ITT300

Introduction to Data Communication and

Networking

Chapter 3
Data and Signals (Part 1)

Mazlan Osman, FSKM, UiTM (Terengganu) 2011

 3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

• Data can be analog or digital.

• Analog data - information that is

continuous.

• Digital data - information that has

discrete states.

3.2
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
• Analog signal have an infinite number of
values in a range.
• Digital signal have a limited number of values.

Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals

3.3
 PERIODIC AND NONPERIODIC SIGNALS

• Periodic signals – completes a

pattern within a time frame, called
a period.
• The completion of one full pattern is
called a cycle.
• Non-periodic signals – changes
without exhibiting a pattern or
cycle.

3.4
 3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

• A simple periodic – cannot be

decomposed into simpler signals,
e.g. a sine wave.

• A composite periodic – composed of

multiple sine waves.

3.5
 SINE WAVE
• Three parameters of sine wave:
• the amplitude
• the frequency
• the phase

Figure 3.2 A sine wave

3.6
 PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

• Period – the amount of time (in

seconds) for a signal to complete 1
cycle.

• Frequency – the number of cycle

completed in 1s.

Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency

3.7
 PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

• Example:

1. The power we use at home has a

frequency of 60 Hz. Find the period?

2. The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is

its frequency in kilohertz?

3.8
 PHASE
• The position of the waveform relative
to time 0.

Figure 3.3 Three types of phases

3.9
 TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS

• Time-domain plot – show the three

parameters of sine wave.

• Frequency-domain plot – show the

relationship between amplitude
and frequency.

3.10
 TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS

Figure 3.4 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

3.11
 COMPOSITE SIGNALS
• A single sine wave is not useful in data communications, so
we need to send a composite signal.
• Composite – made of many sine waves.

Figure 3.5 A composite periodic signal

3.12
 COMPOSITE SIGNALS
Figure 3.6 shows a time and frequency domains for
a nonperiodic composite signal.

Figure 3.6 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

3.13
 BANDWIDTH

• The range of frequencies contained

in a composite signal.

Figure 3.7 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

3.14
 BANDWIDTH
• Example:
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest
frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the
spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the same
amplitude.

Solution

Figure 3.10 The bandwidth for Example 3.11

3.15
 BANDWIDTH
• Example:
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200
kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the signal.

Figure 3.11 The bandwidth for Example 3.7

3.16
3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS

• Signal level – the number of level

allowed in a particular signal.
• Data level – the number of values
used to represent data in a signal
level.
• Bit rate – the number of bits sent in
one second (bps).
 SIGNAL LEVEL AND DATA LEVEL
• Example:
A digital signal has eight signal levels. How many
data level (bits per level) are needed per signal
level?

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

• Example 3.9 A digital signal has nine levels.

How many bits (data level) are needed per signal
level?

3.18
 (NEW) TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL SIGNALS
Two types of digital signals transmission:

Baseband Transmission
• Sending a digital signal without changing
the digital signal to an analog signal.

• Requires a low-pass channel – a channel

with a bandwidth that starts from zero.

3.19
 (NEW) TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL SIGNALS
• Broadband Transmission

• Sending a digital signal by changing

the digital signal to an analog signal.

• Requires bandpass channel – a channel

with a bandwidth that does not start from
zero.

3.20
 3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
• Transmission impairment – signal at the
beginning of the medium is not the
same as the signal at the end of the
medium.

Figure 3.16 Causes of impairment

3.21
 ATTENUATION

• A signal losses some of its energy in

overcoming the resistance of the
medium.

• Refer a figure in the Manual.

3.22
 DISTORTION

• A signal changes its form or shape

at the receiver.

• See a figure in the Manual.

3.23
 NOISE
• Unwanted electrical or
electromagnetic energy that
degrades the quality of data and
signals.

• See a figure in the Manual.

3.24
 NOISE

• Types of noise
i. Thermal noise – random motion of
electronic.
ii.Induced noise – comes from
electronic sources.
iii.Crosstalk – effects of one wire on
other wire.
iv.Impulse noise – a signal with
high energy in a very short time.
3.25
 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (SNR)

• Ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what

is not wanted (noise).

SNR = average signal power

average noise power

• Described in decibel units:

SNRdB = 10log10SNR

3.26
 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (SNR)

• Example:
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of
the noise is 1 μW. What are the values of SNR
and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated
as follows:

3.27
 3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS

• Data rate depends on three factors:

1. The bandwidth
2. The level of the signals
3. The quality of the channel

• Two theoretical formulas to calculate the

data rate:
i.Nyquist for noiseless channel
ii.Shannon for a noisy channel

3.28
 NYQUIST AND SHANNON FORMULA
• Nyquist formula:
BitRate = 2 * bandwidth * log2L

• Shannon formula:
Capacity = bandwidth * log2(1+
SNR)

3.29
 NYQUIST AND SHANNON FORMULA
• Example:

1. Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of

3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

2. Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a

signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send
2 bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

3.30
 NYQUIST AND SHANNON FORMULA
Example 3.13
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel
with a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels
do we need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the

number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the bit rate
is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.

3.31
 NYQUIST AND SHANNON FORMULA
• Example 3.14
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of
3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. Find the
capacity?
• Example 3.15
The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume
that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. What
is the capacity?

3.32
 USING BOTH LIMITS
• In practice, both methods need to find the limits and signal
levels.
• Example 3.41
We have a channel with a 1MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this
channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal
level?
Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.
Second, we use the Nyquist theorem to get the signal level.

3.33
 3-6 PERFORMANCE

• The performance of network also can be

measured some factors:
• Bandwidth
• Throughput
• Latency
• Propagation Time
• Transmission Time
• Queuing Time

3.34