FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

SCHOOL OF CONSTRUCTION AND PROPERTY STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

GROUP MEMBERS

KENNETH KIMANI EABI/01000/2019

ELIAZAR KEYA EABI/01006/2019
GIKONYO ETAH EABQ/04278P/2019
WANAMI FRANKLINE EABI/00589/2019
STEPHANIE ATIENO EABI/01008/2019

“Discuss Large Span Structure Technology stating 2 Advantages of each.”

Contents
...................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 3
2. HISTORY ................................................................................................................................................ 3
3. FEATURES OF LONG-SPAN STRUCTURES. ................................................................................. 4
4. MATERIALS COMPOSITION ............................................................................................................ 5
5. TYPES OF LONG-SPAN STRUCTURES ........................................................................................... 6
5.A. SUSPENSION BRIDGES: ......................................................................................................... 6
ADVANTAGES: ................................................................................................................................. 8
DISADVANTAGES ............................................................................................................................ 8
CASES .................................................................................................................................................. 9
5.B. CABLE-STAYED STRUCTURES: ........................................................................................ 12
ADVANTAGES................................................................................................................................. 12
DISADVANTAGES .......................................................................................................................... 13
CASES: .............................................................................................................................................. 13
5.C. ARCH STRUCTURES: ............................................................................................................ 17
CASES: .............................................................................................................................................. 17
5.D. TRUSS STRUCTURES:........................................................................................................... 19
ADVANTAGES: ............................................................................................................................... 19
DISADVANTAGES:......................................................................................................................... 20
CASES: .............................................................................................................................................. 20
5.E. SHELL STRUCTURES: .......................................................................................................... 24
ADVANTAGES: ............................................................................................................................... 24
DISADVANTAGES:......................................................................................................................... 24
CASES: .............................................................................................................................................. 25
5.F. GRID STRUCTURES: ............................................................................................................. 27
ADVANTAGES: ............................................................................................................................... 27
DISADVANTAGES:......................................................................................................................... 28
CASES: ................................................................................................................................................. 28
5.G. FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES: ........................................................................................ 30
ADVANTAGES: ............................................................................................................................... 31
 DISADVANTAGES:......................................................................................................................... 31
CASES: .............................................................................................................................................. 31
6. CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 34
7. REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 35

1. INTRODUCTION
A long-span structure is a type of structure that spans a large distance without intermediate
support. Long-span structures are commonly used in the construction of bridges, airports,
stadiums, and other large public buildings. They are designed to provide clear, unobstructed
space for activities and are characterized by their ability to span large distances without the need
for intermediate supports, such as columns or walls.
The length of a span is defined as the distance between supports, and long-span structures are
typically classified as structures with spans of more than 60 meters. This definition can vary
depending on the type of structure, the loading conditions, and the construction methods and
materials used.
Long-span structures are designed to withstand various types of loading conditions, such as
wind, earthquakes, and live loads, and must meet stringent safety and engineering requirements.
The design and construction of long-span structures require a deep understanding of the
materials, systems, and techniques used to construct them, as well as a thorough analysis of the
environmental, economic, and social factors that may impact the structure over its lifespan.

2. HISTORY
The construction of long-span structures has a long and rich history that dates back thousands of
years. Some of the earliest examples of long-span structures include:
1. Roman aqueducts: The ancient Romans were masters of long-span engineering and built
some of the earliest examples of long-span structures in the form of aqueducts. The
aqueducts were used to transport water over long distances and were built using arches,
vaults, and domes.
2. Suspension bridges: Suspension bridges were first used in ancient China, where they
were made from ropes and bamboo. The technology for building suspension bridges
improved over time, and by the 19th century, iron and steel cables were used to create
much larger suspension bridges.
3. Arch bridges: Arch bridges have been used for thousands of years and are some of the
most iconic and recognizable long-span structures. The Romans were particularly skilled
 in building arch bridges, and many of their structures, such as the Pont du Gard in France,
still stand today.
4. Truss bridges: The truss bridge is a type of bridge that uses a truss structure to support
its deck. Truss bridges were first used in the 19th century and became popular because
they could be constructed relatively quickly and inexpensively.
5. Steel and concrete structures: The 20th century saw the development of new materials,
such as steel and reinforced concrete, which made it possible to construct even larger and
more complex long-span structures. Steel and concrete structures were used to build
bridges, airports, and other large public buildings.
Throughout history, the construction of long-span structures has been driven by the need to
connect people and communities, to facilitate transportation and commerce, and to create
structures that are aesthetically pleasing and functional. Today, long-span structures continue to
be an important part of our infrastructure, and the technology and techniques used to construct
them continue to evolve and improve.

3. FEATURES OF LONG-SPAN STRUCTURES.

3.1. Increasingly diversified and complicated steel structures.

The modern large-span space steel structures are not limited to a traditional single structural
form. New structural forms and various combined structural forms are constantly
emerging. Let’s take some famous Chinese buildings as examples, the Water Cube adopts a
polyhedral space rigid frame structure based on foam theory, the Bird's Nest uses a complex
twisted space truss structure, the Olympic badminton hall uses the world's largest chord-
supported dome structure, and the Guangzhou International Convention and Exhibition Center
uses a truss string structure.
3.2. Large span, high steel grade, thick steel plate thickness
Due to the need for architectural functions, the span of modern steel structures is getting larger
and larger. For example, the Birds Nest’s span is 296m, the national swimming centre’s span is
177m, and the Nanjing Olympic Sports Center stadium arch’s span is 360m. As a result, the
National over-limit Expert review Committee specially compiled the provisions for over-limit
review of large-span structures. These large-span steel structures are made of a large amount of
high-strength grade steel such as Q390C, Q420C, Q460E, etc., and the thickness of the steel
plates is very thick, and some even exceed 100mm.
3.3. Mass application of modern prestressing technology
As a new technology, prestress has been fully applied, and new structural forms such as cable
domes, tensegrity structures and cable-membrane structures have emerged. The Olympic
Badminton Stadium adopts the world's largest chord-supported dome structure. The National
Gymnasium uses the world's largest two-way beam string structure.
3.4. Complex and diverse nodes
Most modern steel structures adopt imitation ecological buildings, which adopts a variety of
node forms to meet the architectural shape, such as cast steel nodes, forged steel nodes, and
spherical hinge nodes.
3.5. Large number of components and cross-section types make it difficult to deepen
the design
Such large-scale projects are composed of tens of thousands of components, even more than
100,000 components, and the cross-sectional form, size and length of these components are
different. This brings great difficulties for the construction team, and special tests and research
are required to complete some bending and torsion members.
3.6. It’s difficult to process components and the machining precision is high
This kind of project belongs to the national key project with high project quality requirements.
The quality could be reached by requirements only by improving the machining accuracy of
components. And the requirement of first-class welds brings great difficulty to the construction.
3.7. Large on-site welding workload, difficult construction technology
To ensure construction accuracy, these projects need to be pre-assembled, and the welding
workload on-site is particularly large. In order to ensure economy and safety, advanced
construction techniques must be used to successfully complete the installation.
These are some of the key features of long-span structures, but there may be other features that
are specific to a particular structure or application. The specific features of a long-span structure
will depend on the span length, the loading conditions, the architectural requirements, and the
construction methods and materials available.

4. MATERIALS COMPOSITION

The material components of large-span structures vary depending on the specific requirements of
the structure and the design and construction methods used. Some of the most used materials for
large-span structures include:
1. Steel: Steel is one of the most used materials for large-span structures, due to its high
strength, durability, and versatility. Steel is often used in the construction of bridges,
 buildings, and other large public structures, and is available in a variety of grades and
shapes to meet the specific needs of each project.
2. Concrete: Concrete is a durable, strong, and versatile material that is widely used in the
construction of large-span structures. Reinforced concrete is a type of concrete that is
reinforced with steel bars or mesh to increase its strength and stability.
3. Wood: Wood is a traditional building material that is still used in the construction of
large-span structures, especially in the form of timber trusses. Wood is a renewable
resource and is readily available in many parts of the world, making it an attractive
choice for many projects.
4. Composite materials: Composite materials, such as fibre-reinforced plastics and
laminated veneer lumber, are increasingly being used in the construction of large-span
structures. These materials offer high strength, low weight, and excellent resistance to
weather and environmental factors, making them an attractive choice for many projects.
5. Aluminum: Aluminum is a lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that is widely used in
the construction of large-span structures, especially in the form of aluminum trusses.
Aluminum has a high strength-to-weight ratio, making it an ideal choice for structures
where weight is a concern, such as bridges and large public buildings.
6. Glass: Glass is used in large-span structures to provide natural light, enhance the
structure's aesthetics, and provide views of the surrounding environment. Glass is
available in a variety of thicknesses, coatings, and tints to meet the specific requirements
of each project.
These are some of the most used materials for large-span structures, but other materials may be
used depending on the specific requirements of the project. The choice of materials will depend
on factors such as the span length, the loading conditions, the architectural requirements, and the
construction methods and materials available.

5. TYPES OF LONG-SPAN STRUCTURES

There are several types of long-span structures, including:

5.A. SUSPENSION BRIDGES:
Suspension bridges are a type of long-span structure that is characterized by their distinctive
design and long, clear spans. They are constructed using a combination of cables, towers, and
suspended roadway sections, which work together to support the weight of the bridge and the
traffic that crosses it. They are suitable for spans of up to 2,000 meters.
The construction of a suspension bridge typically involves the following steps:
1. Site selection and preparation: The first step in the construction of a suspension bridge is
to select the site and prepare it for construction. This may involve clearing the site,
grading it, and installing the foundation supports that will be used to anchor the bridge.
2. Design and planning: Once the site is prepared, the next step is to design and plan the
suspension bridge. This typically involves working with engineers, architects, and other
specialists to develop the design and engineering specifications for the bridge. The design
and planning phase also involves creating detailed construction plans and schedules, and
obtaining the necessary permits and approvals from local, state, and federal authorities.
3. Fabrication of components: Once the design and planning phase is complete, the next
step is to fabricate the various components that will be used in the construction of the
suspension bridge. This may include the towers, cables, roadway sections, and other
components, which will be manufactured off-site and then transported to the construction
site.
4. Installation of foundations: The next step in the construction of a suspension bridge is to
install the foundations for the towers and other key components. This typically involves
digging deep into the ground to create the foundation supports, and then pouring concrete
or setting prefabricated components into place.
5. Erection of towers: Once the foundations are installed, the next step is to erect the towers
that will support the suspension cables. This typically involves hoisting the components
into place and then welding or bolting them together to form the tower structure.
6. Stringing of cables: The next step is to string the suspension cables that will support the
roadway sections. This typically involves attaching the cables to the towers and then
suspending them between the towers, using special equipment and techniques to ensure
the cables are properly tensioned and aligned.
7. Installation of roadway sections: Once the suspension cables are in place, the next step is
to install the roadway sections that will make up the bridge deck. This typically involves
suspending the roadway sections from the cables, using special equipment and techniques
to ensure they are properly positioned and supported.
8. Final touches: Once the roadway sections are in place, the next step is to add the final
touches to the suspension bridge, such as installing railings, lighting, and other
components. This typically involves working with other contractors and specialists to
ensure the bridge is completed to the highest standards and meets all safety and
performance requirements.
9. Testing and commissioning: The final step in the construction of a suspension bridge is to
test and commission it, to ensure it is safe and fit for use. This typically involves
conducting a series of tests and inspections to validate the bridge's performance and
safety, and to verify that all systems are functioning as intended.
This is a general outline of the steps involved in the construction of a suspension bridge, but the
exact procedures may vary depending on the specific requirements of the project and the design
and construction methods used. It is important to work with experienced and qualified
professionals to ensure that the suspension bridge is built to the highest standards and meets all
performance and safety requirements.

ADVANTAGES:
Suspension bridges have several advantages as a type of long-span structure:
1. Cost-effective: Suspension bridges are relatively cost-effective compared to other types
of long-span structures, especially for longer spans. This is because they use relatively
simple construction methods and materials, and they do not require the use of heavy and
expensive support structures.
2. Flexibility: Suspension bridges are highly flexible structures that are capable of absorbing
large amounts of energy and movement, making them well-suited for use in seismically
active areas or in regions that experience high winds and other weather-related
challenges.
3. Aesthetics: Suspension bridges have a distinctive appearance that makes them
aesthetically pleasing and can be a source of pride for the communities they serve.
4. Durability: Suspension bridges are designed to last for many decades, if not centuries,
and they are typically built using materials that are designed to resist corrosion and
weather-related degradation.
5. Ease of maintenance: Suspension bridges are relatively easy to maintain compared to
other types of long-span structures, making them an attractive choice for communities
and organizations that want to ensure their bridges will remain safe and functional for
many years to come.
6. High-capacity: Suspension bridges are capable of supporting large amounts of weight and
traffic, making them ideal for use in areas with heavy traffic loads or for supporting
infrastructure such as pipelines and power lines.
These are some of the key advantages of suspension bridges as a type of long-span structure, but
it's important to consider the specific requirements of each project when deciding whether a
suspension bridge is the best choice.
DISADVANTAGES
While suspension bridges have several advantages, there are also some drawbacks that should be
considered:
1. High initial cost: While suspension bridges may be cost-effective in the long run, the
initial cost of construction can be high, especially for longer spans. This can make them
 more expensive than other types of long-span structures, such as arch bridges or cable-
stayed bridges, in the short term.
2. Maintenance: Suspension bridges require ongoing maintenance and inspection to ensure
they remain safe and functional. This includes regular monitoring of the suspension
cables, roadway sections, and other components, and making repairs and replacements as
needed.
3. Vulnerability to high winds: Suspension bridges are vulnerable to high winds and other
weather-related challenges, which can cause them to sway and vibrate. This can be
unsettling for drivers and passengers, and can also increase the risk of damage or failure
over time.
4. Sensitivity to earthquakes: Suspension bridges are also vulnerable to earthquakes, which
can cause them to sway and deform. This can increase the risk of damage or failure, and
can also make them less suitable for use in seismically active areas.
5. Construction risks: The construction of suspension bridges is a complex and challenging
process that requires specialized equipment, techniques, and personnel. This can increase
the risk of accidents and delays during construction, and can also make them more
challenging to build in remote or difficult-to-reach locations.
These are some of the key drawbacks of suspension bridges as a type of long-span structure, but
it's important to consider the specific requirements of each project when deciding whether a
suspension bridge is the best choice. Factors such as the span length, the load capacity required,
and the environmental conditions in the area will all play a role in determining whether a
suspension bridge is a right choice for a particular project.
CASES
There are several well-known examples of suspension bridges as a type of long-span structure,
including:
1. Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California: This iconic suspension bridge spans 1.7
miles (2.7 km) across the Golden Gate Strait and is one of the most recognizable
landmarks in the United States.
 Image by: Maarten van den Heuvel

2. Brooklyn Bridge, New York, New York: This historic suspension bridge spans 1.3 miles
(2.1 km) across the East River and was the first steel-wire suspension bridge when it was
completed in 1883.

Image by: Alexander Rotker

3. Akashi Kaikyō Bridge, Japan: This suspension bridge, also known as the Pearl Bridge,
spans a distance of 1.3 miles (2.1 km) and is one of the longest suspension bridges in the
world.
 Image by: Kobe Travel

4. Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, New York, New York: This suspension bridge spans 2.5
miles (4 km) across the Narrows, making it one of the longest suspension bridges in the
world.

Image by: Structurae

5. Millau Viaduct, France: This suspension bridge spans 1.5 miles (2.5 km) across the Tarn
River and is considered one of the most impressive engineering feats of the 21st century.
 Image by: E&T Magazine 1

These are just a few examples of suspension bridges as a type of long-span structure, and there
are many more examples of suspension bridges around the world that are renowned for their
beauty, functionality, and engineering prowess.

5.B. CABLE-STAYED STRUCTURES:

Cable-stayed structures are a type of long-span structure that is commonly used in bridge and
building design. They are like suspension structures in that they use cables to support the weight
of the structure, but they differ in the way that the cables are attached to the supporting towers or
pylons.
In a cable-stayed structure, cables are attached directly to the tower or pylon, rather than being
suspended from it like in a suspension structure. The cables are then anchored to the deck of the
structure, providing support and stability.
Cable-stayed structures come in a variety of forms, including fan-shaped, harp-shaped, and
inverted-Y-shaped designs. The shape of the structure and the arrangement of the cables depend
on the specific requirements of the project, such as the span length, load capacity, and aesthetics.
ADVANTAGES
Cable-stayed structures offer several advantages over other types of long-span structures, such as
suspension structures and truss structures. Some of the main advantages of cable-stayed
structures include:
1. Longer spans: Cable-stayed structures can span longer distances than suspension
structures, making them a popular choice for bridge design. This is because the cables in
a cable-stayed structure are attached directly to the supporting towers or pylons, which
can be taller and more stable than the towers used in suspension structures.
 2. Fewer cables: Cable-stayed structures require fewer cables than suspension structures,
which can reduce costs and simplify construction. This is because the cables in a cable-
stayed structure are anchored directly to the deck of the structure, rather than being
suspended from it.
3. Aesthetics: Cable-stayed structures can be designed in a variety of shapes and
configurations, making them visually appealing and iconic. The cables in a cable-stayed
structure can be arranged in a variety of patterns, such as fan-shaped, harp-shaped, and
inverted-Y-shaped designs, which can create unique and striking architectural features.
4. Durability: Cable-stayed structures are designed to withstand harsh weather conditions,
such as high winds and earthquakes. The cables in a cable-stayed structure are made of
high-strength materials, such as steel or carbon fiber, which can resist corrosion and
fatigue.
5. Versatility: Cable-stayed structures can be used in a variety of applications, such as
bridges, buildings, and sports stadiums. They can be designed to accommodate different
types of loads, such as vehicle traffic, pedestrians, and seismic forces.
DISADVANTAGES
While cable-stayed structures offer several advantages, they also have some disadvantages to consider.
Some of the main disadvantages of cable-stayed structures include:
1. Cost: Cable-stayed structures can be more expensive to build than other types of long span
structures, such as truss structures. This is because they require a significant number of materials
and specialized equipment for construction.
2. Maintenance: Cable-stayed structures require regular maintenance and inspection to ensure that
the cables and supporting towers or pylons are in good condition. This can be costly and time-
consuming, particularly for large structures or structures in harsh environments.
3. Wind-induced vibrations: Cable-stayed structures can be susceptible to wind-induced vibrations,
which can cause discomfort for occupants and structural damage over time. These vibrations can
be mitigated using dampers and other vibration control measures, but this can add to the cost of
the structure.
4. Limited flexibility: Cable-stayed structures have limited flexibility compared to suspension
structures. This means that they may not be well-suited for applications where significant
deflection is required, such as long-span roofs or canopies.
5. Design complexity: Cable-stayed structures can be more complex to design than other types of
long-span structures, particularly for structures with irregular shapes or complex load
requirements. This can require more extensive analysis and testing to ensure that the structure
will perform as intended.

CASES:
There are many existing examples of cable-stayed structures around the world, which demonstrate the
versatility and popularity of this type of long-span structure. Some notable examples include:
1. Russky Bridge - Located in Vladivostok, Russia, the Russky Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge that
spans the Eastern Bosphorus Strait. With a total length of 1,104 meters (3,622 feet), the bridge is
the longest cable-stayed bridge in the world.

Image by: Amusing Planet

2. Stonecutters Bridge - Located in Hong Kong, the Stonecutters Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge that
spans the Rambler Channel. With a total length of 1,108 meters (3,635 feet), the bridge is one of
the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world.

Image by: Getty Images

3. Sutong Yangtze River Bridge - Located in China, the Sutong Yangtze River Bridge is a cable-
stayed bridge that spans the Yangtze River. With a total length of 8,206 meters (26,923 feet), the
bridge is one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world.
 Image by: Verdict Traffic

4. Sunshine Skyway Bridge - Located in Florida, USA, the Sunshine Skyway Bridge is a cable-
stayed bridge that spans Tampa Bay. With a total length of 6,695 meters (21,962 feet), the bridge
is one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the United States.

Image by: Robert Neff

5. Queensferry Crossing - Located in Scotland, the Queensferry Crossing is a cable-stayed bridge

that spans the Firth of Forth. With a total length of 2.7 kilometres (1.7 miles), the bridge is the
longest three-tower cable-stayed bridge in the world.
 Image by: Infrastructure Intelligence

6. Millau Viaduct - Located in France, the Millau Viaduct is a cable-stayed bridge that spans the
Tarn River. With a total length of 2.46 kilometres (1.53 miles), the bridge is the tallest cable-
stayed bridge in the world, with a maximum height of 343 meters (1,125 feet).

Image by: Learnodo Newtonic

7. Dubai Frame - Located in Dubai, UAE, the Dubai Frame is a unique cable-stayed structure that
serves as an observation deck and museum. With a total height of 150 meters (492 feet), the
frame is designed to resemble a picture frame and offers panoramic views of the city.

Image by: Rayna Tour Blog

 5.C. ARCH STRUCTURES:
Arch structures are another type of long-span structure that has been used for centuries. An arch
is a curved structure that spans an opening, such as a bridge or doorway. The arch transfers the
weight of the structure to its supports on either side, which can be columns, walls, or abutments.
Arch structures have several advantages as long-span structures, such as strength, aesthetics,
durability, and versatility. However, they also have some disadvantages, such as limited span,
limited clearance height, and complex design. Despite these limitations, arch structures remain a
popular choice for many applications, particularly for architectural features and smaller-scale
infrastructure projects. Careful consideration of the specific requirements of the project is
necessary to determine whether an arch structure is the best choice.
CASES:
There are many existing examples of arch structures around the world, which demonstrate the versatility
and popularity of this type of long-span structure. Some notable examples include:
1. The Gateway Arch - Located in St. Louis, Missouri, USA, the Gateway Arch is a 192-meter (630-
foot) tall arch made of stainless steel. It is the tallest arch in the world and serves as a symbol of
westward expansion in the United States.

Image by: Crazy Family Adventure

2. Pont du Gard - Located in southern France, the Pont du Gard is a Roman aqueduct that spans the
Gardon River. The aqueduct was built in the first century AD and features three levels of arches
that span a total distance of 275 meters (902 feet).
 Image by: Pays d'Uzès Pont du Gard' Dest

3. Ponte Vecchio - Located in Florence, Italy, the Ponte Vecchio is a historic bridge that spans the
Arno River. The bridge features three segmented arches that support shops and buildings.

Image by: Florence

4. Sydney Harbour Bridge - Located in Sydney, Australia, the Sydney Harbour Bridge is a steel-
through arch bridge that spans Sydney Harbour. The bridge has a total length of 1,149 meters
(3,770 feet) and is one of the largest steel arch bridges in the world.

Image by: Dietmar Rabich

5. Royal Gorge Bridge - Located in Colorado, USA, the Royal Gorge Bridge is a suspension bridge
with a main span of 321 meters (1,053 feet) that crosses the Arkansas River. The bridge was the
highest suspension bridge in the world until 2001 and features a design that blends arch and
suspension bridge elements.
 Image by: KOAA

6. Chengyang Wind and Rain Bridge - Located in Guangxi Province, China, the Chengyang Wind
and Rain Bridge is a covered bridge that spans the Linxi River. The bridge features five wooden
arches and is known for its intricate carvings and traditional Chinese design.

Image by: Wikipedia

These examples demonstrate the wide range of applications for arch structures, from historic aqueducts to
modern bridges and architectural features.

5.D. TRUSS STRUCTURES:

Truss structures are another type of long-span structure that has been used for centuries. A truss
is a structure composed of interconnected triangles that can span long distances with minimal
materials. The use of triangles in the truss design allows for the weight of the structure to be
evenly distributed across its supports, which can be columns or walls.
ADVANTAGES:
Truss structures have several advantages as a long-span structure:
1. Lightweight: Truss structures are often lightweight, as they use minimal materials while
still maintaining strength. This can make them a good choice for applications where
weight is a concern, such as in roof structures or other building elements.
 2. Versatility: Truss structures can be used for a wide range of applications, from small-
scale architectural elements to large-scale infrastructure projects. They can be designed in
a variety of shapes and sizes to meet the specific requirements of the project.
3. Ease of construction: Truss structures can often be prefabricated off-site, which can help
to reduce construction time and costs. The lightweight design of trusses also means that
they can be assembled quickly and easily on-site.
4. Durability: Truss structures can be very durable, particularly when made from materials
such as steel or timber. The use of triangles in the truss design helps to distribute weight
evenly across the structure, which can help to prevent damage or collapse over time.
DISADVANTAGES:
Despite these advantages, truss structures also have some disadvantages to consider:
1. Limited height: Truss structures have a limited height, as the height of the truss is
determined by the length of the diagonal members. This can limit their use in applications
where high clearance is required, such as in large buildings or bridges.
2. Limited flexibility: Truss structures are generally less flexible than other types of long-
span structures, such as cable-stayed structures or suspension bridges. This can limit their
use in applications where flexibility or movement is required, such as in earthquake-
prone areas.
3. Aesthetics: Truss structures may not always be the most aesthetically pleasing option,
particularly for architectural features or other applications where visual appeal is
important. The exposed metal or timber members of trusses can also be susceptible to
weathering or corrosion over time.
Despite these limitations, truss structures remain a popular choice for many applications,
particularly for smaller-scale projects or where weight is a concern. Careful consideration of the
specific requirements of the project is necessary to determine whether a truss structure is the best
choice.
CASES:
There are many existing examples of truss structures around the world, some of which are quite
iconic. Here are a few notable examples:
1. Eiffel Tower - Located in Paris, France, the Eiffel Tower is a lattice steel tower that was
built for the 1889 World's Fair. The tower stands 324 meters (1,063 feet) tall and features
a distinctive truss structure that has become an enduring symbol of France.
 Image by: Wikimedia Commons

2. Forth Bridge - Located in Scotland, the Forth Bridge is a cantilever railway bridge that
spans the Firth of Forth. The bridge was completed in 1890 and features a series of truss
structures that help to distribute the weight of the bridge across its supports.

Image by: New Civil Engineer

3. Brooklyn Bridge - Located in New York City, USA, the Brooklyn Bridge is a suspension
bridge that spans the East River. The bridge features a series of truss structures that
support the roadway and pedestrian walkway.

Image by: Skanska Group

4. Queensboro Bridge - Also located in New York City, the Queensboro Bridge is a
cantilever bridge that spans the East River. The bridge features a series of truss structures
that help to support the roadway and pedestrian walkway.

Image by: Wikipedia

5. Alliant Energy Center Coliseum - Located in Madison, Wisconsin, USA, the Alliant
Energy Center Coliseum is a sports and entertainment venue that features a large roof
structure supported by trusses.

Image by: Captimes

6. Expo '70 Festival Plaza - Located in Osaka, Japan, the Expo '70 Festival Plaza features a
large lattice steel roof supported by truss structures. The roof spans over 75 meters (246
feet) and provides a distinctive architectural element for the site.
 Image by: RIBApix

7. Hoover Dam Bypass Bridge - Located near Las Vegas, USA, the Hoover Dam Bypass
Bridge is a concrete arch bridge that features a series of truss structures to support the
roadway. The bridge spans the Colorado River and provides a critical transportation link
between Nevada and Arizona.

Image by: Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz

These examples demonstrate the wide range of applications for truss structures, from iconic
landmarks to sports and entertainment venues and critical transportation infrastructure.
 5.E. SHELL STRUCTURES:
Shell structures are another type of long-span structure that are characterized by their thin,
curved surfaces that are designed to efficiently distribute loads across their surfaces. They are
often used for roofing systems, large-span industrial buildings, and in some cases, as structural
elements in bridges.

ADVANTAGES:
Shell structures have several advantages as a long-span structure:
1. Aesthetics: The curved and organic shapes of shell structures can be very visually
appealing, making them a popular choice for architectural projects where aesthetics are
important.
2. Efficiency: Shell structures are very efficient in terms of their use of materials, as their
thin, curved surfaces can span long distances without the need for intermediate supports.
This can result in a reduction in construction costs and environmental impact.
3. Structural integrity: The curved shape of shell structures can provide natural resistance to
wind and seismic loads, making them a good choice for projects in areas prone to these
types of hazards.
4. Flexibility: Shell structures can be designed in a variety of shapes and sizes to meet the
specific requirements of the project, making them a versatile option for a wide range of
applications.

DISADVANTAGES:
Despite these advantages, shell structures also have some disadvantages to consider:
1. Construction complexity: The construction of shell structures can be complex and require
specialized techniques and equipment. This can result in higher construction costs and
longer construction times.
2. Limited flexibility: Unlike some other long-span structures, such as cable-stayed
structures or suspension bridges, shell structures are not very flexible. This can limit their
use in applications where flexibility or movement is required, such as in earthquake-
prone areas.
3. Limited accessibility: The curved shape of shell structures can make them difficult to
access for maintenance and repairs. This can result in higher maintenance costs and
longer downtimes for repairs.
Despite these limitations, shell structures remain a popular choice for many applications,
particularly in architectural projects where aesthetics are important. Careful consideration of the
specific requirements of the project is necessary to determine whether a shell structure is the best
choice.
CASES:
There are many examples of shell structures around the world, some of which are iconic
landmarks. Here are a few notable examples:
1. Sydney Opera House - Located in Sydney, Australia, the Sydney Opera House is a multi-
venue performing arts center that features a series of shell-shaped roofs. The roofs are
made of precast concrete panels and are designed to resemble the sails of a ship.

Image by: DK Find Out

2. Geodesic domes - Geodesic domes are a type of shell structure that are made up of a
network of triangles. They were popularized by architect and inventor R. Buckminster
Fuller, who patented the design in 1954. Geodesic domes can be found in many
applications, from greenhouses to sports arenas.

Image by: Dreamstime

3. Tokyo Olympic Stadium - Built for the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan, the
Tokyo Olympic Stadium features a large, elliptical-shaped shell roof made of steel and
wood. The roof spans over 70 meters (230 feet) and provides shade for spectators.

Image by: InsideTheGames

4. National Stadium - Located in Beijing, China, the National Stadium, also known as the
"Bird's Nest," is a stadium that was built for the 2008 Summer Olympics. The stadium
features a lattice shell structure that was inspired by traditional Chinese ceramics.

Image by:Wikipedia

5. Reichstag Dome - Located in Berlin, Germany, the Reichstag is the German parliament
building. The building features a glass dome that is designed to resemble a shell. The
dome provides natural light for the building's interior and offers views of the city.
 Image by:Encyclopedia Britannica

These examples demonstrate the wide range of applications for shell structures, from iconic
landmarks to sports arenas and government buildings. Shell structures continue to be a popular
choice for architects and engineers due to their efficiency, structural integrity, and aesthetic
appeal.

5.F. GRID STRUCTURES:

Grid structures are another type of long-span structure that is made up of a network of
interconnected beams and columns arranged in a grid pattern. These structures are commonly
used for roofs, floors, and bridges. The main advantage of grid structures is their ability to span
large distances without the need for intermediate supports.
ADVANTAGES:
Here are some advantages of grid structures:
1. Large spans: Grid structures can span large distances without the need for intermediate
supports, making them ideal for creating large open spaces.
2. Flexibility: The grid structure system is very flexible and can be adapted to suit the needs
of the project. This makes it an ideal choice for a wide range of applications, from roofs
and floors to bridges and other structures.
3. Aesthetics: The grid structure system can be designed to create interesting and
aesthetically pleasing patterns, adding visual interest to the project.
4. Ease of construction: The modular nature of grid structures makes them easy to construct,
with prefabricated components that can be easily assembled on-site.
DISADVANTAGES:
However, there are also some disadvantages to consider:
1. Higher material costs: Grid structures require more materials than some other types of
long-span structures, such as cable-stayed structures or arch structures. This can result in
higher construction costs.
2. Limited architectural flexibility: The grid structure system can be limiting in terms of
architectural flexibility, as the grid pattern may not be suitable for all types of designs.
3. Limited functionality: Grid structures may not be suitable for applications where large
openings or high ceilings are required, as the columns and beams can limit the height of
the space.
Despite these limitations, grid structures remain a popular choice for many applications due to
their ability to span large distances and create large open spaces. Some notable examples of grid
structures include the John Hancock Center in Chicago and the Willis Tower (formerly Sears
Tower) in Chicago.
CASES:
Grid structures have been used in a variety of applications around the world. Here are some
notable examples:
1. John Hancock Center - Located in Chicago, USA, the John Hancock Center is a 100-
story skyscraper that features a distinctive X-bracing grid structure on its exterior. The X-
bracing provides structural stability and also adds visual interest to the building's design.

Image by:Tripadvisor
2. Willis Tower - Also located in Chicago, the Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) is a
110-story skyscraper that was the tallest building in the world when it was completed in
1973. The building features a grid structure system that allows for large open floor plates
and unobstructed views.

Image by:ArchDaily

3. Olympic Stadium - Located in Munich, Germany, the Olympic Stadium was built for the
1972 Summer Olympics. The stadium features a unique tensile cable grid roof that is
suspended from a 290-meter (950-foot) tall tower. The roof covers the entire stadium and
can be retracted to allow for natural ventilation.

Image by:Architectuul

4. Sydney Tower Eye - Located in Sydney, Australia, the Sydney Tower Eye is a 309-meter
(1,014-foot) tall observation tower that features a grid structure system. The tower's
exterior is made up of a series of triangular panels that create a faceted appearance.
 Image by:Sydney Tower Eye

5. Eden Project - Located in Cornwall, UK, the Eden Project is a series of interconnected
biomes that house a wide variety of plants from around the world. The biomes are
constructed from a grid structure system that is covered with ETFE panels, allowing for
natural light to enter the space.

Image by:The Valley Cornwall

These examples demonstrate the versatility and adaptability of grid structures in a variety of
applications, from skyscrapers to sports stadiums and botanical gardens. The use of grid
structures continues to be popular due to their ability to span large distances, create large open
spaces, and add visual interest to the design.

5.G. FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES:

Folded plate structures are a type of long-span structures that are composed of a series of
interconnected planar surfaces that are folded to create a strong, stable form. The folded plates
are typically made of reinforced concrete, although other materials such as steel or wood may
also be used. These structures are commonly used for roofs, floors, and walls in buildings, as
well as for bridges and other infrastructure projects.
ADVANTAGES:
Here are some advantages of folded plate structures:
1. Strength and durability: Folded plate structures are inherently strong and durable, making
them ideal for applications where large spans and heavy loads are required.
2. Versatility: Folded plate structures can be used in a wide range of applications, from
roofs and floors to walls and bridges. They can also be designed in a variety of shapes
and sizes to suit the needs of the project.
3. Aesthetics: The folded plate structure system can be designed to create interesting and
aesthetically pleasing patterns, adding visual interest to the project.
4. Sustainability: Folded plate structures can be designed to be environmentally sustainable,
with features such as green roofs and solar panels.

DISADVANTAGES:
However, there are also some disadvantages to consider:
1. Higher material costs: Folded plate structures require more materials than some other
types of long-span structures, such as cable-stayed structures or truss structures. This can
result in higher construction costs.
2. Complexity: The design and construction of folded plate structures can be complex,
requiring specialized knowledge and expertise.
3. Limited flexibility: Once a folded plate structure is constructed, it cannot be easily
modified or altered. This can be a limitation in applications where flexibility is required.

Despite these limitations, folded plate structures remain a popular choice for many applications
due to their strength, versatility, and aesthetic appeal. Some notable examples of folded plate
structures include the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts in Norwich, UK, and the Al-Sabah
Medical Complex in Kuwait City.

CASES:
Folded plate structures have been used in a variety of applications around the world. Here are
some notable examples:
1. Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts - Located in Norwich, UK, the Sainsbury Centre for
Visual Arts is a museum and art gallery that features a distinctive folded plate roof. The
 roof is composed of a series of interlocking triangular segments that create a geometric
pattern and provide structural stability.

Image by:Arch20

2. Al-Sabah Medical Complex - Located in Kuwait City, the Al-Sabah Medical Complex is
a hospital that features a folded plate roof. The roof is made up of a series of triangular
segments that are angled to allow for natural ventilation and daylighting.

Image by:Kuwait Times

3. Singapore Sports Hub - Located in Singapore, the Singapore Sports Hub is a large sports
complex that features a distinctive oval-shaped roof. The roof is composed of a series of
folded plates that create a dramatic, sweeping form.
 Image by:World Architecture Community

4. Aula Magna at La Sapienza University - Located in Rome, Italy, the Aula Magna at La
Sapienza University is a lecture hall that features a folded plate roof. The roof is
composed of a series of triangular segments that are angled to create a visually striking
form.

Image by:Casilina News

5. Maracanã Stadium - Located in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the Maracanã Stadium is a large
sports stadium that was renovated in 2013. The renovation included the addition of a new
folded plate roof that covers the entire stadium and provides shade for spectators.
 Image by: BeSoccer

These examples demonstrate the versatility and adaptability of folded plate structures in a variety
of applications, from museums and hospitals to sports stadiums and lecture halls. The use of
folded plate structures continues to be popular due to their strength, versatility, and aesthetic
appeal.

6. CONCLUSION

Long-span structures are used to span large distances and are commonly found in buildings,
bridges, and other infrastructure projects. There are several types of long-span structures,
including cable-stayed structures, arch structures, truss structures, shell structures, grid
structures, and folded plate structures.
Cable-stayed structures are known for their aesthetic appeal, versatility, and cost-effectiveness.
Arch structures are known for their strength, durability, and ability to span large distances
without intermediate supports. Truss structures are known for their strength and stiffness, making
them ideal for applications where heavy loads are required. Shell structures are known for their
lightweight, efficient design and their ability to span large distances without intermediate
supports. Grid structures are known for their adaptability and ability to be constructed in a
variety of shapes and sizes. Folded plate structures are known for their strength, versatility, and
aesthetic appeal.
Each type of long-span structure has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of
structure will depend on the specific needs of the project. Some common advantages of long-
span structures include their strength, durability, and versatility, while common disadvantages
include higher material costs, complex design and construction, and limited flexibility.
There are numerous existing examples of long-span structures around the world, including
famous landmarks such as the Golden Gate Bridge, the Sydney Opera House, and the Burj
Khalifa. These structures demonstrate the potential for long-span structures to create iconic and
impressive architectural feats.

7. REFERENCES

1. Razaqpur, A. D., & Baker, J. M. (Eds.). (2011). Long-Span Structures: A Global

Perspective. CRC Press.
2. Liu, Y., & Qin, S. (Eds.). (2011). Long-Span Bridges: Proceedings of the
Conference on Long-Span Bridges, Shanghai, China, 29 November - 2 December
2010. CRC Press.
3. Suryanarayana, C. Y., & Desai, C. G. (2018). Long-Span Roof Structures: A
Design Guide. CRC Press.
4. Irvine, M. (2012). Cable Structures. Thomas Telford Publishing.
5. Catchpole, P. (2013). Structural Engineering of Transmission Lines. CRC Press.
6. Billington, D. P. (2013). Truss Bridges. Cambridge University Press.
7. Chen, W.-F., & Lui, E. M. (Eds.). (2002). Shell Structures: Theory and
Applications, Volume 3. CRC Press.
8. Schwitalla, M., & Tessmann, O. (Eds.). (2015). Grid Structures: A Portfolio of
Ideas. Birkhäuser.
9. Blažej, J., & Hajžman, P. (2019). Folded Plates: Form, Stability and Strength.
Routledge.
10. Cruz, P. J. S., & Frangopol, D. M. (Eds.). (2010). Arch Bridges: Proceedings of
the First International Conference on Arch Bridges, October 6-8, 2010, Porto,
Portugal. CRC Press.