated that women should be treated as companions of men
and not as playthings that can be exploited for their pleasure. In the contemporary eyes, the
Katipunan can be criticized because of it can be perceived as patronizing of women.
 However, one must not forget the context of when the organization was born. Not even in Europe
or in the whole of the West in that period, that the problem of gender inequality was recognized.
 Indeed, it can be argued that Katipunan's recognition. of women as essential partners in the
struggle, as reflected not just in the Kartilya, but also in the organizational structure of the
fratemity, in which a women's unit was established, is an endeavor advanced for its time.
 Aside from Rizal's known Letter to the Women of Malolos, no same effort by the supposed
cosmopolitan Propaganda Movement was achieved until the movement's eventual disintegration
in the latter part of the 1890s.
 Aside from this, the Kartilya was instructive not just of the Katipunan's conduct toward other
people, but also for the members' development as individuals in their own right.
 Generally speaking, the rules in the Kartilya can be classified as either directed to how one should
treat his neighbor or how one should develop and conductcone's self.
 Both are essential to the success and fulfillment of the Katipunan's ideals.
 For example, the Kartilya's teachings on honoring one's word and on not wasting time are
teachings directed toward self-development, while the rules on treating the neighbor's wife,
children, and brothers the way that you want yours to be treated is an instruction on how
Katipuneros should treat and regard their neighbors.
 The Kartilya embodied the ideals of the Katipunan upon its foundation in 1892. In a few years, the
organization would be confronted with the more pragmatic aspect of the revolution. After its
discovery, it expanded more rapidly and engaged in more. crucial and intense battles.
Proclamation of Philippine Independence on 12 June 1898 in Cavite.
The country commemorates this every year as the Philippine Independence Day. Indeed, such an
event is significant because it was perceived to have signaled the end of the 333 years of Spanish
colonization. There have been numerous studies done on the events leading to the independence of
the country. Still, very few students have had the chance to read the actual document of the
declaration, despite the essential details it reveals on the rationale and circumstances of that historical
day in Cavite. Interestingly, reading the details of the said document in hindsight is telling of the kind
of government that was created under Aguinaldo, and the forthcoming hand of the United States in
the next few years of the newly formed republic. The declaration was a short 2,000-word document

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written by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, which summarized the reason behind the revolution against
Spain, the war for independence, and the future of the new republic under Emilio Aguinaldo.
The proclamation commenced with a characterization of the conditions in the Philippines during the
Spanish colonial period. The document specifically mentioned abuses and inequalities in the colony.
The declaration says:
...taking into consideration, that their inhabitants being already weary of bearing the ominous
yoke of Spanish domination, on account of the arbitrary arrests and harsh treatment practiced
by the Civil Guard to the extent of causing death with the connivance and even with the
express orders of their commanders, who sometimes went to the extreme of ordering the
shooting of prisoners under the pretext that they were attempting to escape, in violation of
the provisions of the Regulations of their Corps, which abuses were unpunished and on
account of the unjust deportations, especially those decreed by General Blanco, of eminent
personages and of high social position, at the instigation of the Archbishop and friars
interested in keeping them out of the way for their own selfish and avaricious purpose,
deportations which are quickly brought about by a method of procedure more execrable than
that of the Inquisition and which every civilized nation rejects on account of a decision being
rendered without a hearing of the persons accused.
The above passage demonstrated the justifications behind the revolution against Spain. Specifically
cited were the abuses by the civil guards and the unlawful shooting of prisoners whom they alleged as
attempting to escape. The passage also condemned the unequal protection of the law between the
Filipino people and the "eminent personages." Moreover, the line mentioned the avarice and greed of
the clergy like the friars and the Archbishop himself. Lastly, the passage also condemned what they
saw as the unjust deportation and rendering of some decisions without a proper hearing, expected of
any civilized nation.
From here, the proclamation proceeded with a brief historical overview of the Spanish occupation
since Magellan's arrival in the Visayas until the Philippine revolution, with specific details about the
latter, especially after the Pact of Biak na-Bato had collapsed. The document narrated the spread of
the movement "like an electric spark" through different towns and provinces like Bataan, Pampanga,
Batangas, Bulacan, Laguna, and Morong, and the quick decline of Spanish forces in the same provinces.
The revolution also reached the Visayas, ensuring the independence of the country. The document
also made mention of Rizal's execution, calling it unjust. The execution, as written in the text, was
done to "please the greedy body of friars in their insatiable desire to seek revenge upon and
exterminate all those who are opposed to their Machiavellian purposes, which tramples upon the
penal code prescribed for these islands." The document also narrated the Cavite Mutiny of January
1872 that caused the infamous execution of the martyred native priests Jose Burgos, Mariano Gomez,
and Jacinto Zamora, "whose innocent blood was shed through the intrigues of those so-called religious
orders" that incited the three secular priests in the said mutiny.
The proclamation of independence also invoked that the established republic would be under a
dictatorship led by Emilio Aguinaldo. The first mention was at the very beginning of the declaration. It
stated:
In the town of Cavite Viejo, in this province of Cavite, on the twelfth day of June eighteen hundred and
ninety-eight, before me, Don Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Auditor of War and Special Commissioner
appointed to proclaim and solemnize this act by the Dictatorial Government of these Philippine Islands,

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for the purposes and by virtue of the circular addressed by the Eminent Dictator of the same Don
Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy.
The same was repeated toward the last part of the proclamation:
We acknowledge, approve and confirm together with the orders that have been issued
therefrom, the Dictatorship established by Don Emilio Aguinaldo, whom we honor as the
Supreme Chief of this Nation, which this day commences to have a life of its own, in the belief
that he is the instrument selected by God, in spite of his humble origin, to effect the
redemption of this unfortunate people, as foretold by Doctor Jose Rizal in the magnificent
verses which he composed when he was preparing to be shot, liberating them from the yoke
of Spanish domination in punishment of the impunity with which their Government allowed
the commission of abuses by its subordinates.
Another detail in the proclamation that is worth looking at is its explanation on the Philippine flag that
was first waved on the same day. The document
And finally, it was unanimously resolved that this Nation, independent from this day, must use
the same flag used heretofore, whose design and colors and described in the accompanying
drawing, with design representing in natural colors the three arms referred to. The white
triangle represents the distinctive emblem of the famous Katipunan Society, which by means
of its compact of blood urged on the masses of the people to insurrection; the three stars
represent the three principal Islands of this Archipelago, Luzon, Mindanao and Panay, in which
this insurrectionary movement broke out; the sun represents the gigantic strides that have
been made by the sons of this land on the road of progress and civilization, its eight rays
symbolizing the eight provinces of Manila, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Bataan,
Laguna and Batangas, which were declared in a state of war almost as soon as the first
insurrectionary movement was initiated; and the colors blue, red and white, commemorate
those of the flag of the United States of North America, in manifestation of our profound
gratitude towards that Great Nation for the disinterested protection she is extending to us and
will continue to extend to us.
This often-overlooked detail reveals much about the historically accurate meaning behind the most
widely known national symbol in the Philippines. It is not known by many, for example, that the white
triangle was derived from the symbol of the Katipunan. The red and blue colors of the flag are often
associated with courage and peace, respectively. Our basic education omits the fact that those colors
were taken from the flag of the United States. While it can always be argued that symbolic meaning
can always change and be reinterpreted, the original symbolic meaning of something presents us
several historical truths that can explain the subsequent events, which unfolded after the declaration
of independence on the 12th day of June 1898.

Analysis of the Proclamation of Philippine Independence

 A re-examination of the document on the declaration of independence can reveal some
often-overlooked historical truths about this important event in Philippine history.
 Aside from this, the text reflects the general revolutionary sentiment of that period.
 For example, the abuses mentioned explicitly in the proclamation, such as friar abuse, racial
discrimination, and inequality before the law, reflect the most compelling sentiments represented
by the revolutionary leadership.
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 However, no mention was made about the more serious problem that affected the masses more
profoundly (i.e.. the land and agrarian crisis felt by the numerous Filipino peasants in the
nineteenth century).
 This silence is ironic, especially when renowned Philippine Revolution historian Teodoro Agoncillo
stated that the Philippine Revolution was an agrarian revolution.
 The ordinary revolutionary soldiers fought in the revolution for the hope of owning the lands that
they were filling once the friar estates in different provinces like Batangas and Laguna dissolve
once the revolution succeeds.
 Such aspects and realities of the revolutionary struggle were either unfamiliar to the middle-class
revolutionary leaders like Emilio Aguinaldo, Ambrosio Rianzares-Bautista, and Felipe Buencamino,
or were intentionally left out because they were landholders themselves.
 The proclamation also gives us the impression that the victorious revolutionary govemment of
Aguinaldo historicized the struggle for independence.
 There were mentions of past events that were seen as significant turning points of the movement
against Spain. The execution of GOMBURZA, for example, as well as the failed Cavite Mutiny of
1872, were narrated in detail.
 The inclusion of these events shows that they saw them as significant in awakening the Filipinos fo
the real conditions of the nation under Spain.
 Jose Rizal's legacy and martyrdom were also mentioned in the text. However, the Katipunan, as
the pioneer of the revolutionary movement, was only mentioned once toward the end of the
document. There was no mention of the Katipunan's foundation.
 Bonifacio and his co-founders were also left out. It can be argued, thus, that the historical
narration found in the document also reflects the politics of the victors. The enmity between
Aguinaldo's Magdalo and Bonifacio's Magdiwang in the Katipunan is no secret in the pages of our
history. On the contrary, the war led by Aguinaldo's men with the forces of the United States was
discussed in detail.
 The point is, official records and documents such as the proclamation of independence, while
truthful most of the time, still exude the politics and biases of whoever is in power, which
manifested in the selectiveness of information that can be found in these records.
 Thus, it is the task of the historian to analyze the content of these documents to the dominant
politics and the contexts of people and institutions surrounding it.
 We should, therefore, always examine the circumstance behind the production context of primary
sources such as official government records.
 Studying one historical subject entails looking at multiple primary sources and pieces of historical
evidence to have a more nuanced and contextual analysis of our past.
Leon O. Ty's "It's Up to You Now" and the Magsaysay Myth
Mainstream Philippine history textbooks always paint Ramon Magsaysay as the People's President. His
humble beginnings and educational background were placed in stark contrast to his predecessors'.
Indeed, the presidents before him were all lawyers who came from the old landed elite families and
were prominent figures in Philippine politics for many generations of the American period. Magsaysay,
however, did not enjoy the same advantages. He was not a lawyer, did not come from the national
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elite, was former employee of a bus company in his province, and a hardened guerrilla during the war.
He was a governor of Zambales, elected as a legislator, and was appointed as secretary of National
Defense under President Quirino. As defense secretary, Magsaysay gained popularity in his successful
campaign against the Huks.
For all intents and purposes, Magsaysay was painted as a self-made president who rose from the ranks
of the masses through sheer ability and patriotism. He was celebrated as an anti-communist hero who
broke the growing momentum of the Huk rebellion as a defense secretary. He was beholden to no one
because he had no significant business interest and was perceived and portrayed as a "man of action"
who would put an end to the corruption and inefficiency of the government led by an oligarchy. U.S.
newspapers and magazines supported this image, and so did the Philippine press.
Journalist Leon O. Ty penned an article "It's Up to You Now" for the Philippine Free Press three days
before the November 1953 presidential election. This article is an illustration of Magsaysay's portrayal
in the press. The article started with an anecdote where defense secretary Magsaysay called a
newsman to express his worries in the way things were run in the Quirino cabinet. The article narrated
how Magsaysay worried about having earned the ire of the president when he contradicted a
particular shady deal about sugar importation that involved a certain compadre to the president. The
article read:
I have my doubts, Magsaysay answered rather gloomily. The Apo [pertaining to the president]
seems to dislike me now."
"But why should he dislike you? the newsman queried. 'Didn't you restore peace and order for
him? You gave him prestige when you kept the 1951 elections clean. The President has
repeatedly said he is proud of you."
Magsaysay said Quirino began to be indifferent to him when articles about his success in
combating the Huks were published in leading American magazines like Time, Life, Saturday
Evening Post, Newsweek, and Collier's.
Leon Ty's write-up craftily narrated the history of Magsaysay's political career, from his days as a war
veteran to his days as the defense secretary, until he resigned from the Quirino cabinet and
immediately transferred from the Liberal Party to the Nacionalista Party where he was drafted as the
standard-bearer. Ty's article also described Magsaysay's initial plan to resign from the Nacionalista
Party and to run for senator under a third party:
'What do you plan to do now?' Magsaysay was asked toward the end of the conversation.
“Resign from the Cabinet and join a third party. I can't join the Opposition. I don't think the
Nacionalistas will accept me, knowing I'm a Liberal."
But what will you do in a third party? inquired the newsman.
I'll run for senator, he said.
Useless for you to join a third party and run for a Senate post. You can't win. Not as a third
party candidate....
The foregoing story is related to show that Ramon Magsaysay at the time never dreamed of becoming
a candidate for president of the Liberal Party, much less of the Opposition.
The article also described the confidence of hardcore nationalists to Magsaysay. These include Jose P.
Laurel, Claro M. Recto, and Lorenzo Tañada. This confidence demonstrated that Magsaysay had the

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trust of leaders known for their anti-Americanism. Supporting Magsaysay, according to Ty, was how
the Nacionalista leaders such as Laurel showed patriotism:
Many people are still wondering why Dr. Laurel was willing to sacrifice his personal ambition in
favor of the former LP defense secretary. They still believe that in a clean election, Laurel could
win against any Liberal as shown in 1951. With victory practically in sight, why did Dr. Laurel
decide to invite Magsaysay to be the NP standard-bearer?
Senator Laurel had his reasons for this action..
"If I run and lose through frauds and violence as in 1949, he is said to have told close friends, "I
will surely be driven to desperation. I may even have to resort to drastic measures. In which
case, might have to go to the mountains and lead a band of rebels, guerrillas. That I cannot do
now on account of my age. I'm tired.
And if I win, could I get as much aid from the United States as Magsaysay could? I don't think
so. I know pretty well how I stand in the eyes of the American people. Because of my
collaboration record during the Occupation, many Americans who still don't know what
actually happened here during the war will stand in the way of material aid to our country. I
have no choice. The welfare of our people is more important to me than my personal ambition.
But if Magsaysay wins, I think America will go out of her way to help us because he is a friend,
a great friend. To the American people, and for that matter, to the people of the world,
Magsaysay is the physical embodiment of Democracy's courageous stand against Communism
in the Far East....
The rest of the article painted a picture of the Liberal regime in the Philippines for the past eight years.
Ty casually stated, "In this article, we feel there is no need to enumerate what President Quirino has
done for the country during the years he has been in office. The Filipino people know what he has
accomplished. They also know what he failed to do." After a hefty narrative of Magsaysay's career that
included depictions of his accomplishments, character, and frustrations, the article ended with a
challenge for its readers: "The hectic political campaign is over. You, fellow voters, have heard the pros
and cons of the issues involved in this election... It's up to you now!
Analysis of Philippine Free Press' Pitch for Magsaysay
 Magsaysay's campaign was a staggering success. For the first time in the history of elections in the
Philippines. the president won a landslide victory.
 Magsaysay defeated Liberal Party's standard-bearer and incumbent Philippine President Elpidio
Quirino with 68.9 percent ballots cast electing Magsaysay as president. Indeed, the unpopular and
reputedly corrupt and aging Quirino was no match to the younger, energetic, and populist Ramon
Magsaysay.
 The buildup of Magsaysay's presidential campaign, however, was appraised by many historians
like Stephen Shalom, William Pomeroy, and Renato Constantino as a U.S. project.
 Indeed, Magsaysay was avidly supported by the U.S. government. U.S. media such as Time and
Reader's Digest created fantastic myths about his humble beginnings.
 They painted him as a fierce anti-communist, a relentless reformer of the corrupt Philippine state,
and a loyal supporter of the United States.

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 Indeed, CIA documents and former agents testified how CIA's Edward Lansdale orchestrated
Magsaysay's journey to the presidency since the Joint U.S. Military Assistance Group (JUSMAG)
persuaded President Quirino to appoint Magsaysay as defense secretary.
 The image of Magsaysay as a humble politician was a packaging covertly manufactured by the CIA.
They knew that Quirino and his party were highly unpopular, and they wanted to ensure that the
next president would serve U.S. interests well.
 The CIA was behind Magsaysay's campaign. They choreographed how the media would portray
him. The very image that Lansdale wanted for Magsaysay was well captured by the Philippine Free
Press article summarized previously.
 Ty wrote about Magsaysay's rise from the masses and painted him as a humble and patriotic
politician who despaired with what he witnessed in the Quirino govemment. The article was, at
times, contradictory.
 On the one hand, it painted Magsaysay as a relatively low-profile Liberal Party member who would
never be considered as a presidential candidate. On the other hand, it also claimed that
"Magsaysay easily stood out as the strongest pillar in the LP edifice."
 At the same time, while the article tried to distance Magsaysay from the image of being a U.S.
puppet by having hardcore nationalists such as Laurel and Recto speak of his worthiness, it also
highlighted the advantages of keeping the United States as allies, as depicted in the words of
Recto quoted previously.
 Thus, while the article avoided giving Magsaysay the image of a U.S. bet, it was still able to place
the United States as a valuable friend to the Philippine government and economy.
 The unconcealed and historically historically documented support of the United States fo
Magsaysay's presidency is another indicator of the continued and unbridled U.S. influence on the
Philippines' national affairs, years after the official end of U.S. colonization. Magsaysay is just a
representation of how Philippine presidents of the postwar period continuously led the country
according to the framework set by the United States.

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Philippine History: Spaces for Conflicts and Controversies

Learning Objectives

• To interpret historical events using primary sources.

• To recognize the multiplicity of interpretation than can be read from a historical

text.

• To identify the advantages and disadvantages of employing critical tools in

interpreting historical events through primary sources.

• To demonstrate ability to argue for or against a particular issue using primary

sources.

Making Sense of the Past: Historical Interpretation

• History is the study of the past, but a more contemporary definition is centered
on how it impacts the present through its consequences. Geoffrey Barraclough
defines history as "the attempt to discover, on the basis of fragmentary
evidence, the significant things about the past.”

• He also notes "the history we read, though based on facts, is strictly speaking,
not factual at all, but a series of accepted judgments." Such judgments of
historians on how the past should be seen make the foundation of historical
interpretation.

• Historians utilize facts collected from primary sources of history and then draw
their own reading so that their intended audience may understand the historical
event, a process that in essence, "makes sense of the past."

• The premise is that not all primary sources are accessible to a general audience,
and without the proper training and background, a non-historian interpreting a
primary source may do more harm than good-a primary source may even cause
misunderstandings; sometimes, even resulting in more problems.

• Interpretations of the past, therefore, vary according to who reads the primary
source, when it was read, and how it was read. As students of history, we must
be well equipped to recognize different types of interpretations, why these may
differ from each other, and how to critically sift these interpretations through
historical evaluation. Interpretations of historical events change over time; thus, it
is an important skill for a student of history to track these changes in an attempt
to understand the past.

• Many of the things we accept as "true" about the past might not be the case
anymore; just because these were taught to us as "facts" when we were younger
does not mean that it is set in stone-history is, after all, a construct.

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 • And as a construct, it is open for interpretation. There might be conflicting and
competing accounts of the past that need one's attention, and can impact the
way we view our country's history and identity.

• It is important, therefore, to subject to evaluation not only the primary source, but
also the historical interpretation of the same, to ensure that the current
interpretation is reliable to support our acceptance of events of the past.

Multiperspectivity

• With several possibilities of interpreting the past, another important concept that
we must note is multiperspectivity. This can be defined as a way of looking at
historical events, personalities, developments, cultures, and societies from
different perspectives. This means that there is a multitude of ways by which we
can view the world, and each could be equally valid, and at the same time, equally
partial as well.

• Historical writing is, by definition, biased, partial, and contains preconceptions.

The historian decides on what sources to use, what interpretation to make more
apparent, depending on what his end is.

• Historians may misinterpret evidence, attending to those that suggest that a

certain event happened, and then ignore the rest that goes against the evidence.

• Historians may omit significant facts about their subject, which makes the
interpretation unbalanced. Historians may impose a certain ideology to their
subject, which may not be appropriate to the period the subject was from.
Historians may also provide a single cause for an event without considering
other possible causal explanations of said event.

• These are just many of the ways a historian may fail in his historical inference,
description, and interpretation.

• With multiperspectivity as an approach in history, we must understand that

historical interpretations contain discrepancies, contradictions, ambiguities, and
are often the focus of dissent.

• Exploring multiple perspectives in history requires incorporating source materials

that reflect different views of an event in history, because singular historical
narratives do not provide for space to inquire and investigate.

• Different sources that counter each other may create space for more
investigation and research, while providing more evidence for those truths that
these sources agree on.

• Different kinds of sources also provide different historical truths an official

document may note different aspects of the past than, say, a memoir of an

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 ordinary person on the same event. Different historical agents create different
historical truths, and while this may be a burdensome work for the historian, it
also renders more validity to the historical scholarship.

• Taking these in close regard in the reading of historical interpretations, it

provides for the audience a more complex, but also a more complete and richer
understanding of the past.

Case Study 1: Where Did the First Catholic Mass Take Place in the Philippines?

• The popularity of knowing where the "firsts" happened in history has been an
easy way to trivialize history, but this case study will not focus on the
significance (or lack thereof) of the site of the First Catholic Mass in the
Philippines, but rather, use it as a historiographical exercise in the utilization of
evidence and interpretation in reading historical events.

• Butuan has long been believed as the site of the first Mass. In fact, this has been
the case for three centuries, culminating in the erection of a monument in 1872
near Agusan River, which commemorates the expedition's arrival and celebration
of Mass on 8 April 1521.

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 • The Butuan claim has been based on a rather elementary reading of primary
sources from the event. Toward the end of the nineteenth century and the start
of the twentieth. century, together with the increasing scholarship on the history
of the Philippines, a more nuanced reading of the available evidence was made,
which brought to light more considerations in going against the more accepted
interpretation of the first Mass in the Philippines, made both by Spanish and
Filipino scholars.

• It must be noted that there are only two primary sources that historians refer to
in identifying the site of the first Mass. One is the log kept by Francisco Albo, a
pilot of one of Magellan's ship, Trinidad. He was one of the 18 survivors who
returned with Sebastian Elcano on the ship Victoria after they circumnavigated
the world.

• The other, and the more complete, was the account by Antonio Pigafetta, Primo
viaggio intorno al mondo (First Voyage Around the World). Pigafetta, like Albo,
was a member of the Magellan expedition and an eyewitness of the events,
particularly, of the first Mass.

Primary Source: Albo's Log Source:

• "Diario 6 derotero del viage de Magallanes desde el cabo se S. Agustín en el

Brazil hasta el regreso a Espana de la nao Victoria, escrito por Frandsco Albo,"
Document no. xxii in Colleción de viages y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar
los Españoles desde fines del siglo XV, Ed. Martin Fernandez de Navarrete
(reprinted Buenos Aires 1945, 5 Vols.) IV, 191-225. As cited in Miguel A. Bernad
"Butuan or Limasawa? The Site of the First Mass in the Philippines: A
Reexamination of Evidence" 1981, Kinaadman: A Journal of Southern Philippines,
Vol. III, 1-35.

• 1. On the 16th of March (1521) as they sailed in a westerly course from Ladrones,
they saw land towards the northwest; but owing to many shallow places they did
not approach it. They found later that its name was Yunagan.

• 2. They went instead that same day southwards to another small island named
Suluan, and there they anchored. There they saw some canoes but these fled at
the Spaniards' approach. This island was at 9 and two-thirds degrees North
latitude.

• 3. Departing from those two islands, they sailed westward to an uninhabited

island of "Gada" where they took in a supply of wood and water. The sea around
that island was free from shallows. (Albo does not give the latitude of this island,
but from Pigafetta's testimony, this seems to be the "Acquada" or Homonhon, at
10 degrees North latitude.)

• 4. From that island they sailed westwards towards a large island names Seilani

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 that was inhabited and was known to have gold. (Seilani or, as Pigafetta calls it,
"Ceylon" was the island of Leyte.)

• 5. Sailing southwards along the coast of that large island of Seilani, they turned
southwest to a small island called "Mazava." That island is also at a latitude of 9
and two-thirds degrees North.

• 6. The people of that island of Mazava were very good. There the Spaniards
planted a cross upon a mountain-top, and from there they were shown three
islands to the west and southwest, where they were told there was much gold.
"They showed us how the gold was gathered, which came in small pieces like
peas and lentils.“

• 7. From Mazava they sailed northwards again towards Seilani. They followed the
coast of Seilani in a northwesterly direction, ascending up to 10 degrees of
latitude where they saw three small islands.

• 8. From there they sailed westwards some ten leagues, and there they saw three
islets, where they dropped anchor for the night. In the morning they sailed
southwest some 12 leagues, down to a latitude of 10 and one-third degree. There
they entered a channel between two islands, one of which was called "Matan"
and the other "Subu."

• 9. They sailed down that channel and then turned westward and anchored at the
town (la villa) of Subu where they stayed many days and obtained provisions and
entered into a peace-pact with the local king.

• 10. The town of Subu was on an east-west direction with the islands of Suluan
and Mazava. But between Mazava and Subu, there were so many shallows that
the boats could not go westward directly but has to go (as they did) in a round-
about way.

• It must be noted that in Albo's account, the location of Mazava fits the location of
the island of Limasawa, at the southern tip of Leyte, 9°54'N. Also, Albo does not
mention the first Mass, but only the planting of the cross upon a mountain-top
from which could be seen three islands to the west and southwest, which also
fits the southern end of Limasawa.

Primary Source: Pigafetta's Testimony on the Route of Magellan's Expedition Source:

• Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Vols. 33 and
34, as cited in Miguel A. Bernad, "Butuan or Limasawa? The Site of the First Mass
in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Evidence" 1981, Kinaadman: A Journal of
Southern Philippines, Vol. III, 1-35.

• 1. Saturday, 16 March 1521 - Magellan's expedition sighted a "high land" named

"Zamal" which was some 300 leagues westward of Ladrones (now the Marianas)

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 Islands.

• 2. Sunday, March 17 "The following day" after sighting Zamal Island, they landed
on "another island which was uninhabited" and which lay "to the right" of the
above-mentioned island of "Zamal." (To the "right" here would mean on their
starboard going south or southwest.) There they set up two tents for the sick
members of the crew and had a sow killed for them. The name of this island as
"Humunu" (Homonhon). This island was located at 10 degrees. North latitude.

• 3. On that same day (Sunday, March 17), Magellan named the entire archipelago
the "Islands of Saint Lazarus," the reason being that it was Sunday in the Lenten
season when the Gospel assigned for the Mass and the liturgical Office was the
eleventh chapter of St. John, which tells of the raising of Lazarus from the dead.

• 4. Monday, March 18- In the afternoon of their second day on that island, they
saw a boat coming towards them with nine men in it. An exchange of gifts was
effected. Magellan asked for food supplies, and the men went away, promising to
bring rice and other supplies in "four days."

• 5. There were two springs of water on that island of Homonhon. Also they saw
there some indications that there was gold in these islands. Consequently
Magellan renamed the island and called it the "Watering Place of Good Omen"
(Acquada la di bouni segnialli).

• 6. Friday, March 22 - At noon the natives returned. This time they were in two
boats, and they brought food supplies.

• 7. Magellan's expedition stayed eight days at Homonhon: from Sunday, March 17,
to the Monday of the following week, March 25.

• 8. Monday, March 25- In the afternoon, the expedition weighed anchor and left
the island of Homonhon. In the ecclesiastical calendar, this day (March 25) was
the feast-day of the Incarnation, also called the feast of the Annunciation and
therefore "Our Lady's Day." On this day, as they were about to weigh anchor, an
accident happened to Pigafetta: he fell into the water but was rescued. He
attributed his narrow escape from death as grace obtained through the
intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary on her feast-day.

• 9. The route taken by the expedition after leaving Homonhon was "toward the
west southwest, between four islands: namely, Cenalo, Hiunanghan, Ibusson and
Albarien." Very probably "Cenalo" is a misspelling in the Italian manuscript for
what Pigafetta in his map calls "Ceilon" and Albo calls "Seilani": namely the island
of Leyte. "Hiunanghan" (a misspelling of Hinunangan) seemed to Pigafetta to be
a separate island, but is actually on the mainland of Leyte (i.e., "Ceylon"). On the
other hand, Hibuson (Pigafetta's Ibusson) is an island east of Leyte's southern tip.

• Thus, it is easy to see what Pigafetta meant by sailing "toward the west

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 southwest" past those islands. They left Homonhon sailing westward towards
Leyte, then followed the Leyte const southward, passing between the island of
Hibuson on their portside and Hiunangan Bay on their starboard, and then
continued southward, then turning westward to "Mazaua."

• 10. Thursday, March 28- In the morning of Holy Thursday, March 28, they
anchored off an island where the previous night they had seen a light or a bonfire.
That island "lies in a latitude of nine and two-thirds towards the Arctic Pole (i.e.,
North) and in a longitude of one hundred and sixty-two degrees from the line of
demarcation. It is twenty-five leagues from the Acquada, and is called Mazaua."

• 11. They remained seven days on Mazaua Island.

• 12. Thursday, April 4 - They left Mazaua, bound for Cebu. They were guided
thither by the king of Mazaua who sailed in his own boat. Their route took them
past five "islands" namely: "Ceylon, Bohol, Canighan, Baibai, and Gatighan."

• 13. At Gatighan, they sailed westward to the three islands of the Camotes Group,
namely, Poro, Pasihan and Ponson. Here the Spanish ships stopped to allow the
king of Mazaua to catch up with them, since the Spanish ships were much faster
than the native balanghai-a thing that excited the admiration of the king of
Mazaua.

• 14. From the Camotes Islands they sailed southwards towards "Zubu."

• 15. Sunday, April 7 - At noon they entered the harbor of "Zubu” (Cebu). It had
taken them three days to negotiate the journey from Mazaua northwards to the
Camotes Islands and then southwards to Cebu.

• It must be pointed out that both Albo and Pigafetta's testimonies coincide and
corroborate each other. Pigafetta gave more details on what they did during their
weeklong stay at Mazaua.

Primary Source: Pigafetta and Seven Days in Mazaua Source:

• Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Vols. 33 and
34, as cited in Miguel A. Bernad, "Butuan or Limasawa? The Site of the First Mass
in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Evidence" 1981, Kinaadman: A Journal of
Southern Philippines, Vol. III, 1-35.

• 1. Thursday, March 28- In the morning they anchored near an island where they
had seen a light the night before a small boat (boloto) came with eight natives, to
whom Magellan threw some trinkets as presents. The natives paddled away, but
two hours later two larger boats (balanghai) came, in one of which the native king
sat under an awning of mats. At Magellan's invitation some of the natives went
up the Spanish ship, but the native king remained seated in his boat. An
exchange of gifts was effected. In the afternoon that day, the Spanish ships

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 weighed anchor and came closer to shore, anchoring near the native king's
village. This Thursday, March 28, was Thursday in Holy Week, i.e., Holy Thursday.

• 2. Friday, March 29- "Next day. Holy Friday," Magellan sent his slave interpreter
ashore in a small boat to ask the king if he could provide the expedition with food
supplies, and to say that they had come as friends and not as enemies. In reply
the king himself came a boat with six or eight men, and this time went up
Magellan's ship and the two men embraced. Another exchange. of gifts was
made. The native king and his companions returned ashore, bringing with them
two members of Magellan's expedition as guests for the night. One of the two
was Pigafetta.

• 3. Saturday, March 30 - Pigafetta and his companion had spent the previous
evening feasting and drinking with the native king and his son. Pigafetta deplored
the fact that, although it was Good Friday, they had to eat meat. The following
morning (Saturday) Pigafetta and his companion took leave of their hosts and
returned to the ships.

• 4. Sunday, March 31- "Early in the morning of Sunday, the last of March and
Easter day," Magellan sent the priest ashore with some men to prepare for the
Mass. Later in the morning Magellan landed with some fifty men and Mass was
celebrated, after which a cross was venerated. Magellan and the Spaniards
returned to the ship for the noon-day meal, but in the afternoon they returned
ashore to plant the cross on the summit of the highest hill. In attendance both at
the Mass and at the planting of the cross were the king of Mazaua and the king
of Butuan.

• 5. Sunday, March 31 - On that same afternoon, while on the summit of the

highest hill, Magellan asked the two kings which ports he should go to in order to
obtain more abundant supplies of food than were available in that island. They
replied that there were three ports to choose from: Ceylon, Zubu, and Calagan. Of
the three, Zubu was the port with the most trade. Magellan then said that he
wished to go to Zubu and to depart the following morning. He asked for someone
to guide him thither.

• The kings replied that the pilots would be available "any time." But later that
evening the king of Mazaua changed his mind and said that he would himself
conduct Magellan to Zubu but that he would first have to bring the harvest in. He
asked Magellan to send him men to help with the harvest.

• 6. Monday, April 1 - Magellan sent men ashore to help with the harvest, but no
work was done that day because the two kings were sleeping off their drinking
bout the night before.

• 7. Tuesday, April 2 and Wednesday, April 3 - Work on the harvest during the "next
to days," i.e., Tuesday and Wednesday, the 2nd and 3rd of April.

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• 8. Thursday, April 4 - They leave Mazaua, bound for Cebu.

• Using the primary sources available, Jesuit priest Miguel A. Bernad in his work
Butuan or Limasawa: The Site of the First Mass in the Philippines: A
Reexamination of Evidence (1981) lays down the argument that in the Pigafetta
account, a crucial aspect of Butuan was not mentioned-the river. Butuan is a
riverine settlement, situated on the Agusan River. The beach of Masao is in the
delta of said river. It is a curious omission in the account of the river, which
makes part of a distinct characteristic of Butuan's geography that seemed to be
too important to be missed.

• It must also be pointed out that later on, after Magellan's death, the survivors of
his expedition went to Mindanao, and seemingly went to Butuan, In this instance,
Pigafetta vividly describes a trip in a river. But note that this account already
happened after Magellan's death.

Case Study 2: Where Did the Cry of Rebellion Happen?

• Momentous events swept the Spanish colonies in the late nineteenth century,
including the Philippines. Journalists of the time referred to the phrase "El Grito
de Rebelion" or "Cry of Rebellion" to mark the start of these revolutionary events,
identifying the places where it happened.

• In the Philippines, this happened in August 1896, northeast of Manila, where they
declared rebellion against the Spanish colonial government. These events are
important markers in the history of colonies that struggled for their
independence against their colonizers. The controversy regarding this event
stems from the identification of the date and place where the Cry happened.

• Prominent Filipino historian Teodoro Agoncillo emphasizes the event when

Bonifacio tore the cedula or tax receipt before the Katipuneros who also did the
same. Some writers identified the first military event with the Spaniards as the
moment of the Cry, for which, Emilio Aguinaldo commissioned an "Himno de
Balintawak to inspire the renewed struggle after the Pact of the Biak-na-Bato
failed.

• A monument to the Heroes of 1896 was erected in what is now the intersection
of Epifanio de los Santos (EDSA) Avenue and Andres Bonifacio Drive-North
Diversion road, and from then on until 1962, the Cry of Balintawak was celebrated
every 26th of August. The site of the monument was chosen for an unknown
reason.

Different Dates and Places of the Cry

• Various accounts of the Cry give different dates and places. A guardia civil, Lt.

Page 9 of 9
 Olegario Diaz, identified the Cry to have happened in Balintawak on 25 August
1896.

• Teodoro Kalaw, Filipino historian, marks the place to be in Kangkong, Balintawak,

on the last week of August 1896. Santiago Alvarez, a Katipunero and son of
Mariano Alvarez, leader of the Magdiwang faction in Cavite, put the Cry in Bahay
Toro in Quezon City on 24 August 1896.

• Pio Valenzuela, known Katipunero and privy to many events concerning the
Katipunan stated that the Cry happened in Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896.
Historian Gregorio Zaide identified the Cry to have happened in Balintawak on 26
August 1896, while Teodoro Agoncillo put it at Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896,
according to statements by Pio Valenzuela.

• Research by historians Milagros Guerrero, Emmanuel Encarnacion, and Ramon

Villegas claimed that the event took place in Tandang Sora's barn in Gulod,
Barangay Banlat, Quezon City, on 24 August 1896.

Primary Source: Accounts of the Cry Guillermo Masangkay

• Source: Guillermo Masangkay, "Cry of Balintawak" in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia

Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 8 (Manila: National
Book Store, 1990), 307-309.

• On August 26th, a big meeting was held in Balintawak, at the house of Apolonio
Samson, then cabeza of that barrio of Caloocan. Among those who attended, I
remember, were Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, Aguedo del Rosario, Tomas Remigio,
Briccio Pantas, Teodoro Plata, Pio Valenzuela, Enrique Pacheco, and Francisco
Carreon. They were all leaders of the Katipunan and composed the board of
directors of the organization. Delegates from Bulacan, Cabanatuan, Cavite, and
Morong were also present.

• At about nine o'clock in the morning of August 26, the meeting was opened with
Andres Bonifacio presiding and Emilio Jacinto acting as secretary. The purpose
was to discuss when the uprising was to take place. Teodoro Plata, Briccio
Pantas, and Pio Valenzuela were all opposed to starting the revolution too early...

• Andres Bonifacio, sensing that he would lose in the discussion then, left the
session hall and talked to the people, who were waiting outside for the result of
the meeting of the leaders. He told the people that the leaders were arguing
against starting the revolution early, and appealed to them in a fiery speech in
which he said: "You remember the fate of our countrymen who were shot in
Bagumbayan. Should we return now to the towns, the Spaniards will only shoot
us. Our organization has been discovered and we are all marked men. If we don't
start the uprising, the Spaniards will get us anyway. What then, do you say?"

• "Revolt!" the people shouted as one.

Page 10 of 10
• Bonifacio then asked the people to give a pledge that they were to revolt. He told
them that the sign of slavery of the Filipinos were (sic) the cedula tax charged
each citizen. "If it is true that you are ready to revolt... I want to see you destroy
your cedulas. It will be a sign that all of us have declared our severance from the
Spaniards."

Primary Source: Accounts of the Cry Pio Valenzuela

• Source: Pio Valenzuela, "Cry of Pugad Lawin," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide,
Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 8 (Manila: National Book
Store, 1990), 301-302.

• The first place of refuge of Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, Procopio Bonifacio,
Teodoro Plata, Aguedo del Rosario, and myself was Balintawak, the first five
arriving there on August 19, and I, on August 20, 1896. The first place where
some 500 members of the Katipunan met on August 22, 1896, was the house
and yard of Apolonio Samson at Kangkong. Aside from the persons mentioned
above, among those who were there were Briccio Pantas, Alejandro Santiago,
Ramon Bernardo, Apolonio Samson, and others.

• Here, views were only exchanged, and no resolution was debated or adopted. It
was at Pugad Lawin, the house, store-house, and yard of Juan Ramos, son of
Melchora Aquino, where over 1,000 members of the Katipunan met and carried
out considerable debate and discussion on August 23, 1896.

• The discussion was on whether or not the revolution against the Spanish
government should be started on August 29, 1896... After the tumultuous
meeting, many of those present tore their cedula certificates and shouted "Long
live the Philippines! Long live the Philippines!"

• From the eyewitness accounts presented, there is indeed marked disagreement

among historical witnesses as to occurrence of the Cry. Using primary and
secondary sources, four places place and time of the have been identified:
Balintawak, Kangkong, Pugad Lawin, and Bahay Toro, while the dates vary: 23, 24,
25, or 26 August 1896.

• Valenzuela's account should be read with caution: He once told a Spanish

investigator that the "Cry" happened in Balintawak on Wednesday, 26 August
1896. Much later, he wrote in his Memoirs of the Revolution that it happened at
Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896. Such inconsistencies in accounts should
always be seen as a red flag when dealing with primary sources.

• According to Guerrero, Encarnacion, and Villegas, all these places are in

Balintawak, then part of Caloocan, now, in Quezon City. As for the dates,
Bonifacio and his troops may have been moving from one place to another to
avoid being located by the Spanish government, which could explain why there

Page 11 of 11
 are several accounts of the Cry.

Case Study 3: Did Rizal Retract?

• Jose Rizal is identified as a hero of the revolution for his writings that center on
ending colonialism and liberating Filipino minds to contribute to creating the
Filipino nation. The great volume of Rizal's lifework was committed to this end,
particularly the more influential ones, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo.

• His essays vilify not the Catholic religion, but the friars, the main agents of
injustice in the Philippine society. It is understandable, therefore, that any piece
of writing from Rizal that recants everything he wrote against the friars and the
Catholic Church in the Philippines could deal heavy damage to his image as a

Page 12 of 12
 prominent Filipino revolutionary. Such document purportedly exists, allegedly
signed by Rizal a few hours before his execution. This document, referred to as
"The Retraction," declares Rizal's belief in the Catholic faith, and retracts
everything he wrote against the Church.

Primary Source: Rizal's Retraction

• Source: Translated from the document found by Fr. Manuel Garcia,

• C.M. on 18 May 1935

• I declare myself a catholic and in this Religion in which I was born and educated I
wish to live and die.

• I retract with all my heart whatever in my words, writings, publications and

conduct has been contrary to my character as son of the Catholic Church, I
believe and I confess whatever she teaches and I submit to whatever she
demands. I abominate Masonry, as the enemy which is of the Church, and as a
Society prohibited by the Church. The Diocesan Prelate may, as the Superior
Ecclesiastical Authority, make public this spontaneous manifestation of mine in
order to repair the scandal which my acts may have caused and so that God and
people may pardon me.

• Manila 29 of December of 1896

• Jose Rizal

• There are four iterations of the texts of this retraction: the first was published in
La Voz Española and Diario de Manila on the day of the execution, 30 December
1896. The second text appeared in Barcelona, Spain, in the magazine La
Juventud, a few months after the execution, 14 February 1897, from an
anonymous writer who was later on revealed to be Fr. Vicente Balaguer. However,
the "original" text was only found in the archdiocesan archives on 18 May 1935,
after almost four decades of disappearance.

The Balaguer Testimony

• Doubts on the retraction document abound, especially because only one

eyewitness account of the writing of the document exists-that of the Jesuit friar
Fr. Vicente Balaguer. According to his testimony, Rizal woke up several times,
confessed four times, attended a Mass, received communion, and prayed the
rosary, all of which seemed out of character. But since it is the only testimony of
allegedly a "primary" account that Rizal ever wrote a retraction document, it has
been used to argue the authenticity of the document.

The Testimony of Cuerpo de Vigilancia

• Another eyewitness account surfaced in 2016, through the research of Professor

Page 13 of 13
 Rene R. Escalante. In his research, documents of the Cuerpo de Vigilancia
included a report on the last hours of Rizal, written by Federico Moreno. The
report details the statement of the Cuerpo de Vigilancia to Moreno.

Primary Source: Eyewitness Account of the Last Hours of Rizal

• Source: Michael Charleston Chua, "Retraction ni Jose Rizal: Mga Bagong

Dokumento at Pananaw." GMA News Online, published 29 December 2016.

• Most Illustrious Sir, the agent of the Cuerpo de Vigilancia stationed in Fort
Santiago to report on the events during the [illegible] day in prison of the accused
Jose Rizal, informs me on this date of the following:

• At 7:50 yesterday morning, Jose Rizal entered death row accompanied by his
counsel, Señor Taviel de Andrade, and the Jesuit priest [Jose] Vilaclara. At the
urgings of the former and moments after entering, he was served a light
breakfast. At approximately 9, the Adjutant of the Garrison, Señor [Eloy] Maure,
asked Rizal if he wanted anything. He replied that at the moment he only wanted
a prayer book which was brought to him shortly by Father [Estanislao] March.

• Señor Andrade left death row at 10 and Rizal spoke for a long while with the
Jesuit fathers, March and Vilaclara, regarding religious matters, it seems. It
appears that these two presented him with a prepared retraction on his life and
deeds that he refused to sign. They argued about the matter until 12:30 when
Rizal ate some poached egg and a little chicken. Afterwards he asked to leave to
write and wrote for a long time by himself.

• At 3 in the afternoon, Father March entered the chapel and Rizal handed him
what he had written. Immediately the chief of the firing squad, Señor [Juan] del
Fresno and the Assistant of the Plaza, Señor Maure, were informed. They entered
death row and together with Rizal signed the document that the accused had
written. It seems this was the retraction. From 3 to 5:30 in the afternoon, Rizal
read his prayer book several times, prayed kneeling before the altar and in the
company of Fathers Vilaclara and March, read the Acts of Faith, Hope and Charity
repeatedly as well as the Prayers for the Departing Soul.

• At 6 in the afternoon the following persons arrived and entered the chapel;
Teodora Alonzo, mother of Rizal, and his sisters, Lucia, Maria, Olimpia, Josefa,
Trinidad and Dolores. Embracing them, the accused bade them farewell with
great strength of character and without shedding a tear. The mother of Rizal left
the chapel weeping and carrying two bundles of several utensils belonging to her
son who had used them while in prison.

• A little after 8 in the evening, at the urgings of Señor Andrade, the accused was
served a plate of tinola, his last meal on earth. The Assistant of the Plaza, Señor
Maure and Fathers March and Vilaclara visited him at 9 in the evening. He rested

Page 14 of 14
 until 4 in the morning and again resumed praying before the altar.

• At 5 this morning of the 30th, the lover of Rizal arrived at the prison accompanied
by his sister Pilar, both dressed in mourning. Only the former entered the chapel,
followed by a military chaplain whose name I cannot ascertain. Donning his
formal clothes and aided by a soldier of the artillery, the nuptials of Rizal and the
woman who had been his lover were performed at the point of death (in articulo
mortis). After embracing him she left, flooded with tears.

• Rizal heard mass and confessed to Father March. Afterwards he heard another
mass where he received communion. At 7:30, a European artilleryman
handcuffed him and he left for the place of execution accompanied by various
Jesuits, his counsel and the Assistant of the Plaza. Father March gave him a holy
picture of the Virgin that Rizal kissed repeatedly.

• When the accused left, I noticed he was very pale but I am very certain that all the
time he was imprisoned he demonstrated great strength of character and
composure. God grant Your Excellency.

• Manila 30 December 1896.

• This account corroborates the existence of the retraction document, giving it

credence. However, nowhere in the account was Fr. Balaguer mentioned, which
makes the friar a mere secondary source to the writing of the document.

• The retraction of Rizal remains to this day, a controversy; many scholars,

however, agree that the document does not tarnish the heroism of Rizal. His
relevance remained solidified to Filipinos and pushed them to continue the
revolution, which eventually resulted in independence in 1898.

Page 15 of 15
 • Case Study 4: What Happened in the Cavite Mutiny?

• The year 1872 is a historic year of two events: the Cavite Mutiny and the
martyrdom of the three priests; Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto
Zamora, later on immortalized as GOMBURZA.

• These events are very important milestones in Philippine history and have
caused ripples throughout time, directly influencing the decisive events of the
Philippine Revolution toward the end of the century.

• While the significance is unquestioned, what made this year controversial are the
different sides to the story, a battle of perspectives supported by primary
sources. In this case study, we zoom in to the events of the Cavite Mutiny, a
major factor in the awakening of nationalism among the Filipinos of that time.

Spanish Accounts of the Cavite Mutiny

• The documentation of Spanish historian Jose Montero y Vidal centered on how

the event was an attempt in overthrowing the Spanish government in the
Philippines. Although regarded as a historian, his account of the mutiny was
criticized as woefully biased and rabid for a scholar.

• Another account from the official report written by then Governor General Rafael
Izquierdo implicated the native clergy, who were then, active in the movement
toward secularization of parishes. These two accounts corroborated each other.

Primary Source: Excerpts from Montero's Account of the Cavite Mutiny

• Source: Jose Montero y Vidal, "Spanish Version of the Cavite Mutiny of 1872," in

Page 16 of 16
 Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History,
Volume 7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 269 273.

• The abolition of privileges enjoyed by the laborers of the Cavite arsenal of

exemption from the tribute was, according to some, the cause of the insurrection.
There were, however, other causes.

• The Spanish revolution which overthrew a secular throne; the propaganda carried
on by an unbridled press against monarchical principles, attentatory [sic] of the
most sacred respects towards the dethroned majesty; the democratic and
republican books and pamphlets; the speeches and preachings of the apostles of
these new ideas in Spain; the outbursts of the American publicists and the
criminal policy of the senseless Governor whom the Revolutionary government
sent to govern the Philippines, and who put into practice these ideas were the
determining circumstances which gave rise, among certain Filipinos, to the idea
of attaining their independence.

• It was towards this goal that they started to work, with the powerful assistance
of a certain section of the native clergy, who out of spite toward friars, made
common cause with the enemies of the mother country. At various times but
especially in the beginning of year 1872, the authorities received anonymous
communications with the information that a great uprising would break out
against the Spaniards, the minute the fleet at Cavite left for the South, and that all
would be assassinated, including the friars. But gave importance to these notices.

• The conspiracy had been going on since the days of La Torre with utmost
secrecy. At times, the principal leaders met either in the house of Filipino
Spaniard, D. Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, or in that of the native priest, Jacinto
Zamora, and these meetings were usually attended by the curate of Bacoor, the
soul of the movement, whose energetic character and immense wealth enabled
him to exercise a strong influence.

Primary Source: Excerpts from the Official Report of Governor Izquierdo on the Cavite
Mutiny of 1872

• Source: Rafael Izquierdo, "Official Report on the Cavite Mutiny," in Gregorio Zaide
and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 7 (Manila:
National Book Store, 1990), 281-286.

• ..It seems definite that the insurrection was motivated and prepared by the native
clergy, by the mestizos and native lawyers, and by those known here as
abogadillos....

• The instigators, to carry out their criminal project, protested against the injustice
of the government in not paying the provinces for their tobacco crop, and against
the usury that some practice in documents that the Finance department gives

Page 17 of 17
 crop owners who have to sell them at a loss. They encouraged the rebellion by
protesting what they called the injustice of having obliged the workers in the
Cavite arsenal to pay ribute starting January 1 and to render personal service,
from which they were formerly exempted...

• Up to now it has not been clearly determined if they planned to establish a

monarchy or a republic, because the Indios have no word in their language to
describe this different form of government, whose head in Filipino would be
called hari; but it turns out that they would place at the head of the government a
priest... that the head selected would be D. Jose Burgos, or D. Jacinto Zamora.....

• Such is... the plan of the rebels, those who guided them, and the means they
counted upon for its realization.

• It is apparent that the accounts underscore the reason for the "revolution": the
abolition of privileges enjoyed by the workers of the Cavite arsenal such as
exemption from payment of tribute and being employed in polos y servicios, or
force labor. They also identified other reasons which seemingly made the issue a
lot more serious, which included the presence of the native clergy, who, out of
spite against the Spanish friars, "conspired and supported" the rebels.

• Izquierdo, in an obviously biased report, highlighted that attempt to overthrow the

Spanish government in the Philippines to install a new "hari" in the persons of
Fathers Burgos and Zamora. According to him, native clergy attracted supporters
by giving them charismatic assurance that their fight would not fail because they
had God's support, aside from promises of lofty rewards such as employment,
wealth, and ranks in the army.

• In the Spaniard's accounts, the event of 1872 was premeditated, and was part of
a big conspiracy among the educated leaders, mestizos, lawyers, and residents
of Manila and Cavite. They allegedly plan to liquidate high ranking Spanish
officers, then kill the friars. The signal they identified among these conspirators
of Manila and Cavite was the rockets fired from Intramuros.

• The accounts detail that on 20 January 1872, the district of Sampaloc celebrated
the feast of the Virgin of Loreto, and came with it were some fireworks display.

• The Caviteños allegedly mistook this as the signal to commence with the attack.
The 200-men contingent led by Sergeant Lamadrid attacked Spanish officers at
sight and seized the arsenal. Izquierdo, upon earning of the attack, ordered the
reinforcement of the Spanish forces in Cavite to quell the revolt.

• The "revolution" was easily crushed, when the Manileños who were expected to
aid the Caviteños did not arrive. Leaders of he plot were killed in the resulting
skirmish, while Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were tried by a court-martial
and sentenced to be executed.

Page 18 of 18
 • Others who were implicated such as Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Antonio Ma
Regidor, Jose and Pio Basa, and other Filipino lawyers were suspended from the
practice of law, arrested, and sentenced to life imprisonment at the Marianas
Island. Izquierdo dissolved the native regiments of artillery and ordered the
creation of an artillery force composed exclusively by Peninsulares.

• On 17 February 1872, the GOMBURZA were executed to serve as a threat to

Filipinos never to attempt to fight the Spaniards again.

Differing Accounts of the Events of 1872

• Two other primary accounts exist that seem to counter the accounts: of
Izquierdo and Montero. First, the account of Dr. Trinidad Hermenegildo Pardo de
Tavera, a Filipino scholar and researcher, who wrote a Filipino version of the
bloody incident in Cavite

Primary Source: Excerpts from Pardo de Tavera's Account of the Cavite Mutiny

• Source: Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, "Filipino Version of the Cavite Mutiny," in

Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History,
Volume 7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 274 280.

• This uprising among the soldiers in Cavite was used as a powerful level by the
Spanish residents and by the friars... the Central Government in Madrid had
announced its intention to deprive the friars in these islands of powers of
intervention in matters of civil government and of the direction and management
of the university... it was due to these facts and promises that the Filipinos had
great hopes of an improvement in the affairs of their country, while the friars, on
the other hand, feared that their power in the colony would soon be complete a
thing of the past.

• ...Up to that time there had been no intention of secession from Spain, and the
only aspiration of the people was to secure the material and education
advancement of the country...

• According to this account, the incident was merely a mutiny by Filipino soldiers
and laborers of the Cavite arsenal to the dissatisfaction arising from the
draconian policies of Izquierdo, such as the abolition of privileges and the
prohibition of the founding of the school of arts and trades for Filipinos, which
the General saw as a smokescreen to creating a political club.

• Tavera is of the opinion that the Spanish friars and Izquierdo used the Cavite
Mutiny as a way to address other issues by blowing out of proportion the isolated
mutiny attempt. During this time, the Central Government in Madrid was planning
to deprive the friars of all the powers of intervention in matters of civil
government and direction and management of educational institutions. The friars
needed something to justify their continuing dominance in the country, and the

Page 19 of 19
 mutiny provided such opportunity.

• However, the Central Spanish Government introduced an educational decree

fusing sectarian schools run by the friars into a school called the Philippine
Institute. The decree aimed to improve the standard of education in the
Philippines by requiring teaching positions in these schools to be filled by
competitive examinations, an improvement welcomed by most Filipinos.

• Another account, this time by French writer Edmund Plauchut. complemented

Tavera's account and analyzed the motivations of the 1872 Cavite Mutiny.

Primary Source: Excerpts from Plauchut's Account of the Cavite Mutiny

• Source: Edmund Plauchut, "The Cavite Mutiny of 1872 and the Martyrdom of
Gom-Bur-Za," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of
Philippine History, Volume 7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 251-268.

• General La Torre... created a junta composed of high officials... including some

friars and six Spanish officials.... At the same time there was created by the
government in Madrid a committee to investigate the same problems submitted
to the Manila committee. When the two finished work, it was found that they
came to the same conclusions. Here is the summary of the reforms they
considered necessary to introduce:

• 1. Changes in tariff rates at customs, and the methods of collection.

• 2. Removal of surcharges on foreign importations.

• 3. Reduction of export fees.

• 4. Permission for foreigners to reside in the Philippines, buy real estate, enjoy
freedom of worship; and operate commercial transports flying the Spanish flag

• 5. Establishment of an advisory council to inform the Minister of Overseas

Affairs in Madrid on the necessary reforms to be implemented.

• 6. Changes in primary and secondary education.

• 7. Establishment of an Institute of Civil Administration in the Philippines,

rendering unnecessary the sending home of short term civil officials every time
there is a change of ministry.

• 8. Study of direct-tax system.

• 9. Abolition of the tobacco monopoly.

• ...The arrival in Manila of General Izquierdo... put a sudden end to all dreams of
reforms... the prosecutions instituted by the new Governor General were probably
expected as a result of the bitter disputes between the Filipino clerics and the

Page 20 of 20
 friars. Such a policy must really end in a strong desire on the part of the other to
repress cruelly.

• In regard to schools, it was previously decreed that there should be in Manila a

Society of Arts and Trades to be opened in March of 1871... to repress the
growth of liberal teachings, General Izquierdo suspended the opening of the
school... the day previous to the scheduled inauguration....

• The Filipinos had a duty to render service on public roads construction and pay
taxes every year. But those who were employed at the maestranza of the artillery,
in the engineering shops and arsenal of Cavite, were exempted from this
obligation from time immemorial.... Without preliminaries of any kind, a decree by
the Governor withdrew from such old employees their retirement privileges and
declassified them into the ranks of those who worked on public roads.

• The friars used the incident as a part of a larger conspiracy to cement their
dominance, which had started to show cracks because of the discontent of the
Filipinos, They showcased the mutiny as part of a greater conspiracy in the
Philippines by Filipinos to overthrow the Spanish Government. Unintentionally,
and more so, prophetically, the Cavite Mutiny of 1872 resulted in the martyrdom
of GOMBURZA, and paved the way to the revolution culminating in 1898.

Page 21 of 21
 HISTORY FINALS

The Philippine Constitution

A constitution is defined as the set of principles that establish the nature and extent of
the government of a nation-state.
The Philippines has had four numerous constitutional changes since the 1899 Malolos
Congress, including acts and provisional constitutions, especially during the American
colonization and Japanese Occupation.

The Philippine Constitutions and Acts:

1. The 1899 Malolos Constitution
2. The Philippine Organic Act of 1902
3. The Jones Law of 1916
4. The 1935 Constitution
5. The 1943 Constitution
6. The 1973 Constitution
7. The 1986 Freedom Constitution
8. The 1987 Constitution

Primary Source: Preamble to the Political Constitution of 1899

"We, the Representatives of the Filipino People, lawfully convened, in order to establish justice,
provide for common defense, promote the general welfare and insure the benefits of liberty,
imploring the aid of the Sovereign Legislator of the Universe for the attainment of these ends,
have voted, decreed, and sanctioned the following political constitution."

There were two (2) ongoing wars against Spain prior to the formation of the Malolos Congress:
1. the Philippine Revolution, which lasted from 23 August 1896 to 13 August 1898; and
2. the Spanish-American War, which went on from 21 April 1898 to 13 August 1898
The Malolos Constitution was drafted soon after the defeat of the weakening Spanish empire,
when the Filipino revolutionaries misconstrued the US military aid as an alliance and not as an
act of American imperialism.
The Constitution sought to define the laws of the young republic, providing for a representative
form of government, a detailed Bill of Rights, the separation of church and state, and the
dominance of a single-chamber legislative branch Over the executive and judiciary (Abinales &
Amoroso, 2017, p. 115).
Title Il, Article 4, states that the form of government is to be "popular, representative,
alternative, and responsible." Three distinct powers:
1. Legislative (vested in the Assembly of representatives where the members are elected
for a four-year term);
2. Executive (vested in the President; there was no vice president but in case of vacancy,
the position shall be selected by the constituent assembly); and
3. Judicial

“Great is the day, glorious, and forever memorable this moment in which our beloved people is
raised to the apotheosis of Independence”
Hereafter, January 23 will be in the Philippines a national holiday, as July 4 is to THE American
nation; and, as in the past century, God helped a weak America when she fought against powerful
Albion for the conquest of her liberty and independence, so today he will help us also in an
identical enterprise for the manifestations of divine justice are immutability the same in rectitude
and wisdom”
• The Malolos Constitution was never enforced because of the Philippine-American War.
• The treaty of Paris of 1898, which ended the Spanish-American War, involved Spain selling
the Philippines to the United States for 20 million dollars, without the Filipinos knowing about
the agreement.

1935 Constitution
• After the signing of the Treaty of Paris, the Philippines was put under a military
government (from 1898 to 1901) until the civil government was put into place.
• In the interim, United States Congress passed acts that defined colonial governance of
the Philippines
• Organic Act of 1902 enabled the creation of the act included the bill of rights of the
Filipinos and the appointment of two representative to the US House of Representatives.
This act also vested legislative power in a bicameral legislature, which is composed of the
Philippine Commission (Upper house) and the Philippine Assembly (lower house)
• Jones Law, or the Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 removed the Philippine Commission
and replaced it with a Senate that served as the upper house. Its members were elected
by the Filipino voters. This act also stated the recognition of the Philippines as an
independent country as soon a stable government was established. It declared the
purpose of the United States to end their sovereignty over the country.
• Led by Sergio Osmena and Manuel Roxas, the Hare-hawes-Cutting Act promised the
granting of Filipino independence. However, this was opposed by President Manuel
Quezon and was rejected by the Philippine Senate.
• Tydings-McDuffie Act, or the Philippine independence Act, defined the establishment og
a formal constitution by a Constitutional Convention, which was first held on 30 July 1934
and installed Claro M. Recto as its president.
• US President Franklin Roosevelt approved the draft of what would become the 1935
Constitution, which established the Philippine Commonwealth.
Preamble to the 1935 Constitution:
“The Filipino people, imploring the aid of Divine Providence, in order to establish a
government that shall embody their ideals, conserve and develop patrimony of the
nation, promote the general welfare, and secure to themselves and their posterity the
blessings of independence under a regime of justice liberty, and democracy, do ordain
and promulgate this constitution.”
• Through the Constitution, the Commonwealth of the Philippines governed the Philippines
from 1935 to 1946, serving as a transitional administration that would prepare the
country for its independence.
• Rights to suffrage are given to Filipino male citizens who are at least twenty-one years of
age and who can read and write. Two years later, in 1937, suffrage was extended to
Filipino women.
• On 23 February 1935, the draft of the constitution was approved by the constitutional
convention and ratified by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 25 March 1935. In
September 1935, Manuel Quezon was elected as President of the Commonwealth.
• The Japanese Occupation (1941-1945) interrupted the Commonwealth during World War
II.
• In the meantime, a new Philippine Republic was inaugurated under the 1943
Constitution, with Jose P. Laurel as president.
• The Japanese-sanctioned Constitution was soon repealed after the defeat of Japan and
its allied forces. The 1935 Constitution was reinstated at the end of the War, in 1945.
• On 4 July 1946, the United States granted the Philippines independence, but with “parity
rights” for American businesses to exploit our natural resources and allow US military
bases in the archipelago.
• The 1935 Constitution remained in place until Marcos maneuvered to have it ratified
through supposed “citizens’ assemblies. “Presidents under the 1935 Constitution: Manuel
L. Quezon, Sergio Osmena, Manuel A. Roxas, Elpidio Quirino, Ramon Magsaysay, Carlos
P. Garcia, Diosdado P. Macapagal, and Ferdinand E. Marcos.
• In 1967, two years after Ferdinand Marcos was elected as president, the Philippine
Congress called for a constitutional convention to change the 1935 Constitution.
• With the declaration of the Martial Law, in 1972, the convention did not finish its work.
Some delegates of the constitutional convention either were jailed or went into hiding,
or voluntarily exiled.
 • Under the Marcos dictatorship, provisions of the Constitution were made. Some accounts
even state that provisions to enable the president to hold on to for as long as he could
was being directed by the president himself. The proposed constitution was approved on
29 November 1972.
• The president would serve a six-year term and can be elected to an unlimited number of
terms
• A plebiscite to ratify or reject the proposed constitution was postponed in fear of the
public voting to reject the said constitution.
• From 10 to 15 January 1973, Citizen Assemblies were held for citizens to vote whether to
ratify the constitution, continue martial law, or place a moratorium on elections. The
legitimacy of these assemblies is questionable, because the people were never asked for
their inputs, but were rather asked if they were hungry, to which they raised their hands
(Piramide 2006).
• On 17 January 1973, the president issued a proclamation to ratify the proposed
constitution, which was voted by the members of the highly irregular Citizen Assemblies.

Amendments to the Constitution:

• In 1976, the supposed Citizen Assemblies allowed the continuation of martial law.
• Interim Batasang Pambansa substituted for the interim national Assembly.
• President was to become Prime Minister.
• The office of the president was to continue to have its legislative powers until martial
law is lifted.
• The president had the power to legislate, on his own, on an emergency basis.
• Retirement age of the members of judiciary was extended to 70 years old.
• In 1981, the Executive Committee was created. This was composed of the Prime
Minister and 14 cabinet members. This was abolished in 1984 and the position of the
Vice President was restored.
• The 1973 Constitution served as a way for the office of the president to hold on to its
executive powers and abolish the Senate
• With the backing of this constitution, the real power was concentrated on the president,
and the system functioned as an authoritarian presidential system.

By 1980, the discontent with the system escalated, especially when Benigno Aquino Jr. Was
assassinated in August 1983, and the suspicion arose that the order to assassinate the opposition
leader came from the top levels of the government and the military.
In response to a challenge to his presidency’s legitimacy, President Marcos agreed to a
snap election. Despite the widespread opposition and protests, both nationally and
internationally, Marcos was declared as winner over his opponent Corazon Aquino.
 The mounting tensions with all sectors, including a military faction, culminated in the
1986 EDSA Revolution, also known as the People Power Revolution
The United States, which used to support Martial Law and Marcos, pressured him and his
family to flee into exile.
On 25 February 1986, Corazon Aquino became the president of the Philippines.
Three options regarding the Constitution:

• Reinstate the 1935 Constitution;

• Retain the 1973 Constitution; or
• Start a new constitution.
President Aquino decided to create a new constitution, which, she said, should be “truly
reflective of the aspirations and ideals o the Filipino people.”
Freedom Constitution was the transitional constitution that would last for a year while the new
constitution was being drafted.
A constitutional convention was created in 1986, which consisted of 48 members appointed by
the president. The convention was largely influenced by the setup abolished by Marcos in 1972,
mixed with new ways to keep the president in check, a response to the experience under the
Marcos regime. The new constitution was adopted on 2 February 1987.
Branches of the Government Under the New Constitution:

1. Executive
2. Legislative
3. Judiciary

The Office of the Ombudsman is created for complaints against a public official (e.g. corruption,
unlawful behavior, and public misconduct). It can charge a public official before the
Sandiganbayan, or the antigraft court.
Three independent Constitutional Commissions:

1. The civil service commission is the agency in charge of the government personnel
2. The commission on Election is in charge of election laws and the regulations; and
3. The commission on Audit is mandated to examine the funds, government personnel;
and regulations; and transactions, and property accounts of the government and its
agencies.

Summary:
 • A constitution is defined as the set of principles that establish the nature and extent of
the government of a nation-state.
• The Malolos Constitution was drafted soon after the defeat of the weakening Spanish
empire, when the Filipino revolutionaries misconstrued the US military aid as an alliance
and not as an act of American imperialism.
• The Treaty of Paris of 1898, which ended the Spanish- American War, involved Spain
selling the Philippines to the United States for 20 million dollars, without the Filipinos
knowing about the agreement.
• After the signing of the Treaty of Paris, the Philippines was put under a military
government (from 1898 to 1901) until the civil government was put into place.
• In 1973, the Constitution was amended under martial law. With the backing of this
Constitution, the real power was concentrated on the president and the system
functioned as an authoritarian presidential system.
• After the martial-law era, the 1987 Constitution was drafted under the presidency of
Corazon Aquino. President Aquino decided to create a new constitution, which, she said,
should be 'truly reflective of the aspirations and ideals of the Filipino people."
• The convention that drafted the new Constitution was largely influenced by the setup
abolished by Marcos in 1972, mixed with new ways to keep the president in check, a
response to the experience under the Marcos regime.

"Death, taxes and childbirth! There's never any convenient time for any of them."
— Margaret Mitchell, Gone with the Wind

Taxation
Modern taxation came with our colonial experience and the subsequent formation of the nation-
state. When the archipelago was divided into political units, the people paid tributes to the local
datu or, in the case of Mindanao, the sultan.
Nowadays, taxation is the government's mechanism to raise funds and improve the citizen's lives.
The revenues are needed for the government to carry out its mission to protect its people.
Periodization

• Pre-colonial Philippines (before 1521)

• Spanish Colonization (1521-1898)
• American Period (1898-1942)
• Japanese Occupation (1942-1945)
• Post-war Philippines (1946-present)

Pre-colonial Philippines

• “before 1521 we could have been anything and everything not Filipino; after 1565 we can
be nothing but Filipino.” (Joaquin, 2004)
• There was no national government. The smallest political unit was called “barangay” (first
documented by Antonio Pigafetta as balangai and balanghai (Scott, 1994). A balangay or
barangay is also a term for a large boat that would fit the pre-colonial society.
• No datu unified the archipelago as one territory, although a leader, called a rajah or a
sultan, consolidated the small political units into a larger one.
• Pre-colonial Filipinos paid their taxes to be protected by their datu. This was called
“buwis” or “handug”
Three classes in pre-colonial Visayan social structure:

1. Tumao - Noble rank, including the datu.

2. Timawa - The “free men,” the warrior classes, and the third rank of nobility. The class that
paid taxes and could also acquire property, including slaves.
3. Oripun - Commoners and slaves. They did not pay taxes and rendered instead their
services for debts or favors (Scott 1994)

Spanish Colonization (1521-1898)

• Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade (1565-1815) - a ship that annually plied the pacific from
Manila to Acapulco, and back again.
• Polo y Servicio – men within the age of 16-60 years were required to render labor in the
community for 40 days. Paying a falla (one and a half rea) could exempt the colonial
subject from the forced labor.
• The Bandala – a system requiring the Filipino farmer to sell their goods to the
government. Imposed by Governor Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera in the seventeenth for
abuse as the colonial government could set the mandatory purchase of the goods at a
lower price (Constantino, 1975)
Encomienda System

• king Philip II issued a decree in 1558 to distribute the lands in Cebu to loyal Spanish
subjects. Encomenderos were given the right to collect taxes in their assigned areas.
• Encomenderos were required by law to protect the natives, help the missionaries in
converting natives to Christianity, and promote education.
• Tribute or “buwis” could be paid in cash or kind. Aside from that, custom duties and
income tax were also collected.
• By 1884, the cedula replaced the tribute. Everyone at the age of 18 and above were
required to pay.
• The Contador de’ Resultas, or the Chief Royal Accountant, was the head of the financial
matters except when revoked by the Council of Indies.

American Period (1898-1942)

• Commonwealth Act No. 465 was to impose resident tax, or cedula, which cost fifty
centavos. Additional tax of one peso was also added, depending on one’s income and
properties.
• In 1902, the first civil government was created under William H. Taft. The second civil
governor, Luke E. Wright, passed the reorganization Act No. 1189 in 1904, which created
the Bureau of Internal Revenue.
• The first reorganization of the BIR, during the term of Collector William T. Holting, created
eight divisions: (1) Accounting, (2) Cash, (3) Clerical, (4) Inspection, (5) Law, (6) Real Estate,
(7) License, and (8) Records).

• Although the Americans had forbidden the clergy from collecting tax, they retained the
head tax, or the cedula, which burdened the peasants more than it did the elite, thereby
demonstrating the Opposite of their professed aim of uplifting the entire nation (Abinales
& Amoroso, 2017)

First three Filipino BIR Collectors:

1. Wenceslao Trinidad (1918-1922)
 2. Juan Posadas Jr. (1922-1934)
3. Alfredo Yatao (1934-1938)

• In May 1921, the Real Estate, License, and Cash Divisions were transferred to the City of
Manila, leaving the bureau with five divisions, (1) Administrative, (2) Law, (3)
Accounting, (4) Income Tax, and (5) inspection.
• The bureau thus established the Examiner’s Division and the Secret Service Section.

Japanese Occupation (1942-1945)

• When World War II broke out, BIR was combined with the Customs Office, which was
headed by the Director of Customs and Internal Revenue.
• The Japanese issued a set of new money, which became known as the “Mickey Mouse
money” because of its very low value as caused by the severe inflation
• War tax on Jews – in 1943, the Japanese imposed a war on all Jews residing in the country.
Wealthy Jews were forced to surrender 50 percent of their holdings.

Post-War Philippines (1946-present)

• The BIR was re-established when the United States granted the Philippines its
independence.
• After the War, there was a severe lack of funds in many sectors of the government.
• During the term of President Elpidio Quirino, new tax measure were passed, including
higher corporate taxes.
• The tax collection scheme remained problematic in the administrations that followed,
since the lower class remained overburdened by taxes, while the elite who controlled the
government engineered to avoid getting higher taxes.
• The post-War republic saw a rise in government corruption.
• The congress did not pass any tax legislation between 1959 and 1968.
• Under President Marcos, 70 percent of the total tax collection came from indirect taxes
from generated at an average annual rate of 15 percent.
• Under president Corazon Aquino, the 1986 tax reform program was established to
improve the responsiveness of the tax system
• Value-added tax (VAT) was introduced and put into effect in 1988
• The department of Finance, along with its attached agency, Bureau of Internal Revenue,
were restructured. As a result, the trust In BIR significantly increased and the tax revenue
increased from 10.75 percent, in 1985, to 15.4 percent, in 1922.
Fiscal Policy (1946-present)

• Under Fidel V. Ramos, in 1997, the comprehensive Tax Reform Program was
implemented, which aimed to raise revenue in the government coffers.
• His administration failed to sustain the increase in revenue because of continuous
corporate tax evasions and the government’s weakness to prosecute elite tax evaders.
• When Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo became president through EDSA Dos, there was an
increase in government spending without having adjusted the tax collections, thus,
resulting in large deficits from 2002 to 2004.
• Expanded Value Added Tax (E-vat) was signed into Law.
• VAT tax rate increased from 10 to 12 percent.
• The administration of Benigno Aquino II made no new tax reforms but implemented the
Republic Act 1305, or the Sin Tax Reform.
• The sin Tax Reform adds extra taxes on liquor and cigarettes.
• Revenues from the Sin Tax enabled the increase in budget of the health and in the free
health premium insurance for PhilHealth members.
• President Rodrigo Duterte promised to lower income tax rates of the working Filipinos,
but implemented the Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion (TRAIN) instead.
• President Duterte also signed RA No. 11346, imposing a higher tax on cigarettes and
ecigarettes, as part of the government’s initiative to implement the universal health
Program (UHC) of the Philippines.

Summary:
• The concept of taxation came with our colonial experience. This is the government's
mechanism to raise funds and improve the citizen's lives. The revenues from the citizens
are needed so that the government will be able to function fully.
• In pre-colonial Philippines, the nearest form of government was called "barangays," but
there was no "datu" strong enough to unite the barangays into one nation.
• Ancient Filipinos paid their taxes to be protected by their datu. This was called "buwis" or
"handug."
• Spanish colonization established new systems of income- generation, like the Manila-
Acapulco Galleon Trade, Polo y Servicio, and the Bandala system.
• During the American colonization, cedula was imposed and became a legal identity
document for Filipinos.
• The Bureau of Internal Revenues (BIR) was created during this period.
• During the Japanese occupation, "Mickey Mouse money was issued. The War tax on Jews
was also imposed.
• When the Philippines gained its independence from the United States, in 1946, the BIR
was re-established.
• After the War, there was a severe lack of funds, so tax collection schemes were created
to address the problem.
 • Tax collection schemes, however, remained problematic in the administrations that
followed, since the lowest classes were overburdened with tax.
• Different tax reform programs were created during the post- War administrations.

Agrarian Reform Policies

"Agriculture is our wisest pursuit, because it will in the end contribute most to real wealth, good
morals, and happiness ."
— Thomas Jefferson

Agrarian Reform Policies

• Rectification of the whole agricultural system of the country.

• The agrarian policies are centered on the relationship between the production and the
distribution of land among farmers.

Land Reform vs. Agrarian Reform

• Land reform is concerned with land rights and their character, strength, and distribution,
while agrarian reform focuses not only on these but also on a broader set of issues, such
as the class character of the relations of production and distribution in farming and
related enterprises, and how these connect to the wider class structure. It is thus
concerned with economic and political power and the relations between them (cousins.
2007)

World Bank’s Five Dimensions of Agrarian Reform

1. Stocks and market liberalization
2. Land reform and development of land markets
3. Agro-processing and input supply channels
4. Urban finance
5. Market institutions

The World Bank

• A key precondition for land reform to be feasible and effective in improving the
beneficiaries livelihood is that such programs fit into a broader policy aimed at reducing
 poverty and establishing a favorable environment for the development of productive
smallholder agriculture by the beneficiaries (World Bank, 2003)

During Spanish Colonization

• Before colonization, Filipinos had a communal ownership of land.
• Under the Spanish government, Filipinos did not have the right to own land, but were
only allowed to work in them and pay colonial tributes to Spanish authorities through
agricultural products.

Pueblo System of Agriculture

• Because of the scattered nature of the rural communities, the Spaniards organized them
into a pueblo where they were given land to cultivate.

Laws of the Indies

• Spain awarded tracts of lands to Religious orders. This became the main source of abuse
and exploitation (e..g., the friars would increase land rent on a whim)
• Repartamientos of Spanish soldiers, as reward for their service; and
• Spanish encomenderos, or those who mandated to manage and encomienda.

Enconmienda System
• The Spanish government developed the hacienda system as a new form of land
ownership.
• In the 1860s, Spain ordered landowners to register their landholdings. This led to many
peasants either getting forced out of their ‘assigned’ lands in the earlier days of
colonization, or working for the people who claimed to have the rights of the land. By the
end of the Philippine Revolution, the revolutionary government would declare all large
landed estates as government property, including confiscated friar lands.

Land Ownership During the American Colonization

• To address landlessness, which was the main cause of social unrests at the time, the
Americans passed several land policies to distribute land ownership to a larger number
of Filipinos.
• The Philippine Bill of 1902 provided regulations on the disposal of public lands, where a
private individual may own up to 16 hectares of land and corporate landholders may have
1,024 hectare.
• The Philippine Commission Act No. 496 or the Land Registration conducted accurate
land surveys through the Torrens system. Act; addressed the issues of absence of records
of land titles and
 • The Homestead Program was a program introduced by the Americans where a tenant
could enter into an agricultural business once the individual had acquired 16 hectares of
farm land.
• Land ownership during this timeworsened because of the limitlessness of the size of
landholdings people could acquire, while the acquisition was only limited to those who
could afford to purchase and register fixed property titles.
• The lands acquired from the friars werenot necessarily given to the peasant farmers.
Peasant farmers who were given land almost did not have the means to maintain and
cultivate it and were forced to return tenancy to wealthy hacienderos because of debt.
As a result, most of the lands ended up in the hands of wealthy Filipino hacienderos. This
caused widespread uprisings.
• The Sakdal Uprising was a peasant rebellion brought about by the social inequality in
land ownership and tenancy. Sakdal means “to accuse”. Benigno Ramos established the
Partido Sakdalista in 1933, and the group demanded for the abolition of taxes and
equality in land ownership.
• In 1935, an attempt at uprising was organized, but it was easily crushed by the
government Benigno Ramos fled to Tokyo and the Partido eventually collapsed.
• The peasants uprisings continued as the situation in the country’s landownership
worsened. During the commonwealth government, President Quezon started a social
justice program that focused on the purchase of haciendas to be divided and sold to
tenants.
• The administration also created NARIC, or the National Rice and Corn Corporation,
assigned to defend and assist the peasants in court battles for their rights.
• Additionally, the Court of Industrial Relations was established to exercise jurisdiction
over disagreements involving land rights and the landowner-tenant relationship.
• However, because of the continuous uprisings and the lack of budget allocation, the
commonwealth’s efforts in agrarian reform failed. Eventually, all the interventions being
don were put to stop when World War II broke out and the Japanese occupied the
Philippines.

Agrarian Reform After World War II

After the war, the administration focused on rehabilitating and rebuilding the nation. It
attempted to solve the previous issues in landownership. Hacienda lands were redistributed, but
the attempt at agrarian reform still failed, since there was little-to-no support given to the small
farmers.

What policies and interventions were established in the following administrations to support
the Agrarian Reform?
• Roxas
• Quirino
 • Magsaysay
• Macapagal

After declaring martial law in 1972, president marcos was able to start a ‘fundamental
restructuring’ of government in which he wiped out the landlord- dominated congress in an
attempt to address the structural problems in the countryside.

• Masagana 99 was a rice self-sufficiency program in which farmers were able to borrow
from banks and purchase three-hectare plots of land.
• Operation Land Transfer granted land to tenants occupying seven hectares on rice and
corn. However, because rice was the only focus of this program, the landed elite
circumvented the law by changing their crops, to be exempted from the program. They
also evicted tenants and hired workers instead, because the lands worked by wage labor
were also exempted from this program.
• As a result, landlessness increased because of the methods employed by the elite to exert
power and dominance, especially Marco’s cronies who were also involved in the
agricultural sector.

Post-1986 Agrarian reform

• In 1988, the republic act no. 6657, or the comprehensive agrarian reform law, introduced
the comprehensive agrarian reform program (CARP)
• CARP enabled the redistribution of the agricultural lands to tenant farmers. Landowners
were compensated and were allowed to retain ownership of no more than five hectares
of land. Instead of turning their land to the government, they were legally allowed to
distribute a portion of their capital stock, equity, or participation in favor of the farmers.
• However, the congress, which was mainly dominated by the landed elites, was unwilling
to fund the costs of the program, thus it accomplished only 22.5 percent of the land
distribution in 6 years.
• President Aquino also allowed the option for stock redistribution. Eventually, Hacienda
Luisita turned itself into a corporation and mainly distributed stocks among its farmers
instead of land.
• During the Ramos Administration, the Department of Agrarian reform (DAR) was able to
distribute 58.25 percent of the total area covered by CARP. Despite the lack of funding,
time constraints, and lack of participation, CARP was expedited to meet the ten-year time
frame.
• President Ramos signed the Republic Act No. 8532 in 1998 to amend CARP. The program
was extended to another ten years.

Agrarian Reform in the Present Time

• In 2008, the deadline of the extended CARP came to pass.
 • Despite this 1.6 million hectares of agricultural land remained undistributed to the 1.2
million farmers.
• President Gloria Arroyo signed the Republic Act No. 9700, or the Comprehensive Agrarian
Reform Program Extension with Reforms (CARPER), which extended the deadline to five
more years, from 2009 to 2014.
• During this period, CARPER was able to distribute a total of 1 million hectares of land to
9000,000 farmer beneficiaries. 500 hectares of land remain to be undistributed.

The Philippine Government

“Government exists to protect us from each other. Where government has gone beyond its
limits is in deciding to protect us from ourselves.”
-Ronald Reagan

Three branches of Government How the Philippine Government is Organized?

• The Philippines is a republic with a presidential form of government wherein power is
equally divided among its three branches: executive, legislative and judicial.
• One basic corollary in a presidentialsystem of government is the principle of separation
of powers wherein legislation belongs to Congress, execution to the Executive, and
settlement of legal controversies to the Judiciary.
The Legislative Branch is authorized to make laws, alter, and repeal them through the power
vested in the Philippine Congress. This institution is divided into the Senate and the House of
Representatives.

The Executive Branch carries out laws. It is composed of the President and the Vice President
who are elected by direct popular vote and serve a term of six years. The Constitution grants the
President authority to appoint his Cabinet. These departments form a large portion of the
country’s bureaucracy.

The Judicial Branch evaluates laws. It holds the power to settle controversies involving rights that
are legally demandable and enforceable. This branch determines whether or not there has been
a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part and
instrumentality of the government. It is made up of a Supreme Court and lower courts.

Each branch of the government can change acts of the other branches as follows:
• The President can veto laws passed by Congress.
• Congress confirms or rejects the President’s appointments and can remove the
President from office in exceptional circumstances.
• The Justices of the Supreme Court, who can overturn unconstitutional laws, are
appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.

Summary:
• Three Branches of Government: (a) Legislative branch (b) Executive branch and (c)
Judicial branch
• The Legislative branch is authorized to make laws, alter, and repeal them through the
power vested in the Philippine Congress. This institution is divided into the
• Senate and the House of Representatives.
• The Executive branch carries out laws. It is composed of the President and the Vice
President who are elected by direct popular vote and serve a term of six years.
• The Judicial branch evaluates laws. It holds the power to settle controversies involving
rights that are legally demandable and enforceable.