Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Sayed Hemeda

Geotechnical Engineering and Architectural Preservation of historic buildings, Conservation Department, faculty of
archaeology, Cairo university., Egypt

Editorial Board Members

Reza Jahanshahi, Iran Bo Li, China
Salvatore Grasso, Italy Irfan Baig, Norway
Fangming Zeng, China Shaoshuai Shi, China
Shenghua Cui, China Sumit Kumar Ghosh, India
Golnaz Jozanikohan, Iran Bojan Matoš, Croatia
Mehmet Irfan Yesilnacar, Turkey Roberto Wagner Lourenço, Brazil
Ziliang Liu, China Massimo Ranaldi, Italy
Abrar Niaz, Pakistan Zaman Malekzade, Iran
Sunday Ojochogwu Idakwo, Nigeria Xiaohan Yang, Australia
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Jianwen Pan, China Márton Veress, Hungary
Changjiang Liu, China Vincenzo Amato, Italy
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Intissar Farid, Tunisia Ahm Radwan, Egypt
Jalal Amini, Iran Yasir Bashir, Malaysia
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Jian-Hong Wu, Taiwan Kirubakaran Muniraj, India
Abdessamad Didi, Morocco Nazife Erarslan, Turkey
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Himadri Bhusan Sahoo, India Harinandan Kumar, India
Ashraf M.T. Elewa, Egypt Amr Abdelnasser Khalil, Egypt
Jiang-Feng Liu, China Zhouhua Wang, China
Vasiliy Anatol’evich Mironov, Russian Federation Bahman Soleimani，Iran
Maysam Abedi, Iran Luqman Kolawole Abidoye，Nigeria
Anderson José Maraschin, Brazil Tongjun Chen,China
Alcides Nobrega Sial, Brazil Vinod Kumar Gupta,France
Renmao Yuan, China Waleed Sulaiman Shingaly,Iraq
Ezzedine Saïdi, Tunisia Saeideh Samani,Iran
Xiaoxu Jia, China Khalid Elyas Mohamed E.A.,Saudi Arabia
Mokhles Kamal Azer, Egypt Xinjie Liu,China
Ntieche Benjamin, Cameroon Mualla Cengiz,Turkey
Sandeep Kumar Soni, Ethiopia Hamdalla Abdel-Gawad Wanas,Saudi Arabia
Jinliang Zhang, China Peace Nwaerema,Nigeria
Keliu Wu, China Gang Li,China
Kamel Bechir Maalaoui, Tunisia Nchofua Festus Biosengazeh,Cameroon
Fernando Carlos Lopes,Portugal Williams Nirorowan Ofuyah,Nigeria
Shimba Daniel Kwelwa,Tanzania Ashok Sigdel,Nepal
Jian Wang, China Richmond Uwanemesor Ideozu,Nigeria
Antonio Zanutta, Italy Ramesh Man Tuladhar,Nepal
Xiaochen Wei, China Swostik Kumar Adhikari,Nepal
Nabil H. Swedan, United States Mirmahdi Seyedrahimi-Niaraq, Iran
 Volume 3 Issue 2 · April 2021 · ISSN 2630-4961 (Online)

Journal of
Geological Research
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Sayed Hemeda
 Volume 3 ｜ Issue 2 ｜ April 2021 ｜ Page1-59
Journal of Geological Research

Contents
ARTICLE

1 Geochemical Classification and Geotectonic Setting of Granitic Gneisses from Southeastern Margin

of Western Nigeria Basement

Mohammed Olatoye Adepoju Yinusa Ayodele Asiwaju-Bello

7 Assessment of Geologic Controls of Flooding in Parts of OBIO/AKPOR L.G.A., Rivers State, Nigeria

Eruebi T.B Eze S.U Ibitoye T.A Abolarin M.O

23 Comparison of U-spatial Statistics Method with Classical Statistics Results in the Determination

of Geochemical Anomalies of Epithermal Gold in Khoshnameh Area, Hashtjin, Iran

Mirmahdi Seyedrahimi-Niaraq

41 Mineralogical and Geochemical Assessment of Clay Properties of Edda, Afikpo Sub Basin Nige-

ria for Possible Use in the Ceramics Industry

J.C. Ike H. N. Ezeh M. O. Eyankware A.I. Haruna

53 Importance of Instrumentation in Hydropower Projects

B.N.V. Siva Prasad Sripad R. Naik

Copyright
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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Journal of Geological Research

http://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jgr-a

ARTICLE
Geochemical Classification and Geotectonic Setting of Granitic
Gneisses from Southeastern Margin of Western Nigeria Basement
Mohammed Olatoye Adepoju* Yinusa Ayodele Asiwaju-Bello
Department of Applied Geology, The Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Chemical whole-rock major oxides and some trace element analyses
Received: 25 January 2021 were done on granitic-gneiss rocks from Dagbala-Atte District, located
on the southeastern margin of western Nigeria Basement Complex. This
Acccepted: 26 February 2021 was meant to classify the rocks and to understand the tectonic setting in
Published Online: 20 April 2021 order to evaluate their crustal evolution. The chemical analyses were done
using inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometer. From the results
Keywords: obtained, these rocks classified into calc-alkaline to shoshonite series with
Migmatite-gneiss-quartzite complex metaluminous to peraluminous varieties. They are I-type granitoids of
feroan composition. The granitic gneisses formed from metamorphism of
Granitoid granite and granodiorite. Tectonically, most of the rock samples plotted in
Protolith the field of island arc, continental arc and continental-collisional granitoids,
Calc-alkaline which indicated that the protolith granite and granodiorite are orogenic and
are arc related inferring arc tectonic setting.
Dagbala-Atte district

1. Introduction ment Complex of Nigeria and have been dated Paleo-Pro-

terozoic by a number of geological works [5-8]. In this
The Proterozoic Eon is marked by the voluminous paper, a new whole-rock major and trace elemental data
addition of granitic plutons along the continental arcs for granitic gneisses from Dagbala-Atte District that lies
and the study of their genesis holds the key to our un- within Latitudes 7°10' and 7°21' N and Longitudes 6°09'
derstanding of the evolution of continental crust [1-3]. The and 6°17' E at the south eastern margin of the western
migmatite-gneiss-quartzite complex (MGQC) in western Nigeria Basement Complex (Figure 1) are presented. The
Nigeria Basement, like in all other parts of the Basement dataset allows us to characterise these granitoids and put
Complex of Nigeria, has experienced many episodes of constraints on their tectonic settings.
felsic magmatism during the Paleo-Proterozoic [4]. This is
evident from a variety of Paleo-Proterozoic felsic rocks 2. Geological Background
exposed in different parts of MGQC terrain in the form
of granitic gneisses. Apart from the granitic gneiss, other The MGQC of the southeastern margin of western
rock types that constitute the MGQC are migmatites, all Nigeria Basement (Figure 1) is studied at Dagbala-Atte
kinds of para- and ortho-gniesses, and lenses of quartzites. District that lies within Latitudes 7° 10' and 7° 21' N and
The MGQC rocks are the oldest rock group in the Base- Longitudes 6° 09' and 6° 17' E. The district is spread over

*Corresponding Author:
Mohammed Olatoye Adepoju,
Department of Applied Geology, The Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria;
Email: [email protected]

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 1. Geological map of the study area (adapted from [9, 10]). Inset: Map of Nigeria showing the distribution of Base-
ment Complex and the Study area.

an area of about 285 km2 (Figure 1). The eastern part of software package GCD kit 4.1 in r programming language
this district is dominated by MGQC that is essentially was used to plot all the classification and geotectonic
granitic gneiss [4] and the western part is composed mainly setting diagrams employed for this study. In plotting the
of metasediments of Igarra Schist Belt (Figure 1). These results, any element that contains censored data (i.e. val-
two contrasting lithologies are separated by a narrow zone ues below the analytical detection limit, DL) at any site
of silicified, sheared rock [9]. The metasedimentary assem- (recorded in the table of chemical composition as < DLs),
blage consists of quartz-biotite, garnet-biotite and mica value equals to 50 % of the element’s lower DL is substi-
schists with minor constituents of metaconglomerate, tuted at that site.
quartzite and marble [11, 12]. Both the metasediments and
granitic gneiss are intruded by porphyritic granite (i.e. the 4. Results
Pan-African granite). All the three aforementioned groups
of rocks, i.e., the MGQC, the metasediments and the
4.1 Geochemistry
Pan-African granite were intruded by the minor intrusive Chemical whole rock major and minor oxides (in %)
rocks comprising lamprophyre, dolerite, pegmatite, aplite, and some trace elements (in ppm) analyses of 10 rock
quartzo-feldspathic- and quartz- veins. samples (Table 1) have been used to classify the granit-
ic-gneiss rocks and to understand the geotectonic setting
3. Methodology in order to evaluate the crustal evolution in the southeast-
ern margin of Western Nigeria Basement Complex. The
This study entailed sampling of the granitic-gneiss rock
Dagbala-Atte granitic gneiss has a composition with the
as well as geochemical study of the rock samples. Field
range of 66.2-78.49 % for SiO2, 11.22-15.95 % for Al2O3,
sampling entailed cutting about 1-kg mass of the rock us-
2.84-6.33 % for Fe2O3, 1.75-3.29 % for CaO, 2.78-4.68 %
ing geologic hammer and chisel at all locations where it
for Na2O, 0.74-6.3 % for K2O, 0.04-0.08 % for MnO, 66-
was studied, taking coordinates of the locations, recording
1238 ppm for Ba, 114-453 ppm for Sr, 74-428 ppm for Zr,
the texture, mineral composition and noting the import-
and 2-10 ppm for Sc.
ant geologic features found. Altogether, ten samples of
the granitic-gneiss rock were taken. Figure 1 shows the 4.2 Geochemical Classification
sampling points of these 10 samples. Geochemical study
consisted of crushing, splitting and pulverization of 250 g According to the classification of Middlemost [13] and
rock sieved with 200 mesh after which 0.2 g of the pulver- De la Roche et al.[14] most granitic gneisses plot in the field
ized sample was digested by lithium borate fusion. Whole of granites and granodiorites (Figures 2a and 2b). They
rock major, minor and some trace element analysis was are consequently mostly granite gneiss and granodiorite
done using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer gneiss. On the molar Na2O+Al2O3+K2O plot (Figure 2c)
(ICP-MS) at the ACME laboratory, Vancouver, Canada. A the granitic gneiss falls in the sodic and potassic metalu-

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Table 1. Chemical compositions of the granitic gneiss of Dagbala-Atte District (major and minor oxides in %, trace
elements in ppm)

Element L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10

SiO2 66.98 68.73 70.58 69.13 78.49 67 69.79 66.2 66.2 70.75

Al2O3 14.61 14.76 14.69 15.78 11.22 14.6 15.71 15.95 15.18 14.31

Fe2O3 4.67 3.66 3.23 3.36 2.84 6.33 3.5 4.19 5.36 3.02

MgO 1.12 0.67 0.45 0.48 0.37 1.04 0.71 1.22 1.26 0.41

CaO 3.29 1.84 2.17 2.52 2.56 3.06 2.8 2.45 3.12 1.75

Na2O 3.22 2.78 3.94 4.68 3.1 3.36 4.64 3.01 3.45 3.31

K2O 4.46 6.3 4.03 3.2 0.74 2.67 2.01 5.87 4.29 5.45

TiO2 0.42 0.42 0.24 0.27 0.25 0.91 0.29 0.35 0.47 0.27

P2O5 0.14 0.1 0.05 0.06 <0.01 0.33 0.09 0.2 0.16 0.07

MnO 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.04

Cr2O3 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 0.002 0.002 <0.002

LOI 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.4

Total 99.98 99.93 99.99 99.99 100.02 99.95 100.01 99.98 99.97 99.99

Ba 903 1238 822 634 66 666 340 1179 857 1043

Ni <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20

Sr 453 286 285 297 114 311 365 417 430 276

Zr 190 335 184 231 412 428 111 74 199 234

Y 18 21 14 13 <3 25 10 9 23 17

Nb 9 22 11 11 8 20 6 <5 9 15

Sc 6 2 3 4 2 10 5 5 7 3

minous-peraluminous field. Their aluminium saturation and Chappell [17] the granitic gneiss plot largely in the field
index, according to B-A plot of Villaseca et al. [15], varies of I-type granitoids, which is below 1.10 value on Al2O3/
between metaluminous and low to moderately peralumi-
Cao+Na2O+K2O (A/CNK) axis (Figure 3c). Also, on the
nous (Figure 3a). On the K2O versus SiO2 diagram (Figure
plot of Fetotal/(Fetotal+MgO) against SiO2 (Figure 3d)
3b) after Peccerillo and Taylor [16], the granitic gneisses
[18]
plotted in the calc alkaline-high K calc alkaline-shoshonit- after Frost et al. , the granitic gneiss samples plotted
ic fields. Also on the A/CNK versus SiO2 plot after White mainly in the field of ferroan rocks.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

magnesian fields.

4.3 Geotectonic Setting

The R1-R2 plot (Figure 4a) of Batchelor and Bowden
[19]
showed the granitic gneiss formed from metamorphism
of Orogenic granitoids. Figure 4b showed that the for-
mation of the rock varied from late orogenic tectonic to
post-collision and pre-plate collision to syn-collision up-
lifts. On the Nb versus Y diagram (Figure 4b) after Pearce
et al. [20] the granitic gneiss plotted largely in the fields of
volcanic arc and syn-collisional granites with few plotting
in the within-plate granites. The granite geotectonic dis-
crimination plots of Maniar and Piccoli [21] revealed that
the granitic gneiss formed from island arc-, continental
arc-, continental collision-, continent-epeirogenic uplift-,
post-orogenic- and rift related granitoids (Figure 5a).
Figure 2. Classification diagrams for the granitic gneiss. However, majority of the samples of Dagbala-Atte district
(a) (Na2O+K2O) vs. SiO2 (TAS) diagram of Middle- plot in the fields (Figure 5b – 5d) of Island arc- (IAG),
most [13], (b) R1 (4Si+11(Na+K)+2(Fe+Ti) vs. R2 continental arc- (CAG) and continental collisional granit-
(6Ca+2Mg+Al) plot of De la Roche et al. [14], (c) Molar oids (CCG). These characteristic features indicate that the
Na2O+Al2O3+K2O plot. protolith granite and granodiorite of these granitic gneiss
rocks are arc related and thus inferred arc tectonic setting.

Figure 3. Classification diagrams for the granitic gneiss.

(a) the aluminium saturation
index B-A plot of Villaseca et al. [15] (symbols:  h-P =
highly peraluminous; m-P = moderately peraluminous; l-P
= low peraluminous; f-P = felsic peraluminous). (b) K2O
Figure 4. Geotectonic Discrimination Diagrams. (a) R1-
versus SiO2 plot after Peccerillo and Taylor [16], (c) Molec-
R2 Plot of Batchelor and Bowden [19], (b) Trace element
ular Al2O3/Cao+Na2O+K2O (A/CNK) versus SiO2 diagram
geotectonic discrimination diagrams of Pearce et al.
showing the rocks all plots in the field of I-type granitoids [20]
, Nb versus Y. (Symbols: ORG, ocean ridge granitoids;
below 1.10 value on A/CNK, (d) FeOt/(FeOt+MgO) ver- VAG, volcanic arc granitoids; Syn-COLG, syn-collisional
sus SiO2 diagram after Frost et al. [18] showing the distri- granitoids; WPG, within-plate granitoids; post-COLG, the
bution of the granitic rocks with respect to the ferroan and post-collisional granitoids).

4 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v3i2.2831

 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

within-plate granites (Figure 4b). The granite geotectonic

discrimination plots (Figure 5) of Maniar and Piccoli[21]
reveals that the granitic gneiss formed from Island arc-,
continental arc- and continental collisional-granitic rocks.
All these suggested they form like volcanic-arc magmas,
from the LIL-enriched mantle wedge above subducted
oceanic lithosphere which have probably been contam-
inated with melts from the lower crust [27]. The crustal
melts may have resulted from thermal relaxation in the
lower crust and the mantle-derived magmas by adiabatic
decompression in the upper mantle [29].

6. Conclusions
The granitic gneisses of Dagbala-Atte District in the
southeastern margin of the western Nigeria Basement
Complex terrain showed, from their overall geochemical
features, that they were most likely derived from meta-
Figure 5. Major element geotectonic discrimination morphism of I-type granites and granodiorites. These pro-
diagrams of Maniar and Piccoli [21]. (a) K2O versus SiO2, toliths were formed from mantle magma mixed with par-
(b) FeOtot /(FeOtot + MgO) versus SiO2, (c) F/AFM versus tial melting of crustal materials in an arc related orogenic
M/AFM, (d) F/ACF versus C/ACF diagrams. (Symbols:
(syn-collisional) tectonic setting.
IAG- island arc granites, CAG- continental arc granites,
CCG- continental collision granites, POG- post-orogenic References
granites, CEUG- continent-epeirogenic uplift granite,
RRG- rift related granites). [1] Yadav, B.S., Wanjari, N., Ahmad, T. and Chaturvedi, R.
(2016): Geochemistry and petrogenesis of Proterozoic
5. Discussion granitic rocks from northern margin of the Chotanag-
The granitic gneiss in the Southeastern margin of pur Gneissic Complex (CGC). J. Earth Syst. Sci.,
western Nigeria basement complex around Dagbala-Atte DOI: 10.1007/s12040-016-0709-7, 125, No. 5, July
District (Figure 1) formed as a result of medium- to high- 2016, pp. 1041-1060.
grade metamorphism of granites and granodiorites (Figure [2] Frost C D and Frost B R (2011) On ferroan (A-type)
granitoids: Their compositional variability and modes
2a and 2b) that are metaluminous to low peraluminous
of origin; J. Petrol. 52 39-53.
(Figures 2c and 3a) in composition. The protolith granite
[3] Kemp A I S and Hawkesworth C J 2003 Granitic per-
and granodiorite belong to calc-alkaline magmatic series
spectives on the generation and secular evolution of the
that ranges from high K calc alkaline- to shoshonite- se-
continental crust; In: Treatise on Geochemistry (ed.)
ries (Figure 3b). The granite and granodiorite are I-type
Turekian H D H K, Pergamon, Oxford, pp. 349-410.
rocks (Figure 3c) of ferroancomposition (Figure 3d).
[4] Adeoti B, Okonkwo CT (2016) Structural Geology
Ferroan (Fe-enriched) granites are closely associated with
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conditions of limited availability of H2O and low oxygen Southwestern Nigeria. International Letters of Natu-
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org/10.1007/BF00384>45. [29] Harris, N. B. W., Pearce, J. A., & Tindle, A. G.
[17] White, A. J. R., & Chappell, B. W. (1977). Ultrameta- (1986). Geochemical characteristics of collision zone
morphism and granitoid genesis. Tectonophysics, 43, magmatism. In M. P. Coward, & A. C. Ries (Eds.),
7-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(77)90003-8. Collision Tectonics (pp. 67-81). Geological Soci-
[18] Frost, B. R., Barnes, C. G., Collins, W. J., Arculus, R. ety of London Special Publication 19. http://dx.doi.
J., Ellis, D. J., & Frost, C. D. (2001). A geochemical org/10.10.1144/GSL.SP.1986.019.01.04.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Journal of Geological Research

http://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jgr-a

ARTICLE
Assessment of Geologic Controls of Flooding in Parts of OBIO/AK-
POR L.G.A., Rivers State, Nigeria
Eruebi T.B1 Eze S.U2* Ibitoye T.A3 Abolarin M.O3
1.Department of Geology, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
2.Department of Marine Geology, Nigeria Maritime University, Okerenkoko, Nigeria
3.Department of Petroleum Engineering and Geosciences, Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun, Nigeria

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Flooding of Municipal areas is a frequent environmental occurrence in

Received: 18 February 2021 Rivers State that occurs when rainfall runoff meets land surfaces with low
water absorbing capacity or when it overwhelms drainage channels. In
Accepted: 15 April 2021 order to assess the flood situation in the study area, an integrated method
Published Online: 25 April 2021 which involves field-measurement, geographic information system (GIS),
laboratory analysis of soil samples and topographic studies were employed.
Keywords: Digital elevation model of the study area reveals that the flooded areas are
Pluvial flooding situated in areas with elevations lower than its surrounding, thereby acting
as a natural basin to retain flood waters after rainfall. Four holes were
Risk assessment drilled to depth of 3 m to obtain soil samples at 1 m sampling interval, from
Soil sample which laboratory analysis was carried out to determine some geotechnical
Soil properties parameters such as soil’s particle size, specific gravity, bulk density,
porosity, moisture content, permeability and hydraulic conductivity. Results
Topography
of the analysis show that permeability, hydraulic conductivity and porosity
diminishes with respect to depth. The soil in the flooded areas have high
fines content (silt and clay), high bulk density which increase with depth
and a specific gravity that is typical of organic rich soils that contain sand
mixed with a considerable amount of fines. At Nkpolu, mean permeability
rates of 0.003 cm/sec, 0.009 cm/sec and 0.033 cm/sec were obtained at 1, 2
and 3 m respectively. At Eneka, mean permeability rates of 0.011 cm/sec,
0.018 cm/sec and 0.014 cm/sec were obtained at 1, 2 and 3m respectively,
while at Rukpokwu, mean Permeability rates of 0.021 cm/sec was obtained
at 1 m, while 0.006 cm/sec was obtained at 2 and 3 m respectively. The
mean hydraulic conductivity for the locations under study is of the order of
10-4 ft/day. This study has shown that the flooded areas are located in low
lying urban areas which act as basins, therefore, the top soil is crusted with
highly compacted soil horizons beneath. With high and frequent rainfall
in the region which generates a lot of runoff, in addition to poor drainage
system, flooding in the study area occurs frequently. Therefore, construction
and maintenance of efficient drainage channels for an effective solution to
urban pluvial flooding in the study area are thereby recommended.

*Corresponding Author:
Eze S.U,
Department of Marine Geology, Nigeria Maritime University, Okerenkoko, Nigeria;
Email: [email protected]

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

1. Introduction West respectively. It is situated between latitudes 4045’

North and longitude 80 00’ East, with mean elevation of
Urban flooding in Nigeria is becoming a growing 20 meters above sea level.
concern and occurs every year, with about 1/5th of the The study area is characterized by two seasons -
populace faced with at least one form of flooding event Wet and Dry Seasons with a hot monsoon climate, high
[1]
. Flood water could have its source from rivers, canals, temperatures and high humidity of about 60% all year
weighed down sewers and rainfall which temporarily cov- round[15]. The wet season of the year is typically from
er land surfaces. April to October but rainfall can be experienced all year
According to Abam et al., [2], Urban Centres in Rivers round, spawning lots of runoffs and accompanied by
State experience severe flooding once in two years and thunder storms. Rainfall measurements range from 1800
pluvial flooding accounts for 41% of flooding nationwide. mm to 2800 mm due to proximal distance to the Atlan-
Frequent and intense rainfall over low lying areas and rap- tic Ocean [15]. Rainfall peaks are usually observed in the
id urbanization which does not take into consideration the months of June and July, and a short break follows be-
natural landscape orientation that allow for drainage, poor tween the months of July and August. The Dry Season
refuse management, increase in water resistant surfaces of the year is from January to March, where the weather
which generates sediments that block drainages, greatly is dusty, warm and dry. Annual temperatures do not vary
influence flooding in municipal areas [3]. much and are constant (between 250c and 280c) [15].
Many factors lead to flooding. Urbanization, human
interference, climate change, heavy and frequent rainfall, 2. Geomorphology and Geology
soil conditions, tidal activity, demographic expansion into
The study area occupies a fraction of the Niger Delta
flood plains, emission of greenhouse gases (methane and
Basin with an altitude of 20-30 meters above sea level,
carbon dioxide - according to the IPCC, Methane is 23
with an undulating topography. The Niger Delta has a
times more potent greenhouse gas than CO2) and the ob- sub-aerial extent of about 75,000 km [16], total approx-
struction of stream channels by over grown vegetation are imate area of 300,000 km 2 [17], a sediment volume of
some causes of flooding in Nigeria [4-10]. 500,000 km3 [18], and sediment thickness of about 10 km
However, the major catalyst for flooding is rainfall to over 12 km, at the basin depocentre [16]. Extension-
coupled with soil conditions and the modification of the al forces resulting from a failed tectonic separation of
earth’s natural terrain which block natural drainage path- the South American and the African Plates between the
way resulting to the accretion of storm waters [11]. The Jurassic to Cretaceous periods formed the Niger Delta
flood incidence becomes hazardous with trivial provision Basin. Sedimentation is controlled by fluvial processes in
for surface drainage which could be blocked by wastes or the floodplain and the delta top environments. The man-
sediments generated by urbanization [5]. The concept of grove-swamp environment is controlled by tidal process-
flooding has been well studied by many scientists and re- es, and wave action dominates the shoreface complexes
searchers [12-14] of the Niger Delta [19]. The Delta sedimentation is wave
Municipal Flooding is a recurrent problem in parts of dominated and longshore drift cells divergent [20]. Short
Obio Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State and and Stauble [21], recognized three distinct subsurface strati-
its effects have become worse overtime. Therefore, the graphic units in the Niger delta and these are the Benin,
purpose of this study is to scrutinize the interplay and Agbada and Akata Formations. The Benin Formation is a
influence of the geomorphology and soil attributes on deposit which is dated Oligocene to Recent in age with a
flooding in some locations within Obio Akpor Local Gov- thickness of about 2000 meters. In the Eocene, the Agbada
ernment, so as to stipulate effective measures to manage Formation was deposited and is about 3700 meters thick,
or reduce municipal flooding in the area. laid under a transitional environment. It is a sequence of
An integrated methodology involving GIS, field based sandstone and shale, consisting of an upper predominant-
measurement, and laboratory method were employed to ly sandy unit with minor shale intercalation and a lower
the appraisal of data in the study area. The study area is shale unit which is thicker than the upper sandy unit. The
located in Obio Akpor Local Government area of Rivers Akata Formation was deposited first in the Paleocene and
State and three study locations within the area (Eneka, is about 7000 meters thick, and composed of thick se-
Nkpolu and Rukpokwu), were studied (Figure 1). quences of over-pressured marine shales, sand, turbidities
Obio Akpor is bordered by four Local Governments and channel fills [22]. The Akata Formation was laid under
which are Ikwere, Port Harcourt, Oyingbo and Emohua marine environment. The soil in the area is Sandy or san-
Local Government areas to the North, South, East and dy loam and is always leached.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

3. Materials and Method description of soil was conducted in terms of colour, tex-
ture, wetness and condition before taken to the laboratory
3.1 Materials for further analysis.
A preliminary risk assessment was adopted using the
Both fields based measurement and laboratory analysis
European Water Management and Implementation of
were employed in this study. The field instruments used
floods directive [23], whose focus is Pluvial Flooding and
are Hand Auger and aiding tools. The laboratory equip-
Surface Water.
ment used includes a falling head Permeameter, Digital
Sample locations, depths, GPS coordinates and eleva-
sieve shaker, electrical weighing balance, density bottle, tions are shown in Table 1.
cutter, metre rule, crucibles, drying pans, volumetric cyl-
inder, 1 litre glass cylinder, hydrometer with bouyoucos 3.2.1 Rate of Infiltration (Drain Test)
scale, thermometer, Sodium Hexametaphosphate, multi-
Six holes were drilled to 15 cm and in-situ drain test
mix machines with baffled milkshake cups.
were carried out using Rubber Infiltrometer with Diameter
3.2 Methods of 30 cm and Height of 25 cm. A height of constant water
head was maintained at 10 cm till a stable rate of intake
BS 5930 (British Standard Code for Site Investigation) was established. The rate of water drop in unit time was
was employed to obtain soil samples. measured till it drained completely. The rate of infiltration
A depth of 3 m was drilled for soil sample collection was inferred using the relation:
at 1m intervals, labeled and stored in sample bags. In-situ Rate of infiltration = distance drop per unit time (1)

Figure 1 (a, b): Map of Study area showing sampling locations in Obio Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State,
Nigeria.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Table 1. Sample Locations, geographic coordinates and elevation.

GPS COORDINATES
LOCATION SAMPLE ID DEPTH(m) NORTHINGS EASTINGS ELEVATION(m)
NKPOLU *NKPOLU 1 1 N4°52’18.114” E6°57’57.342” 16
2
3
*NKPOLU 2 1 N4°52’22.6” E6°58’224” 10
2
3
*NKPOLU 3 1 N4°52’204” E6°58’622” 13
2
3
*NKPOLU 4 1 N4°52’443” E6°58’520” 7.1
2
3

RUKPOKWU *RUKPOKWU 1 1 N4°55’37.518” E6°59’57.738” 21

2
3
*RUKPOKWU 2 1 N4°55’34.638” E6°55’59.316” 20
2
3
*RUKPOKWU 3 1 N4°55’37.458” E6°59’55.392” 24
2
3
*RUKPOKWU 4 1 N4°5524.8” E6°59’49.9” 16.3
2
3

ENEKA *ENEKA 1 1 N4°53’16.188” E7°2’32.634” 20

2
3
*ENEKA 2 1 N4°53’25.716” E7°2’47.838” 20
2
3
*ENEKA 3 1 N4°53’28.962” E7°2’43.260” 18
2
3
*ENEKA 4 1 N4°53’17.1” E7°2’51.3” 10.3
2
3
* Drilled holes.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

3.2.2 Digital Elevation Modelling signed ZEALCHON, ISO certified C032 Permeameter,
and the permeability co-efficient was obtained using the
A Digital Elevation Model was generated using Google expression:
Earth Pro and ArcGIS software program. The data points
utilized for generating the DEM were digitized from Goo-
(3)
gle Earth Pro. Over 10,000 elevation points were gener-
ated from Google earth pro and converted to elevations
where:
using the TCX online converter which converts latitudes,
k = Permeability
longitudes and distances into actual elevations. The coor-
a = cross sectional area (soil)
dinates and elevations were entered into ArcGIS software
A = area of stand pipe
program and the elevations were contoured and coloured
L = length (soil)
using the Kriging Interpolation Method.
h0= total head before test
3.2.3 Pluvial Flood Risk Assessment h1= total head after test
Δt = time interval for head to drop.
The risk assessment of the study area was evaluated us- By interpretation, when k is over 10-1 cm/sec, the per-
ing the scoring matrix for preliminary risk assessment as meability is high, when k is equivalent to 10-1 cm/sec, the
proposed by Ronnie [23] (Table 2). The attributes adopted permeability is medium, and when k is below 10-1 cm/sec,
in the assessment includes: depth of flooding, properties it is interpreted as low.
at risk and extent of flooding, flow path and topographic Hydraulic conductivity (K), is a soil attribute used to
depression, velocity of flow, sensitivity of land use and elucidate the ease of flow of a fluid through pores or frac-
doorway threshold levels. The scores allocated range from tures in soil. For hydraulic conductivity, we adopted an
0–5. A score between 0-2 is reported as not significant, empirical formula to establish the ease of fluid flow in the
between 3-5 is reported as low, between 6-8 is reported soils researched for soils with clay content < 35%, Delga-
as moderate, between 9-10 it is reported high, and greater do et al., [24].
than 10 is reported as severe. K = 0.101176 * FINES-1.62 (4)
3.2.4 Grain Size Analysis Fines = percentage of sand and silt (determined by tex-
ture by Bouyoucos hydrometer test).
36 soil samples were collected from three locations Moisture content (M) was calculated as the result of the
each in the study area at depth of 1m interval. 52 grams ratio between the weights of water to that of dry soil. It
of soil was used for the hydrometer test and 200 grams was evaluated by oven drying for about 18 hours at 1050c
of soil was used for wet sieve analysis to account for the (BS 1377, 1990).
coarse and fine fractions of the soil. Sieving was done
through mesh with sizes of 2.00 mm, 0.500 mm, 0.250 (5)
mm, 0.150 mm, 0.063 mm and the weight retained. The Specific gravity (Gs), an important property of soils that
absolute mass of soil passing through each sieve was is employed to classify soils was estimated as the mass
noted. The wet sieving method was employed (BS 1377) of a given volume of soil divided by the mass of an equal
where soil samples are weighed, oven dried and then volume of water. In this study, a standard density bottle
washed through sieve number 200. The samples were was used to measure specific gravity. Heterogeneous soils
sieved for 10 minutes in an electric sieve shaker using (US can have Gs ranging from 2.70-2.80. High organic clay in
Mesh size). The percentage of sand, silt and clay was plot- the Niger Delta can have values ranging from 2.2-2.5. Po-
ted on a semi log graph. rous diatomaceous earth with measurable organic content
Therefore, can have values below 2.00 and higher values of specific
%sand + %silt+ %clay = 100% (2) gravity can be observed and it indicates the presence of
heavy minerals in soil (iron) (University of Port Harcourt
3.2.5 Determination of Soil Properties
Engineering Geology Manual).
The following soil properties were determined within
(6)
each case study using established empirical relations:
Permeability, hydraulic conductivity, moisture content, Bulk density, the ratio of the dry solid mass to the soil
specific gravity/ bulk density and porosity. bulk volume was measured by means of a cylindrical
Permeability test was carried out using the china de- mould. The cylindrical mould employed in this study had

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Table 2. Preliminary risk assessment values (after Ronnie [23]), showing the scoring Matrix used for Preliminary Risk
Assessment.

Attribute Hazard Level Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

Description <0.2m 0.2m to 0.50m 0.5m to 1m 1m to 2m >2m

Depth of
Flooding
Score 0 1 2 3 4

Up to 100 properties More than 100

No properties 1 property potentially Up to 10 properties
potentially at risk. properties potentially
Description potentially at risk at risk Localized potentially at risk.
Properties at Extensive (up to at risk. Widespread
Localized <0.1ha <0.1ha Moderate (up to 1ha)
Risk and Extent 10ha) (>10ha)
of Flooded Area
Score 0 1 2 3 4

Description No or Flowpath only Yes. Depth <0.5m Yes. Depth <0.5-1m Yes. Depth 1-2m Yes. Depth >2m
Flowpath feeds
topographic
depression
Score 0 0 1 2 3

Velocity more than

Still Water or Velocity more than
Velocity 0.1 to 0.5m/ Velocity 0.5-1m/s 1m/s (generally
velocity <0.1m/ 1m/s (generally
Description s (generally moderatel (generally moderately sleeply sloping terrain)
s (generally flat sleeply sloping
sloping terrain) sloping terrain) and depth of flow
Velocity of Flow terrain) terrain)
more than 0.5m

Score 0 1 2 3 4

Suburban residential/ Central urban or town

Critical infrastructure
Open areas that Parkland, open ground commercial/retail/ centre residential/
present. Critical
can be flooded or farmland where industrial areas commercial/retail/
Description transportation links
without significant flooding would have where flooding industrial areas where
Sensitivity of present. Basement
consequence. some consequence. would have moderate flooding would have
Land Use flats present.
consequence. high consequence.

Score 0 1 2 3 4

Most above 0.2m Most at ground level.

Most above 0.2m Most 0m to 0.2m Most below ground
Description but some 0m to 0.2m Some below ground
above ground level above ground level level
Doorway above ground level level
Threshold Levels
Score 0 1 2 3 4

Total Score 0 to 2 3 to 5 6 to 8 9 to 10 >10

Overall Preliminary Risk Rating Not Significant Low Moderate High Severe

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

a 4.5 cm diameter, a 7.6 cm length, weighed 197.1g and a (9)

volume of 120.8 cm3.
The bulk density was obtained from dry density (ρdry) where:
ρb = bulk density
and moisture content. Dry density was calculated using:
Gs = specific gravity
(7)
4. Presentation of Results and Discussion
From the dry density values obtained, bulk density was
estimated from the relation: Results of average values of drain test is summarized in
Table 3. The result reveal that water drains at an average
bulk density
ρdry = (m = moisture content in percentage) rate of 6.4x10-5 cm/sec at Nkpolu, 2.5x10-4 cm/sec at Ene-
1+ m ka and 5.3 x 10-5 cm/sec at Rukpokwu (Table 3). Howev-
(8) er, it was observed that the areas are bare and crusted, and
where: thus water drain very slowly which results to flooding.
ρdry = dry density computed from equation (7) The Digital Elevation Model of the study locations
m = moisture content in percentage computed from within the study area is shown in Figure 2. The elevation
equation (5) model reveals the current topography of the area under
Porosity which is a natural property of rocks that de- study which is lower than adjoining areas, thus acting as a
scribes the degree of voids that are present within a given basin receptacle that retain flood water and water draining
rock material and exists between the grains of minerals, from surrounding uplands, as water naturally flows from
was determined from bulk density and dry density of the higher elevations to lower elevations. At Eneka, eleva-
rock material. Dry density of a rock in (g/cm3) is equal to tion variation is from 18.56 m to 21.50 m, at Rukpokwu,
its specific gravity (Gs) as density of water is (1 g/cm3). elevation variation is from 18.56 m to 24.54 m, and at
Therefore, porosity (n) was computed using Nkpolu, elevation variation is from 12.56 m to 18.55 m

Table 3. Summary of Rate of Infiltration (Drain test) result obtained within the study locations.

Location

NKPOLU

H1 (cm) 10 10 10 10 10 10

H2 (cm) 0.5 6.7 0.9 4.1 0.4 6.1

Time (sec) 86,400 79,200 48,900 27,300 50,400 48,840

Drain Rate (cm/s) 5.7x10-6 8.4x10-5 1.8 x10-5 1.5 x10-4 7.9 x10-6 1.2x10-4

Average 6.4x10-5

ENEKA

H1 (cm) 10 10 10 10 10 10

H2 (cm) 8.3 7.4 3.3 6.6 5.5 0.4

Time (sec) 13,500 24,660 12,700 34,620 35,220 34860

Drain Rate (cm/s) 6.1 x10-4 3.0x10-4 2.58x10-4 1.9x10-4 1.56x10-4 1.1x10-5

Average 2.5x10-4

RUKPOKWU

H1 (cm) 10 10 10 10 10 10

H2 (cm) 0.69 2.1 1.6 2.2 0.09 6.1

Time (sec) 40,620 40,080 41,460 38,640 41,040 40,320

Drain Rate (cm/s) 1.69x10-5 5.2x10-5 3.8 x10-5 5.7x10-5 2.19x10-6 1.5x10-4

Average 5.3x10-5

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 2. Digital Elevation Model of the Study area. (EN - Eneka; Ruk - Rukpokwu; NK – Nkpolu).

Figure 3. Topographic Map of Study area, Obio Akpor Local Government Area, Rivers State Nigeria.

(Figure 2). Flooded areas of Nkpolu are its lowest areas of a,b) show that the study locations are located in basins
about 11–14 m above sea level. It was also observed that which act as gathering points for flood water and waters
the major roads that run through the study area have dis- draining from surrounding upland areas.
torted the landscape of the area by either blocking natural At Nkpolu, elevation ranged from 8 m to 11 m above
drainage paths or act as impervious surfaces constructed sea level (Figure 4a), thus Nkpolu having the lowest ele-
on low lying areas thus creating a dip on both sides of the vation among the study locations has its low lying areas
road or have higher elevations than the flooded areas (21- receive flood waters after rainfall thereby making it more
24 m above sea level). prone to flood risk.
3D topographic map of the study locations (Figure 4 From Table 4, the risk assessment of the study locations

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 4(a). 3D Topographic map of study locations, showing the topography of the area

Figure 4(b). Wireframe of topographic map in 4(a).

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Table 4. Result of Preliminary Flood Risk Assessment (Pluvial flooding).

ATTRIBUTES NKPOLU SCORE ENEKA SCORE RUKPOKWU SCORE

Depth of flooding 4 3 4

Properties at risk 3 2 2

Flow path
1 1 2
(topographic depression)

Velocity of flow (m/sec) 2 2 1

Sensitivity of land use 4 2 2

Doorway threshold levels 0 0 0

Total Score: 14 10 11

Overall risk rating Severe High Severe

show that Nkpolu and Rukpokwu are severely affected by locations.

pluvial flooding, while Eneka is highly affected.
Table 5. Wet Sieve analysis result of Nkpolu
4.1 Result of Wet Sieve Analysis
Nkpolu (Loc1) 1meter 2meters 3meters
Result of wet sieve analysis reveal that the soils are
%Sand 48.5 50.8 51.2
medium to fine grain sand, with fines content of 42%,
% Passing
45% and 40% at 1 m, 2 m and 3 m respectively at Nk- sieve no 200 (Fine 51.4 49.2 48.8
polu (Table 5), 50%, 48%, and 49% at 1 m, 2 m and 3 m %Gravel 0.1 - -
respectively at Eneka (Table 6), and 48%, 54% and 56%
at Rukpokwu at 1 m, 2 m, and 3 m respectively (Table 7).
The soil in the study locations show a high proportion of Nkpolu (Loc2) 1meter 2meters 3meters
fines (silt and clay dominant). The soils are Sand loamy, %Sand 56.1 59.1 55.1
well graded silt clayey sand (1 meter), well graded clay % Passing
silty sand (2 meters) at Nkpolu, and well graded silt clay- sieve no 200 (Fines) 43.9 40.8 44.9
%Gravel - 0.1 -
ey sand (3 meters). Soils at Eneka and Rukpokwu are well
graded clay silty sand from 1 m to 3 m. The results show
that the soils in the study locations are well graded, medi-
Nkpolu (Loc3) 1meter 2meters 3meters
um to fine grained, with high bulk density and high fines %Sand 58.9 55.5 68.6
content. Well graded soils experience good compaction % Passing
than poorly graded soils [25]. Kenneth et al., [26], opined that sieve no 200 (Fines) 41.1 44.4 31.0
soils with fines greater than 30%, exceeding the transition- %Gravel - 0.1 0.4
al fines content of 15-30%, are susceptible to increase in
compaction by successive increase in load thus the topsoil
in the study locations are hard and crusted due to frequent Nkpolu (Loc4) 1meter 2meters 3meters
%Sand 66.6 54.8 63.1
rainfall, increase in load, repeated wetting and drying and
% Passing
lack of surface cover. The applied load could be by rain-
sieve no 200 (Fines) 33.1 45.0 36.9
fall intensity, urbanisation, gravity and flooding. Tables 5 %Gravel 0.3 0.2 -
to 7, show the results of wet sieve analysis for the study

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Table 6. Wet Sieve analysis result of Rukpokwu Table 7. Wet Sieve analysis result of Eneka

Rukpokwu (Loc1) 1meter 2meters 3meters Eneka (Loc1) 1meter 2meters 3meters
%Sand 46.8 48.7 51.6 %Sand 51.6 57.6 49.0
% Passing % Passing
sieve no 200 (Fines) 53.2 51.3 48.2 sieve no 200 (Fines) 48.4 42.4 51.0
%Gravel - - 0.2 %Gravel - - 0.2

Rukpokwu (Loc2) 1meter 2meters 3meters Eneka (Loc2) 1meter 2meters 3meters
%Sand 50.8 39.6 32.2 %Sand 50.3 48.9 52.4
% Passing % Passing
sieve no 200 (Fines) 49.2 60.2 67.7 sieve no 200 (Fines) 49.7 49.7 47.60
%Gravel - 0.2 0.1 %Gravel - 0.1 -

Rukpokwu (Loc3) 1meter 2meters 3meters Eneka (Loc3) 1meter 2meters 3meters
%Sand 47.7 45.5 44.2 %Sand 42.6 49.2 46.0
% Passing % Passing
sieve no 200 (Fines) 52.3 54.4 55.7 sieve no 200 (Fines) 53.5 50.8 54.0
%Gravel - 0.1 0.1 %Gravel - 0.2 0.5

Rukpokwu (Loc4) 1meter 2meters 3meters Eneka (Loc4) 1meter 2meters 3meters
%Sand 63.0 47.1 47.8 %Sand 61.9 46.6 51
% Passing % Passing
sieve no 200 (Fines) 36.8 52.4 52.0 sieve no 200 (Fines) 38.1 53.4 53.4
%Gravel 0.2 0.5 0.2 %Gravel - - 0.1

Figure 5(a). Lithological Profile of Nkpolu showing lithological description of subsurface materials at 1m, 2m and 3m
respectively

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 5(b). Lithological Profile of Eneka showing lithological description of subsurface materials at 1m, 2m and 3m
respectively

Figure 5(c). Lithological Profile of Rukpokwu showing lithological description of subsurface materials at 1m, 2m and
3m respectively

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

4.2 Result of Soil Properties tained at 1, 2 and 3 m respectively. At Eneka, mean per-
meability rates of 0.011 cm/sec, 0.018 cm/sec and 0.014
Moisture content values at Nkpolu have an average of cm/sec were obtained at 1, 2 and 3 m respectively while at
23.4% at 1 m, 28.9% at 2 m and 28.9% at 3 m. At Eneka,
Rukpokwu, mean Permeabiliy rates of 0.021 cm/sec was
the moisture content values have an average of 23.8%,
obtained at 1 m and 0.006 cm/sec was obtained at 2 and 3
25.5% and 25% at 1 m, 2 m and 3 m respectively, while
m respectively. The permeability model (Figure 9) shows
at Rukpokwu, moisture content values have an average of
that at Eneka, the surface soils have a low permeability
27.2%, 27.3%, and 29% at 1 m, 2 m and 3 m respectively.
rate and a more permeable layer was observed to be sand-
These findings, show that the water content of soils in the
wiched between a low permeable top and bottom layer. At
area is high, which validates the level of soil retention
Rukpokwu, permeability decreases downward.
capacity. The moisture content increases with respect to
depth due to the underline lithology. The moisture content
models of the area within the sampled locations is shown
in Figure 6(a), (b), and (c).
Result of porosity computed within the study area show
that at Nkpolu, the mean porosity values are 27.4% at 1
m, 21.8% at 2 m and 20.8% at 3 m. At Eneka, the mean
Porosity values are 25.3% at 1 m, 26% at 2m, and 24.7%
at 3 m, while at Rukpokwu, the mean porosity values are Figure 6(a). Moisture content model of Nkpolu showing
variations in moisture content
25.5% at 1 m, 18.7% at 2 m and 37.3% at 3 m. The poros-
ity models of the study locations are shown in Figure 7 a,
b, c. The models reveal that porosity reduces with depth
at Nkpolu and at Eneka porosity increased from 1 m to 2
m and decreased at 3 m, while in Rukpokwu, porosity in-
creased with depth at 3 m. This shows the wide range and
variation of pore sizes inherent in the soil horizon which
influences the porosity of soils and reflects in the range
and arrangement of the particle sizes. The measured bulk Figure 6(b). Moisture content model of Eneka showing
density of soils in the study areas increases downwards to variations in moisture content
the depth of probe. It ranges from 1.8 g/cm3 at 1 and 2 m
to 1.9 g/cm3 at 3 m for each of the sampled locations.
The hydraulic conductivity model, which describes the
ease at which water passes through a soil under gravity is
shown in Figure 8. Hydraulic conductivity, has more stur-
dy impact on the rate at which water moves progressively
into the soil than most other soil properties. Hydraulic
Conductivity fluctuates with increasing depth with an av-
erage of 4.94 x10-4 ft/day, 6.31 x10-4 ft/day and 7.01x10-
4
ft/day at 1 m, 2 m, and 3 m in Eneka respectively, 7.11
x10-4 ft/day, 6.39 x10-4 ft/day and 4.79 x10-4 ft/day at 1 m, Figure 6(c). Moisture content model of Rukpokwu show-
2 m, and 3 m in Rukpokwu respectively and 6.58 x10-4 ft/ ing variations in moisture content
day, 7.37 x10-4 ft/day, 6.35 x10-4 ft/day at 1 m, 2 m, and 3
m in Nkpolu respectively. From the model (Figure 8), it
was observed that hydraulic conductivity decreases with
respect to depth.
Permeability describes the measure at which a soil will
permit the flow of water through it. Measured permeabil-
ity values were observed to be less than 10-1 cm/sec, and
was rated low and typical of soils with high fine content
(silt and clay). At Nkpolu, mean permeability rates of Figure 7(a). Porosity model of Nkpolu showing variations
0.003 cm/sec, 0.009 cm/sec and 0.033 cm/sec were ob- in Porosity

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

The model shows that hydraulic conductivity decreases

with respect to depth.

Figure 7(b). Porosity model of Eneka showing variations

in Porosity

Figure 9(a). Permeability model of Nkpolu.

Figure 7(c). Porosity model of Rukpokwu showing varia-

tions in Porosity Figure 9(b). Permeability model of Eneka.

Figure 8(a). Hydraulic conductivity model of Nkpolu

Figure 9(c). Permeability model of Rukpokwu.
The model shows that at 1m depth soils have low per-
meability, while at 2 m and 3 m depth, permeability in-
creases in the study area.

5. Conclusions
This study has examined several factors which includes
Figure 8(b). Hydraulic conductivity model of Eneka geomorphology, grain size analysis, and soil properties
which contributes to flooding of urban areas within Port
Harcourt metropolis. Urbanization trend has led to ex-
pansion of non-pervious surfaces and bare land with con-
siderable crusted depths, alteration of natural landscapes,
blocking of drainage paths by debris and waste and the
construction of roads at higher elevations than surround-
ing areas. Results of wet sieve analysis and hydrometer
test of grain size, show that the study area contains dom-
inant fines with respect to depth of probing. The soil tex-
tural classification is silty, clayey sand and clayey silt sand
(sandy loam) with high concentration of fines. Soils with
Figure 8(c). Hydraulic conductivity model of Rukpokwu high concentration of fines are most susceptible to com-

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

pression and crusting. The study area experiences intense and Effects on Flood Mitigation in the Niger Delta.
and frequent rainfall over extended periods of time, which Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
generates a lot of runoff and has led to crusting of the soil Flood and Erosion, Prevention, Protection and Miti-
which is evident in the high bulk density values of the soil gation held in Rivers state, 2014. Pp 176-190.
and compaction of lower soil horizons. The development [4] Ogba, C., Inah, O., and Marcus, I. (2009). Appli-
of crusted soils, highly compacted soil horizons, increase cation of Geographic Information System (GIS)
in impervious surfaces and poor drainage system network Towards Flood Management in Calabar, Nigeria..
in the study area reduces the flow and seepage of floodwa- Proceedings of the FIG Working Week 2009. Eilat,
ters under gravity, thereby making the area more prone to Israel, 3-8.
flooding. [5] Daudu, P. I., Yashi, J., Yisa, G. L., and Akaa, G.
In view of these findings, the following recommenda- (2014). Road flooding: Causes, Effects and Mitiga-
tions are made for consideration: tion Measures. A case study of Oju Ore Road, Ado-
● Good flood control policies be made; standard and Odo Ota Local Government Area of Ogun State. Pro-
efficient engineering designed drainage channels should ceedings of the 2nd international conference on flood
be constructed and maintained. and erosion prevention, protection and mitigation
● Infrastructures in municipal areas should be designed held in Rivers State, 2014. Pp 267-276.
adequately to create alternative drainage routes for flood- [6] John, D. N. and Peter, A. E. (2014). Flooding impli-
waters to discharge points i:e nearby water body. cations of Land use and Cover Dynamics in Proxi-
● Illegal structures on rivers or waterways should be mate Peri-Urban areas of River Otamiri Watershed in
discouraged and excavated to pave way for good drainage Owerri Metropolis of Southern Nigeria.Proceedings
systems of the 2nd International Conference on Flood and
Erosion Prevention, Protection and Mitigation held
Funding in Rivers State, 2014. Pp 365-376.
[7] Nwigwe, C. and Emberga, T.T., (2014). An Assess-
There was no grant or financial support provided from ment of Causes and Effects of Flood in Nigeria,
any agency in the public, commercial and not-for profit Standard. Scientific. Research journal. p1-50.
organization for this research work [8] Ogbanga, M. M. (2015). Impacts of Flooding Disas-
ter on Housing and Health in Two Communities of
Conflicts of Interest/Competing Interests
Ahoada East and West Local Government Areas of
We declare that this research work has never been Rivers State. Nigerian Journal of Agriculture, Food
submitted previously by anyone to any journal for peer re- and Environment. 11(1):44-50.
view and publication, hence it is an original work. All the [9] Oloyede, k., Adetimirin, Oluwafemi, I. and Adebumi,
ethical principles of research in the data collection, prepa- O. A. (2014). Flood Assessment in Settlements Using
ration, analysis and interpretation were implemented. Spatial Technology. Proceedings of the 2nd Interna-
tional Conference on Flood and Erosion Prevention,
Availability of Data and Material Protection and Mitigation held in Rivers State, Nige-
ria, 2014. 144-160.
Not applicable. [10] Slaughter, A., and Adati, A. K. (2012). Oil Explora-
tion and Spillage in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. Civil
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Flood and Erosion Prevention, Protection and Miti- national conference on flood and erosion prevention,
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[2] Abam, T. K. S., Gobo, A. E., and Ede, N. (2014a). Pp 356-364.
Flood Prevention in Portharcourt, Rivers State, Nige- [12] Eludoyin, 0. S., Wokocha C. C., and Ayolagha, G.
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C.L. (2014b): Pronosis of Discharge Distribution [13] Tonkin and Taylor (2014). Increase Flood Vulnera-

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bility: Geological Processes Causing Increased Flood [21] Short, K.C. and Stauble, A.J. (1967) Outline of the
Vulnerability. Report: Chapman Tripp on behalf of Geology of Niger Delta. American Association of
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[14] Faghih, M. and Tan, P. Y. (2015). GIS Techniques for [22] Odumodu, C.F.(2011). Geothermal Gradients and
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[18] Hospers, J. (1965). Gravity Field and Structure of nal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 11(3), 13-31.
the Niger Delta, West Africa. Geological Society of [25] Andre-Obayanju, O., Imarhiagbe, O. J., Onyeobi.
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[19] Reijers, T.J.A., Petters, S.W. and Nwajide C.S. Properties of Tropical Soils and Anthills from Parts
(1997). The Niger Delta Basin in Selley R.C, ed. of Edo State for Road Construction. Journal of Ap-
African Basins – Sedimentary Basins of the World 3. plied Science and Environmental Management, 21 (7)
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[20] Burke, K. (1972). Longshore Drift, Submarine Can- [26] Kenneth, L., Vos, B. and Ngan Tillard (2009). Effects
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Niger Delta. America Association of Petroleum Ge- Section of Engineering geology, Department of Ap-
ology. Vol. 56, pp 1975 -1983. plied Earth Sciences. Pp 1-136. 232-238.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Journal of Geological Research

http://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jgr-a

ARTICLE
Comparison of U-spatial Statistics Method with Classical Statistics
Results in the Determination of Geochemical Anomalies of Epither-
mal Gold in Khoshnameh Area, Hashtjin, Iran
Mirmahdi Seyedrahimi-Niaraq*
Faculty of Engineering, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran.

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history In this study, methods based on the distribution model (with and without
Received: 04 March 2021 personal opinion) were used for the separation of anomalous zones, which
include two different methods of U-spatial statistics and mean plus values
Accepted: 29 March 2021 of standard deviation ( ). The primary purpose is to compare the
Published Online: 20 April 2021 results of these methods with each other. To increase the accuracy of
comparison, regional geochemical data were used where occurrences and
Keywords: mineralization zones of epithermal gold have been introduced. The study
Geochemical exploration area is part of the Hashtjin geological map, which is structurally part of the
folded and thrust belt and part of the Alborz Tertiary magmatic complex.
U-Spatial statistics method Samples were taken from secondary lithogeochemical environments. Au
Anomalous area element data concerning epithermal gold reserves were used to investigate
Epithermal gold the efficacy of these two methods. In the U- spatial statistics method,
and criteria were used to determine the threshold, and in the method,
the element enrichment index of the region rock units was obtained
with grouping these units. The anomalous areas were identified by, and
criteria. Comparison of methods was made considering the position of
discovered occurrences and the occurrences obtained from these methods,
the flexibility of the methods in separating the anomalous zones, and the
two-dimensional spatial correlation of the three elements As, Pb, and Ag
with Au element. The ability of two methods to identify potential areas is
acceptable. Among these methods, it seems the method with criteria has
a high degree of flexibility in separating anomalous regions in the case of
epithermal type gold deposits.

1. Introduction haloes is their much broader expansion than the deposit,

which makes it easier to explore mineral deposits. These
Geochemical haloes are areas around the ore deposit haloes extend like the pod around the deposit. The shape
where the concentration of elements with ore solutions is and extent of expansion of these haloes depend on several
chemically higher than usual, but the concentration of el- factors, such as the form and amount of mineral depos-
ements may not have reached the level of economic min- it, the content of mineral reservoir, and the kind of host
eralization in some deposits [1-8]. A characteristic of these rock[9-18].

*Corresponding Author:
Mirmahdi Seyedrahimi-Niaraq,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran;
Email: [email protected]

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

The concentration threshold refers to a certain amount these samples can belong to both the anomaly and back-
of concentration in geochemical exploration and projects, ground populations [38].
which based on that can separate geochemical anomalous As the purpose of a regional geochemical exploration
(Values higher than threshold concentration) and back- project is to introduce potential areas for further study,
ground (Values smaller than threshold concentration) anomaly zones should be carefully identified. Different
from each other [1, 2]. In the concept of the anomaly, Rose methods have been proposed for this purpose. In these
et al. [19] stated that the element concentration threshold is methods, two types of errors are always associated with
an indicator in which the concentrations higher than that the classification. These two types of errors are inversely
is an anomaly. In the simplest case, it can be said that the correlated, the first (e1) occurs when the sample of back-
threshold is the upper limit of the background so that the ground population is not counted with the background
values above this limit are the anomaly, and the lower value, and the second (e2) occurs when the sample of the
values are the background. However, in most cases, two anomaly population is counted with the background value.
or more threshold values may be detected [20-25]. In geo- These two types of errors are also inverted, meaning that
chemical investigations, anomalous values can be related if one type of error decreases with the threshold change,
to mineralized rocks. Therefore, the threshold value is the other increases. In some cases, minimizing one of the
a crucial exploration guideline for selecting anomalous errors has the best result, but in other cases, it is better to
samples, or in other words, where the chance of discover- minimize the total error [38].
ing the mineral deposit is very high [1]. Part of the anom-
aly population is related to these haloes and another part
to the ore deposit [26]. Therefore, in the first stage of geo-
chemical exploration should be identified the anomalous
values and then the anomalous areas should be prioritized.
Different methods have been used for the separation
and detection of anomalous zones from the background.
These methods can be divided into three distinct groups.
The first group is based on the statistical parameters of Figure 1. Density function of a geochemical variable
the distribution (such as the mean plus twice the standard showing two populations [7]: (A) anomaly with mean
µA; (B) background with mean µB. zA = lower limit of
deviation method), the second group, which is more com-
an anomaly; zB = upper limit of background. e1 and e2 =
plicated than the previous one, considers the frequency errors of type 1 and 2 with zB as a threshold.
distribution of the element concentration (for example,
probability graphs and gap statistic methods). The last In this research, a basic map for measuring the efficien-
group considers the location of the sampling points and cy of methods is provided. This map is the summary of
their spatial relation in estimating anomalous zones (such the geological map, in which the results of regional and
as U-spatial statistics and fractal and multifractal method, local exploration studies, including the mineralized area,
and machine learning-based algorithms) [27-37]. were fitted on that. Then two methods of U-spatial statis-
All of these methods follow from a general-purpose, as tics and are applied to data. The results of these methods
illustrated in Figure 1. This Figure represents the distribu- will be to determine the threshold values and map of the
tion frequency of concentration values (these values may anomalous areas. For evaluating the methods, the results
be raw values or values estimated by moving averages or are compared with the basic map.
kriging). Anomaly (A) and background (B) are two dis-
2. Geology and Tectonic Setting
tinct populations that differ in element content and spatial
properties. These methods aim is to define a threshold so The study area is part of the Hashtjin geological quad-
that element values can classify samples. Samples with rangle, which is located 20 km south of Khalkhal in the
values higher than z are the anomaly population, and val- following geographical coordinates (Figure 2):
ues smaller than z are the background population. If z1 is N37° 30’ 00.0” E48° 16’ 22.0”
the lower limit of the anomaly and z2 is the upper limit of N37° 30’ 00.0” E48° 27’ 18.0”
the background, samples with a value less than z1 can be N37° 25’ 24.0” E48° 27’ 18.0”
considered background and more than z2 as an anomaly N37° 25’ 24.0” E48° 16’ 22.0”
(Figure 1). If two populations A and B overlap, then there The geological map of the study area is shown in Fig-
are two different values zA and zB zA˂ zB), and samples are ure 3(a), which shows the wide variety of these rock units
certainly not classified between these two values since in the region. The abbreviations of the rock units are de-

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

scribed in Table 1.
The oldest rock units in the study area are Paleocen’
limestones, which locate adjacent to younger units in the
form of fault (thrust). It is a sandy limestone or sandy bio-
micrite (Pgz) type of impure carbonate rocks. The main
constituents of this unit are micrites and microsparites,
which form the rocks. The most massive outcrop of the
geological units in the area is identified by the compo-
sition of undisturbed basaltic volcanic rocks (Ev1) (TOZ
2003). These units have an almost northwest-southeast
trend and mainly have andesitic to middle basaltic lavas
and sometimes agglomerates with the same basic compo-
sition in the region. Between these two units, rocks with
Figure 2. The geographical location of Hashtjin sheet
rhyolite to rhyodacite composition (OLv1, Pt) and trachy
(1:100000) and study area [7].
basalt to trachyandesite (OLv2) are penetrated. The most
Tofogenic marls and acidic pyroclastics (Em) are inter-
gold mineralization has occurred in these units. These
layers embedded within the unblocked Ev1 basaltic vol-
units have appeared with smooth and rocky morphology canic rock unit. This rocky unit appears to belong to the
in the area, respectively (Figure 4). lower parts of the Ev1 unit.

Table 1. Legend of geological map of Khoshnameh area

Abbreviation Description Abbreviation Description

Qal Recent alluvial-diluvial deposits, river beds Pt Acid vitric tuff, pumice

Qt2 Younger terraces and alluvial deposits Ev1 Undifferentiated basic volcanics

Qt1 Old terraces Eash Fin grain pyroclastics

PLC Grey conglomerate and sandstone Eda2, Eda1 Andesite to dacite metavolcanic unit

Ng2m Red beds of marl, siltstone and sandstone Em Mega porphyritic (Basaltic) andesite

OLv2 Brown weathered trachybasalt and trachyandesite

Pgz Well bedded dark colored, spray limestone

OLv1 Rhyolite, rhyodacite and volcaniclastic flow deposits

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Field evidence shows a crystalline flow tuff to acidic

lava that kaolinization and silicification can be seen in the
stone. The lithological composition of the outcrops varies
from andesite to dacite. From the structural point of view,
the Hashtjin sheet is part of the folded and overthrust
belt and part of the Alborz tertiary magmatic assemblage.
Therefore, the rock units have different properties in
this sheet. The study area is tectonically affected by two
structural climates. The first includes the folded and over-
thrust belt of the western Alborz, located on the central
Alborz magmatic units. The tectonic stresses from the
northeast-southwest overthrust have caused the units to
deform as these units follow a north-south-eastward trend,
approximately [41].

3. Geochemical Data and Selection of

Elements for the Study
Figure 3. (a) Geological map of the study area in scale Geochemical samples of stream sediment were collect-
1:20000 [40]. (b) Map of the position of the gold occur- ed in 215 samples. Because the streams and sediments
rences on the stream map; 1) The western limit of Khosh- were wet, all samples’ volume was assumed to be 4 liters
nameh, 2: Eastern and northeast limit of Beyraq. (depending on the sample size). The samples were dried
The composition of this unit varies from tuff’s marls to in the field camp and at room temperature, and then all of
acidic pyroclastics, and its color changes from light gray them were screened with 80 mesh. After drying and sifting
to dark gray. Due to the nature of this unit, several land- (-80 mesh), the geochemical samples were transferred to
slides have occurred in some parts. The boundary of this the preparation workshop. Then the whole samples were
unit is the fault at the main outlet in several directions. powder under the size of 200 mesh (-200 mesh). 100 gr of
Andesite to dacite volcanic units (Eda2, Eda1) are exposed each sample were sent to the Amdel laboratory in Austra-
as acidic volcanic strata up to the middle in the northwest- lia, and the rest was archived.
ern parts of the area and around an anticline. The slope Base metal and trace element samples were analyzed
of these volcanic layers is different on both limbs of the by the ICP-MS method and based on dissolution in four
anticline. In terms of field characteristics, this unit has acids. For obtaining analytical gold data, were used from
an initial purple to pale pink color that has changed from the FIRE ASSAY standard process. Analysis on 44 ele-
milky to white due to alteration. ments includes Ag, As, Au, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg,

Figure 4. View of the outcrop of rhyolite, rhyodacite units (OLv1) (a: smooth morphology) and trachy basalt, tra-
chyandesite (OLv2) (b: rocky morphology) [41].

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Ti, V, W, Zn, Fe, Sr , Al, Sc, Ca,
Li, P, Mg, K, Na, S, Zr, Cs, Nb, U, Th, Cd, Tt, Rb, Y, Ce,
Tl, and La were performed. Among these elements, it was
necessary to select a number of them based on their geo-
chemical properties for research.
Since the gold element has smaller haloes and is also
a little more challenging to study among many minerals,
it is also one of the active projects in the exploration, so
this element was selected to compare the threshold values
determination methods. In order to further investigate the
methods, some elements associated with gold were also
selected. For this purpose, the correlation chart (Dendro-
gram) of the elements was prepared in the form of a den-
drogram using IBM SPSS Statistics software, version 22.
The correlation was performed using the Pearson method.
The results are presented in Figure 5. The graph shows
that the Au and Bi, Pb, As, Cd, Sb elements are versus
the subgroup of Hg, Ag, Na, P, Mn, and Zn. Therefore, it
deals with at least two general categories of the elements,
and categories containing gold are selected here. As and
Pb were also selected from among these elements for
evaluating the methods’ efficiency, because these elements
are from the specificities of the epithermal deposits. The
silver (Ag) element is not in the gold-containing subgroup
(Figure 5) but is included in the epithermal type deposits Figure 5. Correlation chart (Dendrogram) of the elements
with gold. Therefore, this element was also selected to in- by the Pearson method.
vestigate its dispersion further. The results of studies in the area led to the detection of
In statistical discussions, values that are significantly the gold occurrences. Figure 3(b) shows a map of the po-
sition of the gold occurrences on the regional stream map.
different from other values are called outlier values. These
The location of the occurrences in the area is fitted on the
values are sometimes entered into the data due to exper- obtained anomaly zones from the methods. This was done
imental errors, such as analysis errors, but sometimes to compare the determination methods of the anomalous
there are heterogeneity in the exploration data popula- areas. The western limit of Khoshnameh, No. (1), is lo-
[42] cated in the north and northwestern part of the study area.
tion . Therefore, outlier values must be detected and
The eastern and northeast limit of Beyraq, was marked
subsequently corrected. In this project, outlier values are with No. (2), is the other gold occurrence discovered in
identified using the Q-Q plot, then reduced to their highest the area.
number that is not an outlier. Q-Q plot of the elements
4. Methodology
was presented in Figure 6. For example, the Pb element
Various anomaly separation methods, such as spatial
has two outlier values, and these two data are corrected
statistics and mean plus values of standard deviation
to 3.56. By studying the Au element data, no outlier data methods, were used to calculate the threshold value. The
were detected for this element. distribution variations were illustrated on a diagram or

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 6. Q-Q plots of the elements Au(a), As(b), Ag(c) and Pb(d). Two outlier values are observed for the Pb element.

on histograms, and the anomalous areas were shown as effective in window shape. The distance between the
isograd contour maps. Contour maps were provided by stations within the window from the center is used to
kriging interpolation technique with a suitable pixel size calculate the weight of these stations. These weights are
for raw or estimated data in the methods. The extension of multiplied by the measured values of the stations. Finally,
secondary dispersion haloes was estimated by these maps. the center point of the window was estimated by the sum
Subsequently, the results of different anomaly separation of these values.
methods were compared based on geological information The average of U values, Ui(r), is calculated as follows
to determine these methods’ accuracy. [7, 13, and 18]
:
4.1 U-spatial Statistics Method
(1)
The U-spatial statistics method is a moving average
method that the dimensions of the window where the av- Where µ and σ are the mean and standard deviation,
erage is taken are changed at each particular point. There- respectively. xi and xj are the measured values at stations j
fore, for each particular point, many U-statistic values and k inside the window. wk(r) and wj(r) are the weights of
are calculated using the points around inside the window. these stations. is the weighted average of station i based
Thus, the spatial correlation of points is fully considered on the surrounding stations’ values. In this equation, j and
in this method [7, 38, and 43]. k are related to samples with background and anomalous
Changes in isotropy and anisotropy of variables are values, respectively. If the mean anomaly population is

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 7. Histogram of U-Values for samples Au, As, Ag, and Pb.

µA and the mean background population is µB, then it will anomalous area and is approximately the boundary of the
confirm the µA˂µ˂µB. background and the anomaly values. The anomaly U val-
A program was written in the Matlab software to ues were separated according to the and criteria (Table
implement the U-statistic algorithm on the study data. 2). The number of anomalies samples separated by these
The program calculates the U-value for each point in criteria was presented in Table 3.
the neighborhood of zero to 5000 meters (rmax) using the
above equations and then assigns the highest value in ab- Table 2. The results of calculations of the U-spatial statis-
solute terms to the target point as U*. These calculations tics method for the elements
were performed for the concentration of the gold element
with 215 samples. The calculation starts from a circle with Element
a radius of zero until 5000 m. For accuracy in calculating
the distance between the two circles’ radiuses in two se- Au 1.57 3.06
quential steps was considered 10 m, so 500 circles were
drawn for each sampling point, and the U-value was cal-
As 1.67 3.25
culated for each of them. The maximum of is determined
for the point, and this value is stored as U*. The histogram
of the selected U values from U* values for the elements Pb 1.55 3.06
of Au, As, Ag, and Pb is given in Figure 7. A minimum
is seen at the zero points in this Figure. It is the bound- Ag 1.39 2.72
ary that passes out of the background and approaches the

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Table 3. The number of samples separated by U-spatial statistics method

Au As Ag Pb Au As Ag Pb

8 79 88 135 13 22 95 8 163 172 78 87 212 22 16 81 85

22 80 89 136 14 48 111 12 164 173 79 88 46 17 85 86

46 81 90 142 15 55 178 47 165 174 80 89 47 55 86 87

47 82 91 143 16 56 179 81 166 175 81 90 85 56 168 88

51 83 92 212 17 57 180 83 167 176 82 91 93 57 169 89

56 84 93 18 58 181 84 168 177 83 92 94 58 170 90

58 85 94 19 61 182 85 169 187 84 93 95 180 171 91

62 86 95 20 93 184 86 170 188 85 94 136 181 92

78 87 127 21 94 132 171 189 86 95 184

Figure 8. Anomalous areas map of Au (a) and As (b) elements obtained by the U-spatial statistics method.

Also, the anomalies areas map of the elements was ob- ters. In the Au element, the three limits A, B, and C are
tained by these criteria are shown in Figure 8, 9. In these areas with significant haloes obtained by the criteria. The
Figures, the gold anomalous zones are distinguished from surface area of these haloes in the criteria is significant-
the background zone with the pale gray color by the high ly reduced. The spatial dispersion of the other elements
color intensity of black. In these Figures, potential regions shows that As and Pb are in good agreement with the Au
with higher anomaly intensities are shown in capital let- element in one of the anomalous areas (Figure 8, F zone,

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

and Figure 9, A zone). However, this overlap for the cri- each sample (upstream of the sample), all rock units were
teria is disappeared. Ag shows good overlap in one of the identified whose sediments resulted from their erosion
high concentration limits of Au (Figure 9, B zone), but contributed to the formation of the sample. After separat-
this overlap disappears in other criteria of the U-spatial ing statistical populations, the effect of lithology in each
statistics method, too. population was eliminated by normalizing the values to
the median. Finally, the populations were mixed again
4.2 Classical Statistics (Mean Plus Values of Stan- and studied under a homogeneous population. Figure 10
dard Deviation ()) shows the location of the sampling on the rock units and
In this method, the anomalous zones have been sep- streams of the area.
arated using the enrichment index data. First, the rock
4.2.2 Classification of Samples by the Type and
units were simplified by grouping them, and the number
Number of Upstream Rocks
of the samples was obtained in these units by considering
upstream of stream sediment samples. Then, by calculat- To reducing the number of statistical populations, simi-
ing the element enrichment index for all samples, data’s lar rock outcrops were combined and considered as a rock
distribution was investigated for the gold element, and the population. Abbreviations and upstream rock types were
anomalous areas were determined. summarized in Table 4 based on the 1:20000 geological
map. The following is a classification of samples by the
4.2.1 Eliminating the Syngenetic Component
number of upstream rock types:
To eliminate or reduce the effect of lithology on the A - single-rock sub-population: 84 samples (including
data, it is necessary to classify the samples according to seven different rock types)
the effective rock populations. In the regional surveys of B - Two-rocks sub-population: 69 samples (including
the stream sediments, effective rock units in the syngenet- thirteen types of two-rock groups)
ic component are located upstream of the sample in the C - Three-rocks sub-population: 36 samples (including
catchment basin [26]. eleven types of three-rock groups)
Therefore, the sampling plan was first fitted to the geo- D - Sub-population of more than three-rocks: 26 sam-
logical map. Then, by determining the catchment basin of ples

Figure 9. Anomalous areas map of Pb (a) and Ag (b) elements obtained by the U-spatial statistics method.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 10. Location of the samples on the rock units and the streams of the Khoshnameh area.

Table 4. Summarization of upstream rock types of the stream sediments samples in Khoshnameh map of 1:20000

Rock population Description Related rock units

OL Igneous rocks: trachybasalt to brown trachyandesite, rhyolite, rhyodacite OLv2, OLv1

Ng Red sandstone, siltstone and marl Ng2m

Sedimentary rocks: conglomerate, sandstone, alluvial-diluvial deposits, spray limestone,

PQ PLc, Qt1, Qal, Pgz, Pt
Acid pyroclastics

Vol Volcanic rocks: Andesite to dacite, basic volcanic rocks, pumicite Ev1, Eda2،Eda1, Em, Eash

For each of the above populations with more than ten Table 5. Values of elements frequency median as func-
samples, statistical parameters were calculated to obtain tional from upstream rock populations
the element enrichment coefficient. This coefficient was
calculated using dividing the values of each particular Rock population Au (ppb) As (ppm) Ag (ppm) Pb (ppm)
element in a population by its median value. The rest of
OL 0.5 6.6 0.83 11
the population, where the sample size has not reached the
quota (10 samples) for statistical computation, is mixed in
Vol 1 8 0.54 7.6
a population and then subjected to cluster analysis. After
cluster analysis on these samples, two groups were deter- Vol, OL 0.5 8.8 0.63 12.1
mined for these data.
Statistical calculations were performed on these two Vol, PQ 0.5 8.8 0.24 7.35
populations, and a homogeneous population was estab-
lished as an enrichment index. The median of each rock Vol, Ng 0.5 9 0.65 10.05
population is calculated. Table 5 shows rock populations
and their median. In this Table, upstream rocks include PQ, Vol, OL 1 9 0.4 9.4

two groups of single-rock, three groups of two-rocks, and

Vol, Ng, OL 0.5 9 0.65 10.2
three groups of three-rocks, in which there are more than
ten samples for each group. The statistical parameters
PQ, Vol, Ng 1 8.4 0.58 10.5
were calculated for these groups.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 11. Frequency distribution of Ag element: a) Frequency histogram of Ag element data, which shows a normal
distribution for this element. b) P-P plot of data that confirms a normal distribution of the Ag element.

Figure 12. Frequency distribution of Au (a), As (b), and Pb (c) elements. Histogram diagram of the element shows a
skewness to the left, and P-P plots confirm a log-normal distribution for the elements.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

4.2.3 Frequency Distribution of Data After identifying outlier values using the Q-Q Plot and
correcting these values, the data distribution diagram and
It is essential to determine the frequency distribution
P-P plot for each element were plotted. Figure 11 shows
of data in identifying the background from anomaly us-
the Ag element’s frequency distribution using the His-
ing the method. A normal distribution is one of the most
togram and P-P plot of this element data. The frequency
common statistical distributions. In exploring the nature
histogram shows a normal distribution, and the P-P plot of
of mineral data distribution, including exploration and ex-
data confirms this distribution for the Ag element. Accord-
traction, the normal distribution has particular importance.
ing to these graphs, the distribution of the Au, As, and Pb
The history of using a normal distribution for exploration
elements were detected log-normal.
data is very long. The reason is the absence of another
The logarithm of the data was calculated, and then the
comprehensive distribution and the unique characteristics
histograms and their P-P plots were plotted. The histo-
of this particular distribution. Often, exploration data can
gram diagram and P-P plot of these elements as a log-nor-
be assumed to be normal with an appropriate conversion.
mal distribution are shown in Figure 12 and 13.
In many cases, the exploration data has an asymmetric
distribution with a positive skew. This means that samples 4.2.4 Separation of the Anomaly from the Back-
with smaller values (e.g., low concentration) are more ground
abundant, and samples with larger values (e.g., high con-
centration) are scarce. Under these conditions, by convert- In the exploration surveys, the data distribution is often
ing the data under the logarithmic function, the converted log-normal due to high skewness. In these surveys, of-
distribution is symmetric and approaches the normal dis- ten, large amounts of the distribution function constitute
tribution. The distribution of these data is called log-nor- anomalous populations. These values, which are separable
mal. from other data (background values), are potential zones

Figure 13. Frequency distribution of the logarithm of Au (a), As (b), and Pb (c) elements data. Histogram diagram of
the logarithm of the element shows a symmetrical graph, and P-P plots confirm a normal distribution for the logarithm
of the elements.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

for economic mineralization. the frequency histogram of the data. Then the standard de-
To separate the anomaly values from the background, viation of the data should be calculated in the range [46].
frequency graphs of the geochemical values were consid- In this method, if the data distribution is normal, by
ered and used. Also, the mean plus values of the standard determining the background (Cbg) can calculate the anom-
deviation () method is an efficient and simple method for aly threshold at three confidence levels of possible (Can.1),
separating the anomalies from the background. In this probable (Can.2), and definitive (Can.3) using the following
method, it must first calculate the mean values and stan- equation:
dard deviation of the data.
Can=Cbg+ns (2)
The mean of the data is used to determine the amount
of geochemical background. Because boundary values af- Where s is the standard deviation, and n is a coeffi-
fect the mean of the data, these values must first be identi- cient, which can be values of 1,2 and 3. If the value of n is
fied and separated from the other data. Then the arithmetic higher, the anomaly areas become smaller. So, the cost of
mean of the remaining data calculated as the background exploration is lower, but at the same time, it is possible to
value. Data frequency histogram can extract boundary eliminate some probable anomalies.
values [44, 45, and 46]. If the distribution of data is log-normal, the anomaly
The best way to calculate the background data’s stan- threshold values are calculated as follows:
dard deviation is to use the method of separating the back-
Can=Cbg×εt (3)
ground data from the anomalous data. So, first, the values
of the separation limit of positive and negative anomalies Where t is a value of 1, 2, or 3, and ԑ is antilog (Slog) [28].
from the background should be determined according to Background and anomaly values for the elements were

Figure 14. Anomalous areas map of Au (a) and As (b) elements obtained by method

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

calculated by performing the necessary calculations (Table Figure 14 and 15 show the results of the method for
6). According to these values, the geochemical map of the Au, As, Pb, and Ag elements. These results, which are
the elements was plotted in which the anomalous regions dispersion maps of geochemical anomalies, also show the
were determined. It is also possible to identify how the relationship of elements dispersion to each other. Figure
elements are distributed and how they relate to each other. 14a shows the geochemical map of the gold anomaly
areas. The primary trend for the potential areas is approxi-
Table 6. Values of the background and anomaly thresh- mately the SE-NW, which is indicated by the arrow on the
olds for the elements by the method map (Figure 14a). It is well overlapped with the general
trend of the study area occurrences (Figure 3(b)). Among
Element Distribution Background Can.1 Can.2 Can.3 the gold-related elements, the sizeable anomalous zone of
Pb and As with different concentration intensities (Figure
Au Log-normal 1.8 2.43 3.28 5.45 14b, D, E, and F limits and Figure 15a, A, B, and C limits)
overlap well with the gold anomalous areas. This shows
As Log-normal 1.24 1.56 3.12 3.26
a close relationship between Pb and As with the Au ele-
ment, especially in the X+S criteria, and also confirms the
Ag Normal 1.03 1.45 1.88 2.3
close dependency identified by the dendrogram. The Ag
Pb Log-normal 1.09 1.32 1.61 1.96
anomalies show a normal dispersion in the area that did
not react much in the expansion limit of high concentra-

Figure 15. Anomalous areas map of Pb (a) and Ag (b) elements obtained by method

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

tions of gold. What can be discussed here is the status of units, were avoided. There are two occurrences related to
the current erosion level or the relatively low relationship gold mineralization in the region. These occurrences are
of this element with mineralization. fitted to the anomalous areas obtained by different meth-
ods. Based on the available information from the study
5. Comparison of the Methods area’s known occurrences, the threshold calculated from
Comparison of the methods was made considering the both criteria of the U-statistical and confirms both occur-
position of discovered occurrences and the occurrences rences.
obtained from these methods, the flexibility of the meth- Studies of the haloes show that the haloes obtained
ods in separating the anomalous zones, and the two-di- from the criteria are very close to the haloes obtained by
mensional spatial correlation of the three elements As, Pb, the criteria in term of extent. There is a good agreement
and Ag with Au element. In order to better compare the with the detected occurrences. The haloes obtained by the
methods, the contour map obtained from the U-spatial sta- method have considerable flexibility. The areas within the
tistics (two maps) and (three maps) methods were consid- anomaly boundary have been recorded by this method. It
ered (Figure 16). To compare the calculated models with has in good agreement with the occurrences in the area.
the observed model, the position of the occurrences is also The reason for this flexibility is probably due to data of
fitted on the final maps. These occurrences have already the elemental enrichment index in this method that has
been identified by the Ardabil province SAMT organiza- affected the creation of clearer mineralization. Because
tion. To avoid overcrowding of the map and a more exact of in calculating this parameter, the impact of upstream
comparison, other parameters in the region, such as rock geological units for any sample was considered in stream

Figure 16. Contour map of anomalous areas: a: method, b: method

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

sediments. In the northeast of the area, criteria shows References

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geochemical anomalies through integrating random Systematic geochemical explorations in leaf of

forest and metric learning methods. Natural Resourc- Hashtjin (1:100,000). Report of Ardabil province
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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Journal of Geological Research

http://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jgr-a

ARTICLE
Mineralogical and Geochemical Assessment of Clay Properties of
Edda, Afikpo Sub Basin Nigeria for Possible Use in the Ceramics In-
dustry
J.C. Ike1* H. N. Ezeh2 M. O. Eyankware2,3 A.I. Haruna4
1.Department of Energy and Petroleum Studies, Novena University, Ogume Delta State, Nigeria
2.Department of Geology, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki Ebonyi State. Nigeria
3.Geo-Moses Consultancy Limited. Warri, Delta State, Nigeria
4.Department of Applied Geology, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Clay samples from selected part of Edda were analyzed to identify the
Received: 15 March 2021 clay mineral types present, their chemical and physical properties with
a view to appraising their industrial suitability as ceramic materials. The
Accepted: 13 April 2021 mineralogical and geochemical analyses were done using the principles
Published Online: 20 April 2021 of X-Ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence respectively. A total of seven
clay samples were used for the study, other tests such as plasticity, bulk
Keywords: density, shrinkage, loss on ignition (LOI) and water absorption capacity
X-ray was carried out to determine the amount of water absorbed under specified
conditions. The basic industrial properties assessment showed that more
Mineral than 70% of the clays are fine-grained. The clays exhibited low to moderate
Liquid limit plasticity, moderate shrinkage and bulk density, low to moderate values
Plastic limit of both loss on ignition and water absorption capacity. The clays are buff
to yellowish in colour. The results of x-ray fluorescence revealed that the
Industrial standard
mean concentration of major oxide in the clays is shown as follows: SiO2
Atterberg limit (62.78%), Al2O3 (20.25%), total Fe (6.09%), CaO (0.56%), MgO (3.21%),
Na2O (0.47%), K2O, (1.44%) and TiO2 (0.52%). The samples have high
silica content, low alumina and low oxide content. The results of x-ray
diffraction revealed that kaolinite is the dominant clay mineral with illite
and montmorillonite occurring in subordinate amounts, while quartz
and feldspar are the non-clay components present. The characteristics of
the clays for each parameter were compared with industrial standards.
These properties are appropriate for the Afikpo clays to be useful in the
manufacturing of ceramics. However, since the silica content of the clays is
high further beneficiation is recommended.

1. Introduction less than 0.002 mm. The term “clay mineral con-

The term “clay” can be referred to as fine-grained, cept” includes the clays composed essentially of a
natural, earthy, argillaceous materials with particle size group of extremely small crystalline particles known

*Corresponding Author:
J.C. Ike,
Department of Energy and Petroleum Studies, Novena University, Ogume Delta State, Nigeria;
Email: [email protected]

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

as hydrous silicate minerals. Other minerals associated corresponding low fluxes (MgO, CaO, K2 O, Na2O, TiO2)
with clay minerals in clays may include quartz and feld- which makes them good and finished ceramic products
spar, as well as detrital materials that were eroded from materials for making of low duty refractory, vitrifying
the earth’s surface. Clays are raw materials which are and non-vitrifying structural clay wares and finished ce-
needed for the manufacture of a variety of industrial ramic products. The clay bodies in Nafuta, Barkin-Ladi
materials such as refractory, paint, paper, pharmaceu- of Plateau State were evaluated and found to be fall
ticals, drilling mud, and absorbents for pet litter. They varies from 1,750 mm to 2,250 mm. The vegetation of
find applications in the manufacture of cement, plas- the area is a mixture of eastern prototypes consisting of
tics, fertilizers and insecticides [1]. Therefore, adequate semi-savannah grassland with forest and swamps.
utilization of clay for ceramic purposes depends on its
proper physio-chemical characterization. The exploitation 2. Geology and Stratigraphy of Southeastern
of clays for use as raw materials in the ceramics industry Nigeria
has been ineffective in the Afikpo area due to scarce
information on the occurrences of possible viable de- The study area lies within Afikpo Sub-basin (Figure 2),
posits. This has led to the under-utilization of the clays which is one of the Upper Cretaceous sub-basins which
which are presently being used mostly for the production make up the Anambra Basin [9; 10]. The Afikpo Sub-basin is
of cosmetics on a low scale and for geophagia practices. considered as the southeastern depression of the Anambra
Hence, revenue generation from the ceramics industry in Basin of [11]. The sediment fill is a succeeding post Santo-
the state is poor. Therefore, the need for relevant informa- nian facies though to be completely accommodated within
tion on the functional applications of the clays as ceramics the Anambra Basin [11]. Based on the lithologic, structural
materials cannot be over-emphasized, as it will contribute and stratigraphic of the study area, three component litho-
to the economic growth of the state and nation. This re- stratigraphic units of the Upper Campanian-Maastrichtian
search will establish the functional application of the were identified: the Afikpo sandstone, Nkporo and Mamu
Edda clays and provide relevant information on the Formation (Figure 2). The Afikpo sandstone is the old-
occurrence of the deposits in Edda, their viability and est lithostratigraphic unit, consists mainly of fine to very
economic use as raw materials for the ceramics industry. coarse ferruginized sandstone and shale. The Nkporo
This knowledge will eventually help to improve the level Formation overlies the Afikpo sandstone and consists of
of small-scale mining. The characteristics of the clays thick succession of fossiliferous dark-grey to black shales
will be determined by mineralogical, geochemical and with intercalations of sandstone and ironstone. The Mamu
geotechnical tests. The clays will be appraised by means formation is made up of coal, shale and sandstone
of comparison of the physio-chemical properties with
those of the various industrial specifications for ceramics. 3. Location, Physiography, Climate and
Various scholar have carried out research on suitability of Vegetation
clay for various purpose [2]; [3]; [4]. Clays have been found in
huge quantities in Agwu Ndeaboh, Eze Aku, Asu River, Table 1. Sample location and code
Asata Nkporo Shales, Abakaliki anticlinorium and Lower
Benue. These clays are suitable for burnt bricks and earth- Sample location Code

enware [5]. The clay deposits at Njaba, Ohiya in South

Ezi-Edda EC
Eastern Nigeria have been appraised for their suitability in
white body production, also those found at Uturu and Ik-
Nguzu Court 1 NC1
pankwu were found to be potentially useful in the cement
industry [6]. Field studies indicate that there are clay
Nguzu Court 2 NC2
occurrences at Afikpo,which consists of intercalations
of sandstones and shale. Preliminary investigations of
Afikpo South Headquarters 1 AHQ1
the potentials of the Afikpo Clays have shown the clays
to be essentially kaolinitic with differing silica amounts.
Afikpo South Headquarters 2 AHQ2
Study carried out on Afikpo shale showed that the shale
is useful as raw materials for pottery production. Igwe
Letu LC
and Ezeamaku, (2010) studied the Afikpo clay to useful
in paper and paint production. [8] studied the clays at Ebuwana UC
Uwana to be high in refractory (SiO2 and Al2O3) with

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

surface deposits located mainly at quarry sites and along

road-cuts and stream beds. The studied location is drained
by the Iyere River and the tributary streams as shown
below see Figure 2. The streams are intermittent streams
flowing in the northwest direction. The study area has dry
and wet seasons. The dry and wet seasons start and end
in October/February and March/October respectively.
The temperature range for the dry season is from 20
°C to 38 °C while during the wet season it spans from 16
°C to 28 °C [12; 13]. The warm and humid conditions are
typical for kaolinite formations or dry seasons spe-
cific for illite and smectite formations. The average
monthly raine of the Upper Cretaceous sub-basins which
make up the Anambra Basin [9; 10] the Afikpo Sub-basin is
considered as the southeastern depression of the Anambra
Basin of [11]. The sediment fill is a succeeding post Santo-
nian facies though to be completely accommodated within
the Anambra Basin [11]. Based on the lithologic, structural
and stratigraphic of the study area, three component litho-
stratigraphic units of the Upper Campanian-Maastrichtian
were identified: the Afikpo sandstone, Nkporo and Mamu
Figure 1. Geological map of the study area showing sam-
pling points. Formation (Figure 3). The Afikpo sandstone is the old-
est lithostratigraphic unit, consists mainly of fine to very
The area forms part of sheet 313 Afikpo NE mapped coarse ferruginized sandstone and shale. The Nkporo
with a scale of 1:50, 000 (Figure 1). The area is acces- Formation overlies the Afikpo sandstone and consists of
sible by means of the Afikpo-Okigwe road. The relief thick succession of fossiliferous dark-grey to black shales
of the area is undulating but with isolated hillocks that with intercalations of sandstone and ironstone. The Mamu
rise up to 200 m above sea level. The clay deposits are formation is made up of coal, shale and sandstone.

Table 2. Lithostratigraphic Framework for the Southern Benue Trough, Southeast Nigeria [15]

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

the various minerals obtained at various d-value angles

were automatically obtained with the aid of a computer
program installed in the diffractometer. The bulk chemical
tests was carried out with an IVT-20 computer automated
X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer. The samples
were prepared following the procedure outlined in [18]. The
exchangeable metallic bases (in milli-equivalents per hun-
dred grams of dry sample) were determined by leaching
50 g of the samples with neutral ammonium acetate and
the resulting aliquots were analyzed for Si, Na, Ca, Fe and
Ti cations according to the method given in [16]. The liquid
and plastic limits of the clay samples were determined
with about 100 g of each sample passing325 µm (BS
Figure 2. General geologic map of Southeastern Nigeria No. 36) in accordance with [19]. The shrinkage test was
showing Afikpo basin in the Anambra Basin [14] done with the use of pelletized round bars of dimensions
180 mm × 90 mm in accordance with [20].The bars were
4. Materials and Methods air-dried for 6 hours, and oven-dried at 800 C overnight.
After 4 hours, the furnace was allowed to cool down to
The clay samples were collected from two formations room temperature and the diameters of the fired pellets
namely, Nkporo and Mamu formations. From the map of were measured. The difference between the dry and fired
the study area, there are three lithologic units. The samples shrinkage diameters of the fired pellets gave the percent-
from Units 1 and 2 are located in Mamu formation, while age shrinkage. The loss on ignition test was done by firing
those from Unit 3 belong to Nkporo formation. A total the samples for over 30 minutes for over 10 hours at four
of seven (7) fresh samples were collected and preserved different temperatures ranging from 900-12000C.
for analyses at depths of about 1metre. The analyses for
atterberg limits, mineralogical and geochemical proper-
ties were done at Ministry of Works and Infrastructure,
Enugu and Engineering Development Institute, Akure As proposed by [20].
in Nigeria.The mineralogical test was done through the
process of X-ray diffraction using the XRD-Philips ADP-
10 automated diffractometer. For mineralogical test, the As proposed by [21].
fine grained particles (less than 2 µm) were separated by Where NM= soil’s natural moisture content (in %)
centrifugation. To ensure homogenous sample throughout
the study, it was done according to the procedure in
As proposed by [22].
Moore and Reynolds (1997). In each case, 25 grams of the
sample were placed in a 600 ml polythethylene centrifuge 5. Bulk Density, Specific Gravity and Water
bottle along with 500 ml of distilled water and dissolved Absorption Capacity Analyses
to hydrate for 24 hours to form stable dispersions.
The equipment applies the Bragg Bretano principle The bulk density was determined with about 100
using a 3.0 KvA steady potential and copper K-alpha g of sample using a free-fall method according to the
radiation generated by the x-ray machine. Identification procedure outlined in [16]. Each sample was evaluated
of the constituent minerals was done by calculating the twice and the average values of the density calculated.
d-spacings corresponding to the Bragg angles obtained The water absorption capacity test was done according
from the x-ray diffraction traces and using reference tables to [16]. It was done with the use of fired pellets placed in
of diffraction spacing of standard crystalline minerals boiling water in a beaker which was allowed to cool
indexed according to diffraction intensity published by [16] down. The absorbed water was removed from the pellets
in powder diffraction files. Approximate proportions of surface using a moisture cloth. The weight of the pellets
were established by comparing heights of specific diag- was then measured (Ww). The pellets were oven-dried
nostic peak of the various minerals, with standard heights at a temperature of 110 °C after which the dry weight
of equivalent peaks of the pure minerals established by was measured (Wd). The water absorption capacity (Wa)
the Joint Powder Diffraction Standards [17]. The peaks of was calculated by subtracting the dry weight (Wd) from

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

the wet weight (Ww). The difference was divided by the high leaching environments [25].
dry weight (Wd). The specific gravity test was done
using a balance sensitive to 0.1 g, an Erlenmeyer flask
and a spatula. Firstly, the weight of the empty flask was
recorded. The samples were poured into the flask and re-
weighed while necessary precaution was taken to ensure
there was no spillage by the use of a spatula to scrape
off any excess above the rim of the flask. The recorded
weight of the flak was subtracted from the initial weight
and divided by the weight of the flask to obtain the spe-
cific gravity values for each sample.

6. Results
6.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
The result of the mineralogical test is presented in
Table 3. The identified clay types are kaolinite, illite,
montmorillonite with mixed layer. The Edda Clays are
kaolinitic with a maximum concentration value of 75 %.
However, the non-clay mineral component consists of
mainly quartz and plagioclase feldspars.
Table 3. Results of Mineralogical test (% wt)

Parameters EC NC1 NC2 AHQ1 LC UC

Kaolinite 70 65 75 68 70 72

Illite 16 20 15 20 18 18

Montmorillonite + + + + 5 5

Mixed layer 14 15 10 25 11 5

+nil
The diffractograms of the clays showed distinct peaks 6.2 Chemical Composition of Edda Clays
of kaolinite as seen in Figure 3-9. The prominent peaks
are recorded as 2θ= 25.13, 23.99, 24.35, 26.62, 25.07, Major oxide analysis showed that the clay bodies have
25.20, and 22.87. The prominent peaks can be used to high silica and low alumina content (see Table 4). Earli-
identify the composition of moderate to well crystalline er works on various Nigerian clay deposits have shown
materials [23]. The mineralogy of the Edda clays r e - many of them to be rather high in silica and low alumi-
vealed that the clays are generally non-expansive. The na content [26]. The table indicates that the studied clays
presence of minute concentrations of montmorillonite (5 exhibit fair consistency in the concentrations of SiO2,
% to 10 %) in Letu and Ebuwana clays indicates they Al 2 O 3, Fe 2O 3, and alkali oxides which may generally
are “sensitive” clays [24]. The clays showed similarity imply that there are similarities in the mineralogy. The
in mineralogy which indicates that they have the high silica content shows that the source rocks are rich
same origin. The mineralogical composition revealed in quartz and silica-rich bearing minerals confirming the
that the clays were formed as a result of in-situ weath- grittiness of the clay [ 2 7 ] . Letu clay has the highest silica
ering; the diffractograms indicate dominance of kaolin- content of 73.14 % and alumina content of 17.24 %. The
ite while illite and quartz occur in traces. The presence clays found at Ezi-Edda, Nguzu Court and Afikpo South
of feldspars as accessory minerals also implies that the Head-Quarters have a significant content of Fe2 O3. This
clays were formed in an acidic environment. The forma- is indicated by the observance of reddish colouration.
tion of kaolinite is favoured by an acidic condition and The iron-oxide content usually imparts a reddish colour

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

to clay when fired and is possibly due to superficial of the mineral [34]. The clays have low titanium oxide
oxidation and contamination by Fe-rich percolating content, which aids its use and meet the requirements of
water [28] .From the study of the Pugu kaolin of Tanza- 0.3 % for ceramic materials [35]. The losses on ignition
nia, the iron oxide content in the clay is high (above (LOI) values of the clays are relatively low to moderate
~ 1.43 %) could adversely affect the translucency of indicating that a small amount of water was lost on firing.
white wares [29]. The studied clays in the natural state The losses on ignition (LOI) values are lower than 18 %
could be suitable for ceramics that do not require high specified for upper limit for refractory clays [36]. The tem-
brightness specifications, such as stone ware and sani- perature obtained on firing is 12000 C which indicates
tary ware. The clays generally have low (CaO + Na2 O) relatively moderate firing strength. This is reflected
content with values of 0.12-1.48 % and 0.20-0.87 %. The in the result of the loss on ignition as seen in Table 4.
Ezi-Edda and Nguzu Court clays have low (K2O + MgO) The moderate level of firing (7.25-9.32 %) could be due
values. Relatively low abundance of MgO and K O (less to relatively high SiO2 percentage present in the clays.
than 0.30 %), indicate lack of expandable clay mineral The implication is that the viability and usefulness of
in the samples. The concentrations of K2 O and Na2O is the clays is limited to the formation of materials, which
relatively higher for clays from AHQ1 than those from melting points are not more than 1,200 0C hence enhanc-
AHQ2 suggesting more compositional maturity in the ing its use earthenware [28]. Allowable values for ceramic
clays found in the latter [30]. It is also necessary to note that
sanitary wares on sale, states that the maximum value
high SiO2 but low CaO, MgO, and Na2 O revealed that
for total shrinkage should not exceed 15% [37].
the clays in both locations are amenable to beneficiation
to achieve appropriate grade for manufacture of sanitary 6.3 Atterberg Limit and Shrinkage
hardware [31]. The low earth-alkaline oxides (CaO + Na2O)
content indicates that the clays are poor in carbonates [32]. The results of the Atterberg limit and shrinkage tests
The Afikpo South Head-Quarters clays have significant were calculated using equation 1 to 3. Re-
concentration of potassium oxide (K2O) of 8.07 %. Due s u l t o b t a i n e d f r o m the studied clays are presented
to the relatively high value of K2 O in the clays it can be in Table 5. The results indicate that the clays in their nat-
deduced that there is presence of illite. The relatively high ural states have moderate plasticity. They all plot below
K+ may be attributed to abundant K˗ feldspar consequent the B-line and above the A-line in the Cassagrande
on albtitization process [33]. The high K2O content may in- plasticity chart ( s e e Figure 10). The clustering of
dicate chemical decomposition of K-rich minerals like au- the samples especially for Ezi-Edda and Afikpo
gite and other ferromagnesian minerals [33]. However, the South Headquarters (AHQ 2), buttresses the similarity
low value of Na O simply indicates the minimal amount in the studied clays. The Edda clays are mouldable

Table 4. Results of Geochemical Test (% wt)

Oxides EC NC1 NC2 AHQ1 AHQ2 LC UC

SiO2 72.89 62.53 68.69 57.14 69.24 73.34 69.24

Al2O3 12.05 28.72 22.92 18.67 16.90 17.24 25.22

Fe2O3 7.29 0.18 4.61 4.60 10.42 9.32 6.20

MgO 0.14 0.11 0.13 3.16 10.12 8.64 0.18

CaO 0.12 0.08 0.32 0.87 0.64 1.48 0.42

Na2O 0.20 0.35 0.31 0.61 0.62 0.87 0.34

K2O 0.10 0.15 0.16 7.26 0.81 1.22 0.30

TiO2 0.74 0.41 0.24 0.03 0.95 0.81 0.47

*LOI 8.20 7.40 6.95 5.30 3.80 5.65 6.20

*LOI Loss on ignition

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Table 5. Results of Plasticity and Shrinkage Tests (% wt)

Parameters EC NC1 NC2 AHQ1 AHQ2 LC UC

Plastic limit 18 24 24 24 21 25 18

Liquid limit 38 52 42 45 40 49 39

Plasticity Index 20 25 18 21 19 24 21

Shrinkage 10 10 9.2 3.9 3.3 3.8 7.7

Table 6. Results of bulk density, specific gravity and water absorption capacity tests

Parameters EC NC1 NC2 AHQ1 LC UC

Bulk density (Kg/m3) 1313 1328 1309 1312 1316 1313

Water absorption capacity (%) 0.28 0.24 1.32 1.58 1.58 3.20

Specific gravity 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.3

which is an estimation of their workability, due to the 6.4 Bulk Density, Specific Gravity and Water Ab-
fact that they plot within the field of medium compress- sorption Capacity
ibility and toughness. The clays can be classified as low
The results of these tests are summarized in Table 6.
to moderately plastic since they fall under the designated
There is fair consistency in the results of the bulk density
CL and within the line of moderation (B-line). According
of the studied clays, suggesting similarity in the mate-
to [38], the medium plasticity is influenced by the mineral
rial type; a situation already reflected in the results of
composition (particularly kaolinite and illite). The plas-
the mineralogical and chemical analyses. The clays ex-
tic limit values of the studied clays range from 18 % to hibit moderates bulk density values (1309-1328 kg/m3).
27 %. Plastic limit values less than 30 % indicates that The water absorption capacity values are low due to the
the clays are kaolinitic [30]. The liquid limit values range limited substitution associated with clays dominated
from 38 % - 52 %. The plasticity index values range from by kaolinite. The lime and magnesia content is low,
18 %-25 % with mean concentration of 21 %. Liquid which influences the absorptive properties of the clays [35].
limit values in this study are less than 100 %, classifying The Afikpo South Headquarters has higher values of wa-
the clays as inorganic; while average plasticity of 18 % ter absorption capacity (6.20 %) which is probably due to
indicates moderate plasticity [39]. the presence of abundant K+. Allowable values for ce-
ramic sanitary wares, states that the maximum value for
percentage water absorption capacity should not exceed
16 % [37]. The specific gravity values are consistent and
fall with the range of 2.0 % to 2.5 %. The average value
of the specific gravity is 2.2 % supports the fact that the
deposit is kaolin based on the classification of mineral
(Gary, 2008).

7. Discussion
Appraisal of the Edda clays as raw materials for the ce-
ramics industry
Detailed comparisons of the characteristics of the
Edda clays with the characteristics of various clays
Figure 10. Plots of the studied clays in the Cassagrande which have served well as industrial specifications for
Plasticity Chart. ceramics are presented in Tables 8-10 below. The stud-

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Table 7. Comparison of the mineralogical properties of Edda clays with industrial standards (% wt)

Industrial standard Studied clay Remarks

Parameters
*1 *2 *3 *4 *5 *6 EC NC AHQ LC UC

Kaolinite 85 85 48.27 61.60 64 91 70 70 61.5 70 72 C

Illite 15 + 4.68 2.30 8 3.16 17 5 30 18 18 H

*Smectite + + + 0.50 + + + + + 5 5 H

Mixed layer + + + + + + 14 12.5 18.5 11 5 H

+ nil *1- China Clay [49] *2- [44] *3- Ara Clay [41]
*4- Itakpe Clay [42] *5- Ikerre Clay [45] *6- Ibadan Kaolinite [46] C-Generally Comparable H- Gener-
ally Higher *Smectite- Montmorillonite

Table 8. Comparison of the geochemical properties of Edda clays with industrial specifications (% wt.)

Oxides Industrial specification Edda Clays

*1 *2 *3 *4 *5 *6 EC NC AHQ LC UC Remarks

SiO2 48.50 44.98 52.65 46.60 52.92 67.50 72.89 65.61 63.19 73.14 69.22 C

Al2O3 28.82 37.54 27.24 37.80 9.42 26.50 12.05 25.82 17.79 17.24 25.22 L

Fe2O3 9.84 2.35 3.01 3.97 3.65 0.5-1.20 7.29 2.40 7.51 9.32 6.20 H

MgO 0.96 1.72 0.38 0.33 0.08 0.10-0.19 0.14 0.12 6.65 8.64 0.18 H

CaO 0.58 0.09 0.19 0.16 1.90 0.18-0.30 0.12 0.20 0.76 1.48 0.42 C

Na2O 0.23 0.19 0.37 3.03 0.03 0.20-1.50 0.20 0.33 0.62 0.87 0.34 C

K2O 2.49 1.01 1.44 0.66 0.98 1.10-3.10 0.10 0.16 4.04 1.22 0.38 H

TiO2 1.02 1.42 + 0.45 1.18 0.10-1.00 0.74 0.33 0.49 0.81 0.47 C

*LOI 4.16 12.60 13.80 + + + 8.20 7.18 4.55 5.65 6.20 C

+ nil *LOI- Loss on Ignition *1- Ara Clay [41] *2- Ibadan Kaolinite [47] *3- Itakpe Clay [42] *4- Jos Kaolin [43] *5- Florida Active Kaolinite [48] *6-Ce-
ramics [44] C-Generally Comparable H- Generally Higher L- Generally Lower

ied clays have a high concentration of kaolinite which generates porcelain. The values for illite and montmo-
is favourable for the manufacture of ceramic materials. rillonite are marginally higher than those of the industrial
From Table 7, it can be deduced that the mineralogical specifications.
properties of the clays compare well with the industrial The clay of the study area was compared to industrial
specifications. However, the mixed layer components specification as shown in Table 8. It was observed that ox-
consist mainly of feldspar and quartz which could serve ides were below industrial specification except for Fe2 O3,
well as fluxing agents. The presence of feldspars is MgO and K 2 O that were slightly at some sampling
important for the production of liquid phase during locations see Table 8. However it is advised that oxide
sintering which accelerates the densification of ceramics content in clay should be reduced. In the same viein, the
[40]
. The combination of feldspars with kaolin and quartz alumina content of the Edda clays is lower which has to

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Table 9. Comparison of index properties of Edda clays with industrial specifications

Industrial specification Studied Clays Remarks

Parameters
*1 *2 *3 *4 EC NC AHQ LC UC

Specific gravity 2.78 + 2.61 2.56 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.1 2.3 C

*WAC (%) 6.14 13.58 + _+ 0.28 0.68 3.10 1.58 3.2 L

Liquid limit (%) 47.80 26.88 33.0 56.11 38 47 42.5 49 39 C

Plastic limit (%) 26.24 15.51 17.5 + 18 22.5 22.5 25 18 C

Plasticity index (%) 21.48 10.38 14.5 + 20 21.5 20 24 21 H

[41]
+ nil *W.A.C- Water Absorption Capacity *1- Ara Clay *2- Itakpe Clay [42] *3- Ikerre Clay [46] *4- Ilukuno Clay [30]

Table 10. Comparison of bulk density and shrinkage properties of Edda clays with Industrial Specifications

Industrial specifications Studied class

Parameter Remarks
*Oboburu clay EC NC AHQ LC UC

Bulk density (Kg/m2) 1333 1333 1319 1319 1316 1313 C

*Abraka-Amai
EC NC AHQ LC UC Remarks
Clay

Shrinkage (%) 0.25-1.23 10 9.6 3.6 3.8 7.7 H

*Oboburu Clay [50] *Abraka-Amai Clay [47].

be enhanced. tion of porcelain, stoneware and sanitary ware even in

Table 9 above s h o w e d comparison between index the natural state. However, in order to improve the ap-
properties and industrial specifications. The comparison pearance of the earthen wares; the iron oxide content has
was based on the following parameters specific gravity, to be reduced to a minimal level [51; 52].
liquid limit and plastic limit. The plasticity index con-
tent of the clays is marginally higher than the value 8. Conclusions
for the industrial specifications. The water absorption
This study evaluated the physical and chemical prop-
capacity value of the Edda clays is lower on compar-
erties of the Edda clays in southeastern Nigeria with a
ison with the industrial specifications. However, this
view to assess their suitability as raw materials for the
observed variation in comparison does not have any
critical effect on the performance of the studied clays as manufacture of ceramics. X-Ray Diffraction test revealed
ceramic materials. From Table 10, the bulk density val- that the clays obtained from Nkporo and Mamu Forma-
ues of the studied clays compare well with the industrial tions are mainly kaolinites with subordinate amounts of
specification, while the shrinkage content is marginally illite, montmorillonite and mixed layer The major oxide
higher than the value for the industrial specification. analysis which was done by means of X-Ray Fluores-
From the study, it was observed that Edda clays can cence showed that the clays have significant concen-
perform well as raw materials for the manufacture of tration of silica oxide which in combination with the
ceramics. However, the silica oxide content of the clays low alkali oxide content could yield good materials for
could be beneficiated to reduce the quartz content which the manufacture of ceramics. The clays indicated higher
will prevent grittiness and reduce abrasiveness in the iron oxide content which is favourable for the manufac-
finished products. To ensure the use of the clays as ce- ture of stone wares and sanitary wares. The physical test
ramic materials, the alumina content of the clays can be showed that the clays exhibited low to moderate plasticity
improved upon. The clays can be used for the produc- as they fall within the designated lines of CL and ML

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

according to Unified Soil Classification System. The in- [10] Okoro, A.U., Igwe, E.O. (2014). Lithofacies and
dex properties are favourable for the application of the depositional environment of the Amasiri sandstone,
clays as raw materials for the ceramics industry. The southern Benue Trough, Nigeria. J. Afr. Earth Sci.
Edda clays based on comparison with various industrial 100, 179-190.
specifications for ceramics have been proven to be useful [11] Nwajide, C.S. (2013). Geology of Nigeria’s Sedi-
raw materials for the manufacture of ceramics. mentary Basins. CSS Bookshops, Lagos, pp.565.
[12] Ezeh, H. N., Anike, O. L. (2009). The prelimi-
Acknowledgments nary assessment of the pollution status of streams
and artificial lakes created by mining district of Eny-
The authors are immensely grateful to the staff at
igba, Southeastern, Nigeria and their consequences.
the Engineering Materials Development Institute, Akure
Global Journal of Environmental Sciences. 8(1), 41-
and the Ministry of Works and Infrastructure, Enugu,
44.
both in Nigeria, for their assistance in the completion of
[13] Effam, S.C., Edene, E. N., Eyankware, M. O. (2014).
this work. Analysis of foraminifera in certain part of Afikpo
and its environs, Ebonyi state southeastern Nigeria.
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dustrial Application of Ikerre Kaolinite Southwest, tion (Clay Division) Georgia, U. S. A.

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Journal of Geological Research

http://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jgr-a

ARTICLE
Importance of Instrumentation in Hydropower Projects
B.N.V. Siva Prasad* Sripad R. Naik
National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Bengaluru, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history With the advancement of science and technology, humans endeavored
Received: 28 March 2021 to build massive structures, both on surface and sub – surface taking the
advantage of physico-mechanical properties of the construction materials
Accepted: 19 April 2021 like concrete, steel, wood, rock, etc. Quality is the standard of something as
Published Online: 26 April 2021 measured against other things of a similar kind. The term itself is subjective
until and unless quantified, cannot be controlled. Instrumentation plays a
Keywords: major role to quantify the quality of materials and check if the resources
Geotechnical instrumentation meet the requirements of the structural design. Several types of instruments
are developed and used world-wide in different structures to monitor
Hydropower water pressure, seepage, movements, vibration, temperature, stress, strain
Quality control and other significant parameters. The role of instrumentation specialist
Dam lies in understanding the dominating phenomena in the planned structure,
designing the instrumentation network, monitoring schedules and timely
Powerhouse
analysis for cautioning the engineers, designers, quality personnel and the
PHEP-II project management to have a check on construction measures vis-à-vis
structural performance. This paper describes the role of instrumentation in
hydroelectric projects with a brief case study from Bhutan Himalayas.

1. Introduction er-house where geotechnical issues are to be addressed. It

is not feasible to record each and every structural feature
Hydropower or hydroelectricity is the power or elec- in such projects and thus the geotechnical designs usu-
tricity generated from the flowing water by using rotating ally assume values of various rock parameters and every
turbines and generators. Based on the scale of power gen- construction job involving earth or rock runs the risk of
eration, the hydroelectric projects can be grouped as Large encountering surprises. All the possible significant prop-
(>30 MW), Small (100 kW-30 MW) and Micro (<100 erties and conditions of natural materials required by the
kW). Based on the positioning, the powerhouse can be ei- designer cannot be detected in advance by exploratory
ther on surface or underground. In either case, the design- procedures. The assumptions made during initial design
ers and execution team must deal with rock mass which phase might vary and the parameters requires to be updat-
is a combination of intact rock along with discontinuities. ed continuously as the rock mass is excavated These prop-
Rock mass is discontinuous, inhomogeneous, anisotropic, erties can only be measured through, field instrumentation
and nonlinearly elastic in nature which differentiates it quantitatively. Instrumentation becomes a working tool
from other engineered materials. A hydropower project for a geotechnical engineer. Wrong instruments, wrong
typically consists of a dam, head race tunnel and a pow- location, excessive or meagre instrumentation can all be

*Corresponding Author:
B.N.V. Siva Prasad,
National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Bengaluru, India;
Email: [email protected]

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

dangerous for interpretation. Every instrument installed ters some of which can be determined in laboratory while
on a project should be selected and placed to assist in some in-situ. However, assumptions become an integral
answering a specific question. The engineer or the instru- part of it. The design of geotechnical construction will be
mentation specialist should bring the best knowledge and based on judgement in selecting the most probable values
judgement to bear on every geotechnical problem that within the range of possible values for engineering prop-
arises and should analyze the quality of the information erties which shall be verified during geotechnical con-
on which a design is based. Trained people, good records
struction through geotechnical instrumentation. The in-
and correlations help in taking proper engineering judge-
struments provide data that helps engineers in every stage
ment. Use of field instrumentation therefore requires a
of a project. Role of instrumentation in different stages of
thorough grounding in geotechnical principles, a detailed
a project is mentioned in Figure 1.
conception of the variations that may be expected in the
natural or artificial deposit in which the observations are Most geotechnical instruments consist of a transducer,
to be made. a data acquisition system and a communication system
between the two. A transducer is a device that converts a
2. Instrumentation physical change into a corresponding output signal. Data
acquisition system ranges from simple portable readout
Instrument is a tool to measure the engineering param-
units to complex automatic systems. Various components
eter and quantify its magnitude. The instruments can be
categorized into two categories: of an instrument are shown in Figure 2 and the working
Used for in-situ determination of soil or rock proper- principle of widely used vibrating wire type of sensor is
ties, for e.g., strength, compressibility, and permeability shown in Figure 3.
during the design phase of a project.
Used for monitoring performance during the con-
struction or operating phase of project, may involve mea-
surement of groundwater pressure, total stress, deforma-
tion, load or strain.
The use of geotechnical instrumentation is not merely
the selection of instruments but a comprehensive step-by-
step engineering process beginning with a definition of
the objective and ending with implementation of the data.
Each step is critical to the success or failure of the entire
program, and the engineering process involves combining
the capabilities of instruments and people. In Steel and
Concrete structures, behavioral characteristics in terms of
strength, deformation and thermal properties are known
to the designer. An accurate analysis can be made, and
design plans and specifications prepared. Then, provided
construction is in accordance with those plans. The struc-
ture is expected to perform as designed. Whereas in rock Figure 1. Role of instrumentation in different stages of a
mass structures, there are a number of unknown parame- project

Figure 2. Components of an instrument

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 3. Working principle of a vibrating wire sensor

3. Instrumentation in Hydropower Projects and stability can only be monitored through instrumenta-
– A Case Study from Punatsangchhu-II tion. The primary importance is the collection of data used
Hydroelectric Project, Bhutan to judge the safety of a dam. The secondary importance is
the information that might help with the structural reha-
Any hydropower project is cost intensive and involves bilitation of a dam and to improvement of other existing
massive scale of construction activities. Any failure of such dams and the design of new dams. Catastrophic dam fail-
massive structure washes away the civilization downstream. ure results in uncontrolled release of the water from the
Prior to any such catastrophic failure, different signs are reservoir in huge quantum that will endanger the life and
shown by the structure itself however, it depends on the property on downstream of dam. Many historical cases of
experience and alertness of the personnel at site to bring dam failures were reported where early warning signs of
the signs to the notice of the concerned [1]. Sometimes, the severe problems might have been detected if a good moni-
change is so gradual that the human eye cannot perceive toring program had been in place [2][3][4]. Therefore, a good
and with time gets adapted thereby jeopardizing the safety dam safety monitoring program should be a key part of
of the structure. Moreover, the personnel may or may not every dam owner’s risk management program. Deforma-
be available round the clock to monitor these changes. It tion, settlement, water seepage, the diurnal and seasonal
is for these reasons; instruments are installed in structures. changes in reservoir levels, seismic activity and the aging
The instruments provide valuable data that helps in assess- of the structure all affect the health of the dam. Variations
ing the structural performance. The hydroelectric project in the behavioral characteristics of the structure may be
usually consists of a dam or reservoir, conveying tunnels, indicative of impending dam failure, and it is the primary
surface or underground powerhouse structure. goal of the monitoring system to detect such changes. The
The scale and number of excavations for construction use of instrumentation as part of dam safety programs is
of underground powerhouse caverns have increased tre- growing as the technology of instrumentation and ease of
mendously throughout the world, thereby maximizing the use improves.
utilization of underground space. Excavation destabilizes Punatsangchhu-II Hydroelectric Project (PHEP-II)
the surrounding rock mass resulting in development of po- plans for construction of 91 m high concrete gravity dam
tentially unstable zones that deforms with time and if not across Punatsangchhu river in Wangdue dzongkhag in the
properly treated or supported, leads to progressive failure Royal kingdom of Bhutan [5]. The location of the project
of the structure itself. All these abnormal behaviour can is shown in Figure 4. The list of various instruments in-
only be captured from field observations through geotech- stalled at PHEP-II Dam Complex and their intended pur-
nical instrumentation [2]. pose of installation are mentioned in Table 1.
A typical longitudinal section along the dam axis, max-
3.1 Dam Instrumentation
imum sluice section and the maximum non-overflowing
Dam forms one of the mega structures in a hydropower section showing the location of different instruments at
project whose stability is of utmost importance. The safety are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7, respectively.

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 4. Location of Punatsangchhu-II Hydroelectric Project, Bhutan

Table 1. Instruments installed at dam complex and their purpose

Instrument Purpose

Uplift Pressure Meter To measure hydrostatic uplift pressure at the base of a dam due to percolation or seepage of water

Strain Meter To measure strain / internal movements in concrete

Stress Meter To determine the magnitude of actual stress

No Stress Strain Meter To measure strain due to concrete alone without considering the external loads

Piezometer To monitor pore water pressure

Temperature Meter To measure temperature of concrete

Direct Plumb Line To measure the dam movement due to applied reservoir water pressures and temperature changes esp.
Inverted Plumb Line to monitor verticality of dam
Survey Target To measure external vertical and horizontal movements on the surface

Multi Point Bore Hole Extensometer To measure one portion of dam / abutment relative to another portion.

Strong Motion Accelerograph To measure the vibrations or motion in concrete structure

Tilt Meter To measure tilt / internal movement of dam

Joint Meter To measure movements along construction joints

Inclinometer To measure lateral movements in dam abutments and foundations

Figure 5. Longitudinal section at dam axis showing location of different instruments at PHEP-II dam (Ref: CWC/INST/
PNSC-9810-C-2132(R1)) [7]

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Figure 6. Maximum sluice section showing location of different instruments at PHEP-II dam
(Ref: CWC/INST/PNSC-9810-C-2130(R1)) [7]

Figure 7. Maximum non-overflow section showing location of different instruments at PHEP-II dam (Ref: CWC/INST/
PNSC-9810-C-2131(R1)) [7]

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

Table 2. Instruments installed at powerhouse caverns and their purpose

Instrument Purpose

Multi Point Borehole Extensometer (MPBX) To measure relative displacements, anchors fixed at an interval of 5 m, upto a depth of 25 m

Anchor Load Cell (ALC) To determine the axial load in the rock bolt

Instrumented Rock Bolt (IRB) To measure the load in the rock bolt, at an interval of 1 m, upto a depth of 12 m

Vibrating Wire Spot Weldable Strain Gage (SG) To measure strain in steel ribs

Borehole Stress Meter (SM) To measure the change in stress in rock mass

Piezometer (P) To measure pore pressure

Prism Target (PT) To monitor 3-D surface displacements

Figure 8. 3-D view of PHC incorporating actual coordinates, civil structures, geological structures and instrumentation
layouts (Ref: 3D Instrumentation Model by NIRM) [1][5][8]

3.2 Powerhouse Instrumentation worked, installed, monitored and analysed by the instru-
mentation specialist pre-during-post construction stages.
At Punatsangchhu-II Hydroelectric Project, construc- The list of instruments installed at PHEP-II Powerhouse
tion of three major caverns, viz. Machine Hall Cavern Complex and their purpose are mentioned in Table 2.
(MHC), 240.7 m (L) x 23 m (W) x 51 m (H); Transformer Different instruments like Multi Point Borehole Exten-
Hall Cavern (THC), 216 m (L) x 14 m (W) x 26.5 m (H) someter (MPBX), Anchor Load Cell (ALC), Measuring
and Downstream Surge Chamber (DSC), 314 m (L) x 18 Anchor (MA) or Instrumented Rock Bolt (IRB), Strain
m (W) x 58.5 m (H) is planned and is under progress [6] Gage (SG), Stress Meter (SM), Piezometer (P) and Prism
[8]
. The excavations and construction of such mega under- Targets (PT) are installed at different locations in the fol-
ground caverns demands extensive network of geotechni- lowing components of Powerhouse Complex, PHEP-II:
cal and geodetic instruments installed to alarm the project • Machine Hall Cavern (MHC)
personnel during any unforeseen incidents. Such instru- • Transformer Hall Cavern (THC)
mentation network needs to be strategically planned, net- • Downstream Surge Chamber (DSC)

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 Journal of Geological Research | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | April 2021

• Butterfly Valve Chamber (BVC) behaviour is essential. Adoption of right planning, correct
• Pressure Shafts (PS) specifications of instruments, right installation procedures,
• Bus Duct (BD) scheduled monitoring and timely and rightful analysis will
A 3-D view of PHC incorporating actual coordinates, altogether lead to success of any instrumentation program.
civil structures, geological structures, and instrumentation
layout is shown in Figure 8 and a typical cross section of Acknowledgement
Machine Hall Cavern showing the location of different
The authors deeply express their gratitude to the Di-
instruments is shown in Figure 9.
rector, National Institute of Rock Mechanics (NIRM)
for permitting to publish this article and the manage-
ment of Punatsangchhu-II Hydroelectric Project for their
whole-hearted support during the studies.

References
[1] John Dunnicliff, 1998, Geotechnical instrumentation
for monitoring field performance, 1-60.
[2] Concrete Dam Instrumentation Manual by US De-
partment of the Interior, 1987.
[3] https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-deadli-
est-dam-failures-in-history.html.
[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam_failure.
[5] BNV, Siva Prasad and Sripad R Naik. “Planning for
Geotechnical and Geodetic Instrumentation in Un-
derground Caverns.” Paper presented at the ISRM
International Symposium - 10th Asian Rock Mechan-
ics Symposium, Singapore, October 2018.
[6] BNV, Siva Prasad et al. Delineation of Cavity in
Downstream Surge Chamber at Punatsangchhu-II
Hydroelectric Project, Bhutan. Journal of Geological
Research, [S.l.], v.1,n.1, May 2019. ISSN 2630-4961.
Available at: <https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.
Figure 9. Section showing the location of different instru- php/jgr-a/article/view/392>. Date accessed: 24 Mar.
ments in Machine Hall Cavern, PHEP-II [1][5][8] 2021. doi:https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v1i1.392.
[7] BNV Siva Prasad, PD Jennifer, SR Naik, R Bhusan,
4. Conclusions V Sekar and K Sudhakar, 2019, “Report on Network-
ing and Analysis of Instrumentation Data at Dam
Catastrophic failure of a mega structure in any hydro- Complex, Punatsangchhu-II Hydroelectric Project,
electric or geotechnical project imposes a great threat to Bhutan”, NIRM Report No. NIRM/NM1901C/01.
the life and property. Field instrumentation helps in de- [8] BNV Siva Prasad, SR Naik, K Sudhakar, R Bhusan,
tecting such abnormal behaviour allowing the execution V Sekar and A Mishra, 2017, “Report on analysis
personnel at site to take suitable remedial measures timely of instrumentation data and assistance in installa-
preventing any mishap. Right instrumentation at right tion & monitoring of instruments at C-3 Package of
location shall yield better results and in order to choose Punatsangchhu-II Hydroelectric Project, Bhutan”,
the same. Thorough conceptualization of the structural NIRM Report No. NIRM/NM1701C.

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