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Induction Proofs, IV: Fallacies and Pitfalls: Example 1

The document provides examples of false induction proofs intended to illustrate common mistakes. Example 1 claims all partial sums of integers are equal to a quadratic expression, but contains an error in the inductive step. Example 2 claims all real numbers are equal, with the inductive step incorrectly applying the induction hypothesis to overlapping subsets. Example 3 claims a number raised to a power is always 0, but the strong induction hypothesis is applied incorrectly. Example 4 also uses strong induction incorrectly. Example 5 claims all positive integers are equal by an inductive proof that incorrectly equates numbers based on their maximum.

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Reef Humuhumunukunukuāpua‘a
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71 views

Induction Proofs, IV: Fallacies and Pitfalls: Example 1

The document provides examples of false induction proofs intended to illustrate common mistakes. Example 1 claims all partial sums of integers are equal to a quadratic expression, but contains an error in the inductive step. Example 2 claims all real numbers are equal, with the inductive step incorrectly applying the induction hypothesis to overlapping subsets. Example 3 claims a number raised to a power is always 0, but the strong induction hypothesis is applied incorrectly. Example 4 also uses strong induction incorrectly. Example 5 claims all positive integers are equal by an inductive proof that incorrectly equates numbers based on their maximum.

Uploaded by

Reef Humuhumunukunukuāpua‘a
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Math 347 Worksheet: Induction Proofs, IV A.J.

Hildebrand

Induction Proofs, IV: Fallacies and pitfalls


By now, induction proofs should feel routine to you, to the point that you could almost
do them in your sleep. However, it is important not to become complacent and careless,
for example, by skipping seemingly minor details in the write-up, omitting quantifiers, or
neglecting to check conditions and hypotheses.
Below are some examples of false induction proofs that illustrate what can happen when
some minor details are left out. In each case, the statement claimed is clearly nonsensical
(e.g., that all numbers are equal), but the induction argument sounds perfectly fine, and in
some cases the error is quite subtle and hard to spot. Try to find it!

Example 1
Pn
Claim: For all n ∈ N, (∗) i=1 i = 12 (n + 12 )2

Proof: We prove the claim by induction.


Base step: When n = 1, (∗) holds.
Induction step: Let k ∈ N and suppose (∗) holds for n = k. Then
k+1
X k
X
i= i + (k + 1)
i=1 i=1
 2
1 1
= k+ + (k + 1) (by ind. hypothesis)
2 2
 
1 2 1
= k + k + + 2k + 2 (by algebra)
2 4
 2 !
1 1 9 1
= k+1+ − 3k − + k + + 2k + 2 (more algebra)
2 2 4 4
 2
1 1
= (k + 1) + (simplifying).
2 2

Thus, (∗) holds for n = k + 1, so the induction step is complete.


Conclusion: By the principle of induction, (∗) holds for all n ∈ N.

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Math 347 Worksheet: Induction Proofs, IV A.J. Hildebrand

Example 2
Claim: All real numbers are equal.

Proof: To prove the claim, we will prove by induction that, for all n ∈ N, the
following statement holds:

(P (n)) For any real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an , we have a1 = a2 = · · · = an .

Base step: When n = 1, the statement is trivially true, so P (1) holds.


Induction step: Let k ∈ N be given and suppose P (k) is true, i.e., that any k
real numbers must be equal. We seek to show that P (k + 1) is true as well, i.e.,
that any k + 1 real numbers must also be equal.
Let a1 , a2 , . . . , ak+1 be given real numbers. Applying the induction hypothesis to
the first k of these numbers, a1 , a2 , . . . , ak , we obtain

(1) a1 = a2 = · · · = ak .

Similarly, applying the induction hypothesis to the last k of these numbers,


a2 , a3 , . . . , ak , ak+1 , we get

(2) a2 = a3 = · · · = ak = ak+1 .

Combining (1) and (2) gives

(3) a1 = a2 = · · · = ak = ak+1 ,

so the numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , ak+1 are equal. Thus, we have proved P (k + 1), and
the induction step is complete.
Conclusion: By the principle of induction, P (n) is true for all n ∈ N. Thus,
any n real numbers must be equal.

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Math 347 Worksheet: Induction Proofs, IV A.J. Hildebrand

Example 3
Claim: For every nonnegative integer n, (∗) 5n = 0.

Proof: We prove that (∗) holds for all n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , using strong induction
with the case n = 0 as base case.
Base step: When n = 0, 5n = 5 · 0 = 0, so (∗) holds in this case.
Induction step: Suppose (∗) is true for all integers n in the range 0 ≤ n ≤ k,
i.e., that for all integers in this range 5n = 0. We will show that (∗) then holds
for n = k + 1 as well, i.e., that (∗∗) 5(k + 1) = 0.
Write k + 1 = i + j with integers i, j satisfying 0 ≤ i, j ≤ k. Applying the
induction hypothesis to i and j, we get 5i = 0 and 5j = 0. Then
5(k + 1) = 5(i + j) = 5i + 5j = 0 + 0 = 0,
proving (∗∗). Hence the induction step is complete.
Conclusion: By the principle of strong induction, (∗) holds for all nonnegative
integers n.

Example 4
Claim: For every nonnegative integer n, (∗) 2n = 1.

Proof: We prove that (∗) holds for all n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , using strong induction
with the case n = 0 as base case.
Base step: When n = 0, 20 = 1, so (∗) holds in this case.
Induction step: Suppose (∗) is true for all integers n in the range 0 ≤ n ≤ k,
i.e., assume that for all integers in this range 2n = 1. We will show that (∗) then
holds for n = k + 1 as well, i.e., that (∗∗) 2k+1 = 1.
We have
22k
2k+1 = (by algebra)
2k−1
2k · 2k
= k−1 (by algebra)
2
1·1
= (by strong ind. hypothesis applied to each term)
1
= 1 (simplifying),
proving (∗∗). Hence the induction step is complete.
Conclusion: By the principle of strong induction, (∗) holds for all nonnegative
integers n.

3
Math 347 Worksheet: Induction Proofs, IV A.J. Hildebrand

Example 5
Claim: All positive integers are equal

Proof: To prove the claim, we will prove by induction that, for all n ∈ N, the
following statement holds:

(P (n)) For any x, y ∈ N, if max(x, y) = n, then x = y.

(Here max(x, y) denotes the larger of the two numbers x and y, or the common
value if both are equal.)
Base step: When n = 1, the condition in P (1) becomes max(x, y) = 1. But
this forces x = 1 and y = 1, and hence x = y.
Induction step: Let k ∈ N be given and suppose P (k) is true. We seek to show
that P (k + 1) is true as well.
Let x, y ∈ N such that max(x, y) = k+1. Then max(x−1, y−1) = max(x, y)−1 =
(k + 1) − 1 = k. By the induction hypothesis, it follows that x − 1 = y − 1, and
therefore x = y. This proves P (k + 1), so the induction step is complete.
Conclusion: By the principle of induction, P (n) is true for all n ∈ N. In
particular, since max(1, n) = n for any positive integer n, it follows that 1 = n
for any positive integer n. Thus, all positive integers must be equal to 1

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