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Steam: its Generation and Use

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[Pg 237]
CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT
The height and diameter of a properly designed chimney depend upon the amount of fuel to be
burned, its nature, the design of the flue, with its arrangement relative to the boiler or boilers,
and the altitude of the plant above sea level. There are so many factors involved that as yet
there has been produced no formula which is satisfactory in taking them all into consideration,
and the methods used for determining stack sizes are largely empirical. In this chapter a
method sufficiently comprehensive and accurate to cover all practical cases will be developed
and illustrated.

D is the difference in pressure available for producing a flow of the gases. If the gases
within a stack be heated, each cubic foot will expand, and the weight of the expanded gas per
cubic foot will be less than that of a cubic foot of the cold air outside the chimney. Therefore,
the unit pressure at the stack base due to the weight of the column of heated gas will be less
than that due to a column of cold air. This difference in pressure, like the difference in head of
water, will cause a flow of the gases into the base of the stack. In its passage to the stack the
cold air must pass through the furnace or furnaces of the boilers connected to it, and it in turn
becomes heated. This newly heated gas will also rise in the stack and the action will be
continuous.

The intensity of the draft, or difference in pressure, is usually measured in inches of water.
Assuming an atmospheric temperature of 62 degrees Fahrenheit and the temperature of the
gases in the chimney as 500 degrees Fahrenheit, and, neglecting for the moment the difference
in density between the chimney gases and the air, the difference between the weights of the
external air and the internal flue gases per cubic foot is .0347 pound, obtained as follows:

Weight of a cubic foot of air at 62 degrees Fahrenheit = .0761 pound

Weight of a cubic foot of air at 500 degrees Fahrenheit = .0414 pound
–––––––––

Difference = .0347 pound

Therefore, a chimney 100 feet high, assumed for the purpose of illustration to be suspended in
the air, would have a pressure exerted on each square foot of its cross sectional area at its base
of .0347 × 100 = 3.47 pounds. As a cubic foot of water at 62 degrees Fahrenheit weighs 62.32
pounds, an inch of water would exert a pressure of 62.32 ÷ 12 = 5.193 pounds per square foot.
The 100-foot stack would, therefore, under the above temperature conditions, show a draft of
3.47 ÷ 5.193 or approximately 0.67 inches of water.

The method best suited for determining the proper proportion of stacks and flues is dependent
upon the principle that if the cross sectional area of the stack is sufficiently large for the
volume of gases to be handled, the intensity of the draft will depend directly upon the height;
therefore, the method of procedure is as follows:

1st. Select a stack of such height as will produce the draft required by the particular character
of the fuel and the amount to be burned per square foot of grate surface.

2nd. Determine the cross sectional area necessary to handle the gases without undue frictional
losses.

The application of these rules follows: [Pg 238]

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D F —The force or intensity of the draft, not allowing for the difference in the
density of the air and of the flue gases, is given by the formula:

( )
1 1
D = 0.52 H × P ––– - –––– (24)
T T1

in which

D = draft produced, measured in inches of water,

H = height of top of stack above grate bars in feet,
P = atmospheric pressure in pounds per square inch,
T = absolute atmospheric temperature,
T1 = absolute temperature of stack gases.

In this formula no account is taken of the density of the flue gases, it being assumed that it is
the same as that of air. Any error arising from this assumption is negligible in practice as a
factor of correction is applied in using the formula to cover the difference between the
theoretical figures and those corresponding to actual operating conditions.

The force of draft at sea level (which corresponds to an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 pounds
per square inch) produced by a chimney 100 feet high with the temperature of the air at 60
degrees Fahrenheit and that of the flue gases at 500 degrees Fahrenheit is,

( )
1 1
D = 0.52 × 100 × 14.7 –––––– - –––––– = 0.67
521 961

Under the same temperature conditions this chimney at an atmospheric pressure of 10 pounds
per square inch (which corresponds to an altitude of about 10,000 feet above sea level) would
produce a draft of,

( )
1 1
D = 0.52 × 100 × 10 –––––– - –––––– = 0.45
521 961

For use in applying this formula it is convenient to tabulate values of the product

( )
1 1
0.52 × 14.7 ––– - ––––

T T1

which we will call K, for various values of T1. With these values calculated for assumed
atmospheric temperature and pressure (24) becomes

D = KH (25)

For average conditions the atmospheric pressure may be considered 14.7 pounds per square
inch, and the temperature 60 degrees Fahrenheit. For these values and various stack
temperatures K becomes:

Temperature Stack Gases Constant K

750 .0084
700 .0081
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650 .0078
600 .0075
550 .0071
500 .0067
450 .0063
400 .0058
350 .0053

D L —The intensity of the draft as determined by the above formula is theoretical [Pg 239]
and can never be observed with a draft gauge or any recording device. However, if the ashpit
doors of the boiler are closed and there is no perceptible leakage of air through the boiler
setting or flue, the draft measured at the stack base will be approximately the same as the
theoretical draft. The difference existing at other times represents the pressure necessary to
force the gases through the stack against their own inertia and the friction against the sides.
This difference will increase with the velocity of the gases. With the ashpit doors closed the
volume of gases passing to the stack are a minimum and the maximum force of draft will be
shown by a gauge.

As draft measurements are taken along the path of the gases, the readings grow less as the
points at which they are taken are farther from the stack, until in the boiler ashpit, with the
ashpit doors open for freely admitting the air, there is little or no perceptible rise in the water of
the gauge. The breeching, the boiler damper, the baffles and the tubes, and the coal on the
grates all retard the passage of the gases, and the draft from the chimney is required to
overcome the resistance offered by the various factors. The draft at the rear of the boiler setting
where connection is made to the stack or flue may be 0.5 inch, while in the furnace directly
over the fire it may not be over, say, 0.15 inch, the difference being the draft required to
overcome the resistance offered in forcing the gases through the tubes and around the baffling.

One of the most important factors to be considered in designing a stack is the pressure required
to force the air for combustion through the bed of fuel on the grates. This pressure will vary
with the nature of the fuel used, and in many instances will be a large percentage of the total
draft. In the case of natural draft, its measure is found directly by noting the draft in the
furnace, for with properly designed ashpit doors it is evident that the pressure under the grates
will not differ sensibly from atmospheric pressure.

L S —The difference between the theoretical draft as determined by formula (24)

and the amount lost by friction in the stack proper is the available draft, or that which the draft
gauge indicates when connected to the base of the stack. The sum of the losses of draft in the
flue, boiler and furnace must be equivalent to the available draft, and as these quantities can be
determined from record of experiments, the problem of designing a stack becomes one of
proportioning it to produce a certain available draft.

The loss in the stack due to friction of the gases can be calculated from the following formula:

f W² C H
ΔD = –––––––––––––––– (26)
A³

in which

ΔD = draft loss in inches of water,

W = weight of gas in pounds passing per second,
C = perimeter of stack in feet,
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H = height of stack in feet,

f = a constant with the following values at sea level:
.0015 for steel stacks, temperature of gases 600 degrees Fahrenheit.
.0011 for steel stacks, temperature of gases 350 degrees Fahrenheit.
.0020 for brick or brick-lined stacks, temperature of gases 600 degrees Fahrenheit.
.0015 for brick or brick-lined stacks, temperature of gases 350 degrees Fahrenheit.
A = Area of stack in square feet.
[Pg 240] [Pl 2
This formula can also be used for calculating the frictional losses for flues, in which case, C = [Pg 241]
the perimeter of the flue in feet, H = the length of the flue in feet, the other values being the
same as for stacks.

The available draft is equal to the difference between the theoretical draft from formula (25)
and the loss from formula (26), hence:

f W² C H
d1 = available draft = KH - –––––––––––––––– (27)
A³

Table 53 gives the available draft in inches that a stack 100 feet high will produce when
serving different horse powers of boilers with the methods of calculation for other heights.

TABLE 53

AVAILABLE DRAFT

CALCULATED FOR 100-FOOT STACK OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS

ASSUMING STACK TEMPERATURE OF 500 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
AND 100 POUNDS OF GAS PER HORSE POWER

FOR OTHER HEIGHTS OF STACK MULTIPLY DRAFT BY HEIGHT ÷ 100

Horse Diameter of Stack in Inches
Power 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 132 144
100 .64
200 .55 .62
300 .41 .55 .61
400 .21 .46 .56 .61
500 .34 .50 .57 .61
600 .19 .42 .53 .59
700 .34 .48 .56 .60 .63
800 .23 .43 .52 .58 .61 .63
900 .36 .49 .56 .60 .62 .64
1000 .29 .45 .53 .58 .61 .63 .64
1100 .40 .50 .56 .60 .62 .63 .64
1200 .35 .47 .54 .58 .61 .63 .64 .65
1300 .29 .44 .52 .57 .60 .62 .63 .64 .65
1400 .40 .49 .55 .59 .61 .63 .64 .65 .65

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1500 .36 .47 .53 .58 .60 .62 .63 .64 .65 .65
1600 .31 .43 .52 .56 .59 .62 .63 .64 .65 .65
1700 .41 .50 .55 .58 .61 .62 .64 .64 .65
1800 .37 .47 .54 .57 .60 .62 .63 .64 .65
1900 .34 .45 .52 .56 .59 .61 .63 .64 .64
2000 .43 .50 .55 .59 .61 .62 .63 .64
2100 .40 .49 .54 .58 .60 .62 .63 .64
2200 .38 .47 .53 .57 .59 .61 .62 .64
2300 .35 .45 .52 .56 .59 .61 .62 .63
2400 .32 .43 .50 .55 .58 .60 .62 .63
2500 .41 .49 .54 .57 .60 .61 .63
Horse Diameter of Stack in Inches
Power 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 132 144
2600 .47 .53 .56 .59 .61 .62 .64 .65
2700 .45 .52 .55 .58 .60 .62 .64 .65
2800 .44 .59 .55 .58 .60 .61 .64 .65
2900 .42 .49 .54 .57 .59 .61 .63 .65
3000 .40 .48 .53 .56 .59 .61 .63 .64
3100 .38 .47 .52 .56 .58 .60 .63 .64
3200 .45 .51 .55 .58 .60 .63 .64
3300 .44 .50 .54 .57 .59 .62 .64
3400 .42 .49 .53 .56 .59 .62 .64
3500 .40 .48 .52 .56 .58 .62 .64
3600 .47 .52 .55 .58 .61 .63
3700 .45 .51 .55 .57 .61 .63
3800 .44 .50 .54 .57 .61 .63
3900 .43 .49 .53 .56 .60 .63
4000 .42 .48 .52 .56 .60 .62
4100 .40 .47 .52 .55 .60 .62
4200 .39 .46 .51 .55 .59 .62
4300 .45 .50 .54 .59 .62
4400 .44 .49 .53 .59 .62
4500 .43 .49 .53 .58 .61
4600 .42 .48 .52 .58 .61
4700 .41 .47 .51 .57 .61
4800 .40 .46 .51 .57 .60
4900 .45 .50 .57 .60
5000 .44 .49 .56 .60
FOR OTHER STACK TEMPERATURES ADD OR DEDUCT
[52]
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BEFORE MULTIPLYING BY HEIGHT ÷ 100 AS FOLLOWS[52]

For 750 Degrees F. For 650 Degrees F. For 550 Degrees F. For 400 Degrees F.
Add .17 inch. Add .11 inch. Add .04 inch. Deduct .09 inch.
For 700 Degrees F. For 600 Degrees F. For 450 Degrees F. For 350 Degrees F.
Add .14 inch. Add .08 inch. Deduct .04 inch. Deduct .14 inch.

[Pg 242]

F . 33. D S H P S

Computed from Formula (28). For brick or brick-lined stacks, increase the diameter 6 per cent

H D S —From this formula (27) it becomes evident that a stack of [Pg 243]
certain diameter, if it be increased in height, will produce the same available draft as one of
larger diameter, the additional height being required to overcome the added frictional loss. It
follows that among the various stacks that would meet the requirements of a particular case
there must be one which can be constructed more cheaply than the others. It has been
determined from the relation of the cost of stacks to their diameters and heights, in connection
with the formula for available draft, that the minimum cost stack has a diameter dependent

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solely upon the horse power of the boilers it serves, and a height proportional to the available
draft required.

Assuming 120 pounds of flue gas per hour for each boiler horse power, which provides for
ordinary overloads and the use of poor coal, the method above stated gives:
2
For an unlined steel stack—diameter in inches = 4.68 (H. P.) ⁄5 (28)
2
For a stack lined with masonry—diameter in inches = 4.92 (H. P.) ⁄5 (29)

In both of these formulae H. P. = the rated horse power of the boiler.

From this formula the curve, Fig. 33, has been calculated and from it the stack diameter for any
boiler horse power can be selected.

For stoker practice where a large stack serves a number of boilers, the area is usually made
about one-third more than the above rules call for, which allows for leakage of air through the
setting of any idle boilers, irregularities in operating conditions, etc.

Stacks with diameters determined as above will give an available draft which bears a constant
ratio of the theoretical draft, and allowing for the cooling of the gases in their passage upward
through the stack, this ratio is 8. Using this factor in formula (25), and transposing, the height
of the chimney becomes,

d1
H = (30)
–––––––

.8 K
Where H = height of stack in feet above the level of the grates,
d1 = available draft required,
K = constant as in formula.

L F —The loss of draft in straight flues due to friction and inertia can be calculated
approximately from formula (26), which was given for loss in stacks. It is to be borne in mind
that C in this formula is the actual perimeter of the flue and is least, relative to the cross
sectional area, when the section is a circle, is greater for a square section, and greatest for a
rectangular section. The retarding effect of a square flue is 12 per cent greater than that of a
circular flue of the same area and that of a rectangular with sides as 1 and 1½, 15 per cent
greater. The greater resistance of the more or less uneven brick or concrete flue is provided for
in the value of the constants given for formula (26). Both steel and brick flues should be short
and should have as near a circular or square cross section as possible. Abrupt turns are to be
avoided, but as long easy sweeps require valuable space, it is often desirable to increase the
height of the stack rather than to take up added space in the boiler room. Short right-angle
turns reduce the draft by an amount which can be roughly approximated as equal to 0.05 inch
for each turn. The turns which the gases make in leaving the damper box of a boiler, in
entering a horizontal flue and in turning up into a stack should always be considered. The cross
sectional areas of the passages leading from the boilers to the stack should be of ample size to
provide against undue frictional loss. It is poor economy to restrict the size of the flue and thus
make additional stack height necessary to overcome the added friction. The general practice is [Pg 244] [Pl 2
to make flue areas the same or slightly larger than that of the stack; these should be, preferably, [Pg 245]
at least 20 per cent greater, and a safe rule to follow in figuring flue areas is to allow 35 square
feet per 1000 horse power. It is unnecessary to maintain the same size of flue the entire
distance behind a row of boilers, and the areas at any point may be made proportional to the
volume of gases that will pass that point. That is, the areas may be reduced as connections to
various boilers are passed.

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With circular steel flues of approximately the same size as the stacks, or reduced proportionally
to the volume of gases they will handle, a convenient rule is to allow 0.1 inch draft loss per 100
feet of flue length and 0.05 inch for each right-angle turn. These figures are also good for
square or rectangular steel flues with areas sufficiently large to provide against excessive
frictional loss. For losses in brick or concrete flues, these figures should be doubled.

Underground flues are less desirable than overhead or rear flues for the reason that in most
instances the gases will have to make more turns where underground flues are used and
because the cross sectional area of such flues will oftentimes be decreased on account of an
accumulation of dirt or water which it may be impossible to remove.

In tall buildings, such as office buildings, it is frequently necessary in order to carry spent
gases above the roofs, to install a stack the height of which is out of all proportion to the
requirements of the boilers. In such cases it is permissible to decrease the diameter of a stack,
but care must be taken that this decrease is not sufficient to cause a frictional loss in the stack
as great as the added draft intensity due to the increase in height, which local conditions make
necessary.

In such cases also the fact that the stack diameter is permissibly decreased is no reason why
flue sizes connecting to the stack should be decreased. These should still be figured in
proportion to the area of the stack that would be furnished under ordinary conditions or with an
allowance of 35 square feet per 1000 horse power, even though the cross sectional area appears
out of proportion to the stack area.

L B —In calculating the available draft of a chimney 120 pounds per hour has been
used as the weight of the gases per boiler horse power. This covers an overload of the boiler to
an extent of 50 per cent and provides for the use of poor coal. The loss in draft through a boiler
proper will depend upon its type and baffling and will increase with the per cent of rating at
which it is run. No figures can be given which will cover all conditions, but for approximate
use in figuring the available draft necessary it may be assumed that the loss through a boiler
will be 0.25 inch where the boiler is run at rating, 0.40 inch where it is run at 150 per cent of its
rated capacity, and 0.70 inch where it is run at 200 per cent of its rated capacity.

L F —The draft loss in the furnace or through the fuel bed varies between wide
limits. The air necessary for combustion must pass through the interstices of the coal on the
grate. Where these are large, as is the case with broken coal, but little pressure is required to
force the air through the bed; but if they are small, as with bituminous slack or small sizes of
anthracite, a much greater pressure is needed. If the draft is insufficient the coal will
accumulate on the grates and a dead smoky fire will result with the accompanying poor
combustion; if the draft is too great, the coal may be rapidly consumed on certain portions of
the grate, leaving the fire thin in spots and a portion of the grates uncovered with the resulting
losses due to an excessive amount of air.

[Pg 246]

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F . 34. D R D C R V K C

D R D F —For every kind of fuel and rate of combustion there [Pg 247]
is a certain draft with which the best general results are obtained. A comparatively light draft is
best with the free burning bituminous coals and the amount to use increases as the percentage
of volatile matter diminishes and the fixed carbon increases, being highest for the small sizes
of anthracites. Numerous other factors such as the thickness of fires, the percentage of ash and
the air spaces in the grates bear directly on this question of the draft best suited to a given
combustion rate. The effect of these factors can only be found by experiment. It is almost
impossible to show by one set of curves the furnace draft required at various rates of
combustion for all of the different conditions of fuel, etc., that may be met. The curves in Fig.
34, however, give the furnace draft necessary to burn various kinds of coal at the combustion
rates indicated by the abscissae, for a general set of conditions. These curves have been plotted
from the records of numerous tests and allow a safe margin for economically burning coals of
the kinds noted.

R C —The amount of coal which can be burned per hour per square foot of
grate surface is governed by the character of the coal and the draft available. When the boiler
and grate are properly proportioned, the efficiency will be practically the same, within
reasonable limits, for different rates of combustion. The area of the grate, and the ratio of this
area to the boiler heating surface will depend upon the nature of the fuel to be burned, and the
stack should be so designed as to give a draft sufficient to burn the maximum amount of fuel
per square foot of grate surface corresponding to the maximum evaporative requirements of the
boiler.

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S P —The stack diameter can be determined from the curve, Fig. 33. The
height can be determined by adding the draft losses in the furnace, through the boiler and flues,
and computing from formula (30) the height necessary to give this draft.

Example: Proportion a stack for boilers rated at 2000 horse power, equipped with stokers, and
burning bituminous coal that will evaporate 8 pounds of water from and at 212 degrees
Fahrenheit per pound of fuel; the ratio of boiler heating surface to grate surface being 50:1; the
flues being 100 feet long and containing two right-angle turns; the stack to be able to handle
overloads of 50 per cent; and the rated horse power of the boilers based on 10 square feet of
heating surface per horse power.

The atmospheric temperature may be assumed as 60 degrees Fahrenheit and the flue
temperatures at the maximum overload as 550 degrees Fahrenheit. The grate surface equals
400 square feet. The total coal burned at rating = 2000 × 34½⁄8 = 8624 pounds. The coal per
square foot of grate surface per hour at rating = 8624⁄400 = 22 pounds.

The atmospheric temperature may be assumed as 60 degrees Fahrenheit and the flue
temperatures at the maximum overload as 550 degrees Fahrenheit. The grate surface equals
400 square feet.

For 50 per cent overload the combustion rate will be approximately 60 per cent greater than
this or 1.60 × 22 = 35 pounds per square foot of grate surface per hour. The furnace draft
required for the combustion rate, from the curve, Fig. 34, is 0.6 inch. The loss in the boiler will
be 0.4 inch, in the flue 0.1 inch, and in the turns 2 × 0.05 = 0.1 inch. The available draft
required at the base of the stack is, therefore,

Inches
Boiler 0.4
Furnace 0.6
Flues 0.1
Turns 0.1
–––––

Total 1.2

Since the available draft is 80 per cent of the theoretical draft, this draft due to the height [Pg 248]
required is 1.2 ÷ .8 = 1.5 inch.

The chimney constant for temperatures of 60 degrees Fahrenheit and 550 degrees Fahrenheit is
.0071 and from formula (30),

1.5
H = ––––––––– = 211 feet.
.0071

Its diameter from curve in Fig. 33 is 96 inches if unlined, and 102 inches inside if lined with
masonry. The cross sectional area of the flue should be approximately 70 square feet at the
point where the total amount of gas is to be handled, tapering to the boiler farthest from the
stack to a size which will depend upon the size of the boiler units used.

C S S A —It has ordinarily been assumed that a stack

height for altitude will be increased inversely as the ratio of the barometric pressure at the
altitude to that at sea level, and that the stack diameter will increase inversely as the two-fifths
power of this ratio. Such a relation has been based on the assumption of constant draft
measured in inches of water at the base of the stack for a given rate of operation of the boilers,
regardless of altitude.
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If the assumption be made that boilers, flues and furnace remain the same, and further that the
increased velocity of a given weight of air passing through the furnace at a higher altitude
would have no effect on the combustion, the theory has been advanced[53] that a different law
applies.

Under the above assumptions, whenever a stack is working at its maximum capacity at any
altitude, the entire draft is utilized in overcoming the various resistances, each of which is
proportional to the square of the velocity of the gases. Since boiler areas are fixed, all
velocities may be related to a common velocity, say, that within the stack, and all resistances
may, therefore, be expressed as proportional to the square of the chimney velocity. The total
resistance to flow, in terms of velocity head, may be expressed in terms of weight of a column
of external air, the numerical value of such head being independent of the barometric pressure.
Likewise the draft of a stack, expressed in height of column of external air, will be numerically
independent of the barometric pressure. It is evident, therefore, that if a given boiler plant, with
its stack operated with a fixed fuel, be transplanted from sea level to an altitude, assuming the
temperatures remain constant, the total draft head measured in height of column of external air
will be numerically constant. The velocity of chimney gases will, therefore, remain the same at
altitude as at sea level and the weight of gases flowing per second with a fixed velocity will be
proportional to the atmospheric density or inversely proportional to the normal barometric
pressure.

To develop a given horse power requires a constant weight of chimney gas and air for
combustion. Hence, as the altitude is increased, the density is decreased and, for the
assumptions given above, the velocity through the furnace, the boiler passes, breeching and
flues must be correspondingly greater at altitude than at sea level. The mean velocity,
therefore, for a given boiler horse power and constant weight of gases will be inversely
proportional to the barometric pressure and the velocity head measured in column of external
air will be inversely proportional to the square of the barometric pressure.

For stacks operating at altitude it is necessary not only to increase the height but also the
diameter, as there is an added resistance within the stack due to the added friction from the [Pg 249]
additional height. This frictional loss can be compensated by a suitable increase in the diameter
and when so compensated, it is evident that on the assumptions as given, the chimney height
would have to be increased at a ratio inversely proportional to the square of the normal
barometric pressure.

In designing a boiler for high altitudes, as already stated, the assumption is usually made that a
given grade of fuel will require the same draft measured in inches of water at the boiler damper
as at sea level, and this leads to making the stack height inversely as the barometric pressures,
instead of inversely as the square of the barometric pressures. The correct height, no doubt,
falls somewhere between the two values as larger flues are usually used at the higher altitudes,
whereas to obtain the ratio of the squares, the flues must be the same size in each case, and
again the effect of an increased velocity of a given weight of air through the fire at a high
altitude, on the combustion, must be neglected. In making capacity tests with coal fuel, no
difference has been noted in the rates of combustion for a given draft suction measured by a
water column at high and low altitudes, and this would make it appear that the correct height to
use is more nearly that obtained by the inverse ratio of the barometric readings than by the
inverse ratio of the squares of the barometric readings. If the assumption is made that the value
falls midway between the two formulae, the error in using a stack figured in the ordinary way
by making the height inversely proportional to the barometric readings would differ about 10
per cent in capacity at an altitude of 10,000 feet, which difference is well within the probable
variation of the size determined by different methods. It would, therefore, appear that ample
accuracy is obtained in all cases by simply making the height inversely proportional to the
barometric readings and increasing the diameter so that the stacks used at high altitudes have
the same frictional resistance as those used at low altitudes, although, if desired, the stack may

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be made somewhat higher at high altitudes than this rule calls for in order to be on the safe
side.

TABLE 54 The increase of

stack diameter
STACK CAPACITIES, CORRECTION FACTORS FOR necessary to
ALTITUDES maintain the
R 2 same friction
Altitude R ⁄5 loss is inversely
Ratio Barometer
Height in Feet Normal Ratio Increase as the two-fifths
Reading R²
Above Barometer in Stack power of the
Sea Level to
Sea Level Diameter barometric
Altitude
pressure.
0 30.00 1.000 1.000 1.000
1000 28.88 1.039 1.079 1.015 Table 54 gives
2000 27.80 1.079 1.064 1.030 the ratio of
3000 26.76 1.121 1.257 1.047 barometric
readings of
4000 25.76 1.165 1.356 1.063 various altitudes
5000 24.79 1.210 1.464 1.079 to sea level,
6000 23.87 1.257 1.580 1.096 values for the
7000 22.97 1.306 1.706 1.113 square of this
8000 22.11 1.357 1.841 1.130 ratio and values
of the two-fifths
9000 21.28 1.410 1.988 1.147 power of this
10000 20.49 1.464 2.144 1.165 ratio.

These figures show that the altitude affects the height to a much greater extent than the
diameter and that practically no increase in diameter is necessary for altitudes up to 3000 feet.

For high altitudes the increase in stack height necessary is, in some cases, such as to make the [Pg 250]
proportion of height to diameter impracticable. The method to be recommended in
overcoming, at least partially, the great increase in height necessary at high altitudes is an
increase in the grate surface of the boilers which the stack serves, in this way reducing the
combustion rate necessary to develop a given power and hence the draft required for such
combustion rate.

TABLE 55

STACK SIZES BY KENT’S FORMULA

ASSUMING 5 POUNDS OF COAL PER HORSE POWER
Height of Stack in Feet Side of
Equiva-
Dia- Area Dia-
lent
meter Square 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 125 150 175 meter
Square
Inches Feet Inches
Stack
Commercial Horse Power Inches
33 5.94 106 115 125 133 141 149 … … … … 30 33
36 7.07 129 141 152 163 173 182 … … … … 32 36
39 8.30 155 169 183 196 208 219 229 245 … … 35 39
42 9.62 183 200 216 231 245 258 271 289 316 … 38 42
48 12.57 246 269 290 311 330 348 365 389 426 460 43 48
54 15.90 318 348 376 402 427 449 472 503 551 595 48 54
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60 19.64 400 437 473 505 536 565 593 632 692 748 54 60
66 23.76 490 537 580 620 658 694 728 776 849 918 59 66
72 28.27 591 646 698 747 792 835 876 934 023 1105 64 72
78 33.18 700 766 828 885 939 990 1038 1107 1212 1310 70 78
84 38.48 818 896 968 1035 1098 1157 1214 1294 1418 1531 75 84
Height of Stack in Feet Side of
Equiva-
Dia- Area Dia-
lent
meter Square 100 110 125 150 175 200 225 250 meter
Square
Inches Feet Inches
Stack
Commercial Horse Power Inches
90 44.18 1338 1403 1496 1639 1770 1893 2008 2116 80 90
96 50.27 1532 1606 1713 1876 2027 2167 2298 2423 86 96
102 56.75 1739 1824 1944 2130 2300 2459 2609 2750 91 102
108 63.62 1959 2054 2190 2392 2592 2770 2939 3098 98 108
114 70.88 2192 2299 2451 2685 2900 3100 3288 3466 101 114
120 78.54 2438 2557 2726 2986 3226 3448 3657 3855 107 120
126 86.59 2697 2829 3016 3303 3568 3814 4046 4265 112 126
132 95.03 2970 3114 3321 3637 3929 4200 4455 4696 117 132
144 113.10 3554 3726 3973 4352 4701 5026 5331 5618 128 144
156 132.73 4190 4393 4684 5131 5542 5925 6285 6624 138 156
168 153.94 4878 5115 5454 5974 6454 6899 7318 7713 150 168

K ’ S T —Table 55 gives, in convenient form for approximate work, the sizes of

stacks and the horse power of boilers which they will serve. This table is a modification of Mr.
William Kent’s stack table and is calculated from his formula. Provided no unusual conditions
are encountered, it is reliable for the ordinary rates of combustion with bituminous coals. It is
figured on a consumption of 5 pounds of coal burned per hour per boiler horse power
developed, this figure giving a fairly liberal allowance for the use of poor coal and for a
reasonable overload. When the coal used is a low grade bituminous of the Middle or Western
States, it is strongly recommended that these sizes be increased materially, such an increase
being from 25 to 60 per cent, depending upon the nature of the coal and the capacity desired. [Pg 251]
For the coal burned per hour for any size stack given in the table, the values should be
multiplied by 5.

A convenient rule for large stacks, 200 feet high and over, is to provide 30 square feet of cross
sectional area per 1000 rated horse power.

S O F —The requirements of stacks connected to boilers under which oil fuel is

burned are entirely different from those where coal is used. While more attention has been paid
to the matter of stack sizes for oil fuel in recent years, there has not as yet been gathered the
large amount of experimental data available for use in designing coal stacks.

In the case of oil-fired boilers the loss of draft through the fuel bed is partially eliminated.
While there may be practically no loss through any checkerwork admitting air to the furnace
when a boiler is new, the areas for the air passage in this checkerwork will in a short time be
decreased, due to the silt which is present in practically all fuel oil. The loss in draft through
the boiler proper at a given rating will be less than in the case of coal-fired boilers, this being
due to a decrease in the volume of the gases. Further, the action of the oil burner itself is to a
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certain extent that of a forced draft. To offset this decrease in draft requirement, the
temperature of the gases entering the stack will be somewhat lower where oil is used than
where coal is used, and the draft that a stack of a given height would give, therefore, decreases.
The factors as given above, affecting as they do the intensity of the draft, affect directly the
height of the stack to be used.

As already stated, the volume of gases from oil-fired boilers being less than in the case of coal,
makes it evident that the area of stacks for oil fuel will be less than for coal. It is assumed that
these areas will vary directly as the volume of the gases to be handled, and this volume for oil
may be taken as approximately 60 per cent of that for coal.

In designing stacks for oil fuel there are two features which must not be overlooked. In coal-
firing practice there is rarely danger of too much draft. In the burning of oil, however, this may
play an important part in the reduction of plant economy, the influence of excessive draft being
more apparent where the load on the plant may be reduced at intervals. The reason for this is
that, aside from a slight decrease in temperature at reduced loads, the tendency, due to careless
firing, is toward a constant gas flow through the boiler regardless of the rate of operation, with
the corresponding increase of excess air at light loads. With excessive stack height, economical
operation at varying loads is almost impossible with hand control. With automatic control,
however, where stacks are necessarily high to take care of known peaks, under lighter loads
this economical operation becomes less difficult. For this reason the question of designing a
stack for a plant where the load is known to be nearly a constant is easier than for a plant
where the load will vary over a wide range. While great care must be taken to avoid excessive
draft, still more care must be taken to assure a draft suction within all parts of the setting under
any and all conditions of operation. It is very easily possible to more than offset the economy
gained through low draft, by the losses due to setting deterioration, resulting from such lack of
suction. Under conditions where the suction is not sufficient to carry off the products of
combustion, the action of the heat on the setting brickwork will cause its rapid failure.
[Pg 252] [Pl 2
TABLE 56 It becomes evident, therefore, that [Pg 253]
the question of stack height for oil-
STACK SIZES FOR OIL FUEL fired boilers is one which must be
considered with the greatest of
ADAPTED FROM C. R. WEYMOUTH’S TABLE care. The designer, on the one
(TRANS. A. S. M. E. VOL. 34) hand, must guard against the evils
Diameter Height in Feet Above Boiler Room Floor of excessive draft with the view to
Inches plant economy, and, on the other,
80 90 100 120 140 160
against the evils of lack of draft
33 161 206 233 270 306 315 from the viewpoint of upkeep cost.
36 208 253 295 331 363 387 Stacks for this work should be
39 251 303 343 399 488 467 proportioned to give ample draft
42 295 359 403 474 521 557 for the maximum overload that a
plant will be called upon to carry,
48 399 486 551 645 713 760 all conditions of overload carefully
54 519 634 720 847 933 1000 considered. At the same time,
60 657 800 913 1073 1193 1280 where this maximum overload is
66 813 993 1133 1333 1480 1593 figured liberally enough to insure a
draft suction within the setting
72 980 1206 1373 1620 1807 1940 under all conditions, care must be
84 1373 1587 1933 2293 2560 2767 taken against the installation of a
96 1833 2260 2587 3087 3453 3740 stack which would give more than
108 2367 2920 3347 4000 4483 4867 this maximum draft.
120 3060 3660 4207 5040 5660 6160 Figures represent nominal rated
horse power. Sizes as given good
for 50 per cent overloads.
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Based on centrally located stacks, short direct flues and ordinary operating efficiencies.

Table 56 gives the sizes of stacks, and horse power which they will serve for oil fuel. This table
is, in modified form, one calculated by Mr. C. R. Weymouth after an exhaustive study of data
pertaining to the subject, and will ordinarily give satisfactory results.

S B F G W —For boilers burning blast furnace gas, as in the case

of oil-fired boilers, stack sizes as suited for coal firing will have to be modified. The diameter
of stacks for this work should be approximately the same as for coal-fired boilers. The volume
of gases would be slightly greater than from a coal fire and would decrease the draft with a
given stack, but such a decrease due to volume is about offset by an increase due to somewhat
higher temperatures in the case of the blast furnace gases.

Records show that with this class of fuel 175 per cent of the rated capacity of a boiler can be
developed with a draft at the boiler damper of from 0.75 inch to 1.0 inch, and it is well to limit
the height of stacks to one which will give this draft as a maximum. A stack of proper
diameter, 130 feet high above the ground, will produce such a draft and this height should
ordinarily not be exceeded. Until recently the question of economy in boilers fired with blast
furnace gas has not been considered, but, aside from the economical standpoint, excessive draft
should be guarded against in order to lower the upkeep cost.

Stacks should be made of sufficient height to produce a draft that will develop the maximum
capacity required, and this draft decreased proportionately for loads under the maximum by
damper regulation. The amount of gas fed to a boiler for any given rating is a fixed quantity
and if a draft in excess of that required for that particular rate of operation is supplied, [Pg 254]
economy is decreased and the wear and tear on the setting is materially increased. Excess air
which is drawn in, either through or around the gas burners by an excessive draft, will decrease
economy, as in any other class of work. Again, as in oil-fired practice, it is essential on the
other hand that a suction be maintained within all parts of the setting, in this case not only to
provide against setting deterioration but to protect the operators from leakage of gas which is
disagreeable and may be dangerous. Aside from the intensity of the draft, a poor mixture of the
gas and air or a “laneing” action may lead to secondary combustion with the possibility of
dangerous explosions within the setting, may cause a pulsating action within the setting, may
increase the exit temperatures to a point where there is danger of burning out damper boxes,
and, in general, is hard on the setting. It is highly essential, therefore, that the furnace be
properly constructed to meet the draft which will be available.

S W - B —For boilers using wood as fuel, there is but little data upon
which to base stack sizes. The loss of draft through the bed of fuel will vary over limits even
wider than in the case of coal, for in this class of fuel the moisture may run from practically 0.0
per cent to over 60 per cent, and the methods of handling and firing are radically different for
the different classes of wood (see chapter on Wood-burning Furnaces). As economy is
ordinarily of little importance, high stack temperatures may be expected, and often
unavoidably large quantities of excess air are supplied due to the method of firing. In general,
it may be stated that for this class of fuel the diameter of stacks should be at least as great as
for coal-fired boilers, while the height may be slightly decreased. It is far the best plan in
designing a stack for boilers using wood fuel to consider each individual set of conditions that
exist, rather than try to follow any general rule.

One factor not to be overlooked in stacks for wood burning is their location. The fine particles
of this fuel are often carried unconsumed through the boiler, and where the stack is not on top
of the boiler, these particles may accumulate in the base of the stack below the point at which
the flue enters. Where there is any air leakage through the base of such a stack, this fuel may
become ignited and the stack burned. Where there is a possibility of such action taking place, it
is well to line the stack with fire brick for a portion of its height.

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D G —The ordinary form of draft gauge,

Fig. 35, which consists of a U-tube, containing water,
lacks sensitiveness in measuring such slight pressure
differences as usually exist, and for that reason gauges
which multiply the draft indications are more
convenient and are much used.

An instrument which has given excellent results is one

introduced by Mr. G. H. Barrus, which multiplies the
ordinary indications as many times as desired. This is
illustrated in Fig. 36, and consists of a U-tube made of
one-half inch glass, surmounted by two larger tubes,
F . 35. U- or chambers, each having a diameter of 2½ inches. F . 36. B
D G Two different liquids which will not mix, and which D G
are of different color, are used, usually alcohol
colored red and a certain grade of lubricating oil. The [Pg 255]
movement of the line of demarcation is proportional
to the difference in the areas of the chambers and the U-tube connecting them. The instrument
is calibrated by comparison with the ordinary U-tube gauge.

In the Ellison form of gauge the lower portion of the ordinary U-tube has been replaced by a
tube slightly inclined to the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 37. By this arrangement any vertical
motion in the right-hand upright tube causes a very much greater travel of the liquid in the
inclined tube, thus permitting extremely small variation in the intensity of the draft to be read
with facility.

The gauge is first leveled by means of the

small level attached to it, both legs being
open to the atmosphere. The liquid is then
adjusted until its meniscus rests at the zero
point on the left. The right-hand leg is then
connected to the source of draft by means of
a piece of rubber tubing. Under these
circumstances, a rise of level of one inch in
F . 37. E D G the right-hand vertical tube causes the
meniscus in the inclined tube to pass from
the point 0 to 1.0. The scale is divided into
tenths of an inch, and the sub-divisions are hundredths of an inch.

The makers furnish a non-drying oil for the liquid, usually a 300 degrees
test refined petroleum.

A very convenient form of the ordinary U-tube gauge is known as the

Peabody gauge, and it is shown in Fig. 38. This is a small modified U-
tube with a sliding scale between the two legs of the U and with
connections such that either a draft suction or a draft pressure may be
taken. The tops of the sliding pieces extending across the tubes are
placed at the bottom of the meniscus and accurate readings in hundredths
of an inch are obtained by a vernier.

F . 38. P
D G

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FOOTNOTES
[52] Results secured by this method will be approximately correct.

[53] See “Chimneys for Crude Oil”, C. R. Weymouth, Trans. A. S. M. E., Dec. 1912.

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