Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

The aerodynamic forces and moments on the body are due to only two basic sources:

1. Pressure (𝑝) distribution over the body surface.

2. Shear stress (𝜏) distribution over the body surface.

The net effect of the 𝑝 and 𝜏 distributions integrated over the complete body surface is a resultant
aerodynamic force 𝑅 and moment 𝑀 on the body, as sketched in figure.

The resultant 𝑅 can be split into components, two sets which are shown in figure.

By definition, 𝐿 is the component of 𝑅 perpendicular to freestream velocity (𝑉∞ ) and 𝐷 is the

component of 𝑅 parallel to 𝑉∞ . Sometimes, 𝑅 is split into components perpendicular and parallel to
the chord. By definition, 𝑁 is the component of 𝑅 perpendicular to the chord (𝑐) and 𝐴 is the component
of 𝑅 parallel to 𝑐.

The angle of attack (𝛼) is defined as the angle between 𝑐 and 𝑉∞ . Hence, 𝛼 is also the angle between
𝐿 and 𝑁 and between 𝐷 and 𝐴. The geometrical relation between these two sets of components is:

𝐿 = 𝑁 cos 𝛼 − 𝐴 sin 𝛼

𝐷 = 𝑁 sin 𝛼 + 𝐴 cos 𝛼

1
Let us examine in more detail the integration of the pressure and shear stress distributions to obtain
the aerodynamic forces and moments. Consider the two-dimensional body sketched in figure.

Consider an elemental surface area 𝑑𝑠 on a unit span of the shown body. At a given point, the pressure
is normal to the surface and is oriented at an angle 𝜃 relative to the perpendicular; shear stress is
tangential to the surface and is oriented at the same angle 𝜃 relative to the horizontal. The sign
convention for 𝜃 is positive when measured clockwise from the vertical line to the direction of 𝑝 and
from the horizontal line to the direction of 𝜏.

2
Forces:
Examining the figure, we see that the elemental normal and axial forces acting on the elemental surface
𝑑𝑠 on the upper body surface are:

𝑑𝑁𝑢′ = −𝑝𝑢 𝑑𝑠𝑢 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑢 𝑑𝑠𝑢 sin 𝜃

𝑑𝐴′𝑢 = −𝑝𝑢 𝑑𝑠𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 𝑑𝑠𝑢 cos 𝜃

On the lower body surface, we have:

𝑑𝑁𝑙′ = 𝑝𝑙 𝑑𝑠𝑙 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑙 𝑑𝑠𝑙 sin 𝜃

𝑑𝐴′𝑙 = 𝑝𝑙 𝑑𝑠𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 𝑑𝑠𝑙 cos 𝜃

The primes on 𝑁 ′ and 𝐴′ denote force per unit span. The total normal and axial forces per unit span
are obtained by integrating from the leading edge (LE) to the trailing edge (TE):
TE TE
′
𝑁 = − ∫ (𝑝𝑢 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 sin 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ (𝑝𝑙 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑙 sin 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑙
LE LE

TE TE
′
𝐴 = ∫ (−𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ (𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑙
LE LE

Moment:
The aerodynamic moment exerted on the body depends on the point about which moments are taken.
Consider moments taken about the leading edge. By convention, moments that tend to increase 𝛼 (pitch
up) are positive, and moments that tend to decrease 𝛼 (pitch down) are negative.

The moment per unit span about the leading edge due to 𝑝 and 𝜏 on the elemental area 𝑑𝑆 on the upper
surface is:

𝑑𝑀𝑢′ = (𝑝𝑢 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 sin 𝜃)𝑥𝑑𝑠𝑢 + (−𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑦𝑑𝑠𝑢

On the bottom surface:

𝑑𝑀𝑙′ = (−𝑝𝑙 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 sin 𝜃)𝑥𝑑𝑠𝑙 + (𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃)𝑦𝑑𝑠𝑙

3
Integrating from the leading to the trailing edges, we obtain for the moment about the leading edge per
unit span:
TE
′
𝑀LE = ∫ [(𝑝𝑢 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 sin 𝜃)𝑥 + (−𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑦]𝑑𝑠𝑢
LE
TE
+ ∫ [(−𝑝𝑙 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 sin 𝜃)𝑥 + (𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃)𝑦]𝑑𝑠𝑙
LE

Center of pressure:
𝑁 ′ and 𝐴′ must be placed on the airfoil at such a location to generate the same moment about the
leading edge. If 𝐴′ is placed on the chord line as shown in figure, then 𝑁 ′ must be located a distance
𝑥cp downstream of the leading edge such that:
′
′ ′
𝑀LE
𝑀LE = −𝑁 𝑥cp ⟹ 𝑥cp =− ′
𝑁

In cases where the angle of attack of the body is small, 𝐿′ = 𝑁 ′ . Thus:

′
𝑀LE
𝑥cp =− ′
𝐿
To define the force-and-moment system due to a distributed load on a body, the resultant force can be
placed at any point on the body, as long as the value of the moment about that point is also given. For
example, the following figure illustrates three equivalent ways of specifying the force-and-moment
system on an airfoil.

4
 ′
In the left figure, the resultant is placed at the leading edge, with a finite value of 𝑀LE . In the middle
′
figure, the resultant is placed at the quarter-chord point, with a finite value of 𝑀𝑐/4 . In the right figure,
the resultant is placed at the center of pressure, with a zero moment about that point. By inspection,
the quantitative relation between these cases is:

′ ′
𝑐
𝑀LE = 𝑀𝑐/4 − 𝐿′ = −𝐿′ 𝑥cp
4

Dimensionless form:
We define a dimensional quantity called the freestream dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) as:

1
𝑞∞ = 𝜌 𝑉2
2 ∞ ∞
In addition, let 𝑆 be a reference area and 𝑙 be a reference length. The dimensionless force and moment
coefficients are defined as follows:

𝐿
Lift coefficient 𝐶𝐿 =
𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝐷
Drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷 =
𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝑁
Normal force coefficient 𝐶𝑁 =
𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝐴
Axial force coefficient 𝐶𝐴 =
𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝑀
Moment coefficient 𝐶𝑀 =
𝑞∞ 𝑆𝑙

In the above coefficients, the reference area 𝑆 and reference length 𝑙 are chosen to pertain to the given
geometric body shape; for different shapes, 𝑆 and 𝑙 may be different things. For example, for an
airplane wing, 𝑆 is the planform area, and 𝑙 is the mean chord length. However, for a sphere, 𝑆 is the
cross-sectional area, and 𝑙 is the diameter. The particular choice of reference area and length is not
critical; however, when using force and moment coefficient data, you must always know what
reference quantities the particular data are based upon.

For a two-dimensional airfoil, the forces and moments are per unit span. Therefore, it is conventional
to denote the aerodynamic coefficients by lowercase letters:

𝐿′ 𝐷′ 𝑁′ 𝐴′ 𝑀′
𝑐𝑙 = , 𝑐𝑑 = , 𝑐𝑛 = , 𝑐𝑎 = , 𝑐𝑚 =
𝑞∞ 𝑐 𝑞∞ 𝑐 𝑞∞ 𝑐 𝑞∞ 𝑐 𝑞∞ 𝑐 2

5
Two additional dimensionless quantities of immediate use are:

𝑝 − 𝑝∞
Pressure coefficient 𝐶𝑝 =
𝑞∞
𝜏
Skin friction coefficient 𝑐𝑓 =
𝑞∞

From the geometry shown in figure:

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃

𝑑𝑦 = −𝑑𝑠 sin 𝜃

6
Using the introduced dimensionless coefficients, we can obtain the following integral forms for the
force and moment coefficients:

1 𝑐 𝑐
𝑑𝑦𝑢 𝑑𝑦𝑙
𝑐𝑛 = [∫ (𝐶𝑝,𝑙 − 𝐶𝑝,𝑢 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑐𝑓,𝑢 + 𝑐𝑓,𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑥]
𝑐 0 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑐 𝑑𝑦𝑢 𝑑𝑦𝑙 𝑐
𝑐𝑎 = [∫ (𝐶𝑝,𝑢 − 𝐶𝑝,𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑐𝑓,𝑢 + 𝑐𝑓,𝑙 )𝑑𝑥]
𝑐 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0

𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
1 𝑑𝑦𝑢 𝑑𝑦𝑙 𝑑𝑦𝑢
𝑐𝑚,LE = 2
[∫ (𝐶𝑝,𝑢 − 𝐶𝑝,𝑙 )𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ (𝑐 𝑓,𝑢 + 𝑐𝑓,𝑙 ) 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝐶𝑝,𝑢 + 𝑐𝑓,𝑢 ) 𝑦𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑐 0 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥
𝑐
𝑑𝑦𝑙
+ ∫ (−𝐶𝑝,𝑙 − 𝑐𝑓,𝑙 ) 𝑦𝑙 𝑑𝑥]
0 𝑑𝑥

The lift and drag coefficients can be obtained from:

𝑐𝑙 = 𝑐𝑛 cos 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑎 sin 𝛼

𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝑛 sin 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑎 cos 𝛼

The moment coefficients and the center of pressure can be related by:

𝑐𝑚,LE 𝑐𝑚,𝑐/4 1 𝑥cp

= − =−
𝑐𝑙 𝑐𝑙 4 𝑐

7
Example 1.1:
Consider the supersonic flow over a 5° half-angle wedge at zero angle of attack, as sketched in figure.
The freestream Mach number ahead of the wedge is 2.0, and the freestream pressure and density are
1.01×105 N/m2 and 1.23 kg/m3, respectively (this corresponds to standard sea level conditions). The
pressures on the upper and lower surfaces of the wedge are constant with distance s and equal to each
other, namely, 𝑝𝑢 = 𝑝𝑙 = 1.31 × 105 N/m2 . The pressure exerted on the base of the wedge is equal
to 𝑝∞ . The shear stress varies over both the upper and lower surfaces as 𝜏𝑤 = 431𝑠 −0.2. The chord
length, 𝑐, of the wedge is 2 m. Calculate the drag coefficient for the wedge.

8
Solution:
Since the wedge is at zero angle of attack, then 𝐷′ = 𝐴′ . Thus, the drag can be obtained from:
TE TE
𝐷′ = ∫ (−𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ (𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑙
LE LE

Recalling the sign convention for 𝜃, and noting that integration over the upper surface goes from 𝑠1 to
𝑠2 on the inclined surface and from 𝑠2 to 𝑠3 on the base, whereas integration over the bottom surface
goes from 𝑠1 to 𝑠4 on the inclined surface and from 𝑠4 to 𝑠3 on the base, we find that the above integrals
become:
TE 𝑠2 𝑠3
∫ −𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑢 = ∫ −1.31 × 10 × sin(−5°) 𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ −1.01 × 105 × sin(90°) 𝑑𝑠𝑢
5
LE 𝑠1 𝑠2
= 1.31 × 105 × (𝑠2 − 𝑠1 ) × sin(5°) − 1.01 × 105 × (𝑠3 − 𝑠2 )
= 1.31 × 105 × 𝑐 × tan(5°) − 1.01 × 105 × 𝑐 × tan(5°)
= 1.31 × 105 × 2 × tan(5°) − 1.01 × 105 × 2 × tan(5°) = 5249 N
TE 𝑠4 𝑠3
∫ 𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 = ∫ 1.31 × 10 × sin(5°) 𝑑𝑠𝑙 + ∫ 1.01 × 105 × sin(−90°) 𝑑𝑠𝑙
5
LE 𝑠1 𝑠4
= 1.31 × 105 × (𝑠4 − 𝑠1 ) × sin(5°) − 1.01 × 105 × (𝑠3 − 𝑠4 )
= 1.31 × 105 × 𝑐 × tan(5°) − 1.01 × 105 × 𝑐 × tan(5°)
= 1.31 × 105 × 2 × tan(5°) − 1.01 × 105 × 2 × tan(5°) = 5249 N
TE 𝑠2
431
∫ 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑢 = ∫ 431𝑠 −0.2 cos(−5°) 𝑑𝑠𝑢 = × (𝑠20.8 − 𝑠10.8 ) × cos(5°)
LE 𝑠1 0.8
0.8 0.8
431 𝑐 431 2
= × [( ) − 0] × cos(5°) = ×( ) × cos(5°) = 937 N
0.8 cos(5°) 0.8 cos(5°)
TE 𝑠4
431
∫ 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑙 = ∫ 431𝑠 −0.2 cos(5°) 𝑑𝑠𝑙 = × (𝑠40.8 − 𝑠10.8 ) × cos(5°)
LE 𝑠1 0.8
0.8 0.8
431 𝑐 431 2
= × [( ) − 0] × cos(5°) = ×( ) × cos(5°) = 937 N
0.8 cos(5°) 0.8 cos(5°)

Adding the pressure integrals, and then adding the shear stress integrals, we have for total drag:

𝐷′ = 2 × 5249 + 2 × 937 = 12372 N

The drag coefficient is obtained as follows. The freestream dynamic pressure is given by:

1 1 1 1
𝑞∞ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 = 𝜌∞ 𝑀∞
2 2
𝛾𝑅𝑇∞ = 𝛾𝑀∞ 𝑝∞ = × 1.4 × 22 × 1.01 × 105 = 2.828 × 105 Pa
2 2 2 2

9
Thus:

𝐷′ 12372
𝑐𝑑 = = = 0.022
𝑞∞ 𝑐 2.828 × 105 × 2

Another solution:
An alternate solution to this problem is integrating the pressure coefficients and skin friction
coefficients to directly obtain the drag coefficient. We proceed as follows:

𝑝 − 𝑝∞ 1.31 × 105 − 1.01 × 105

𝐶𝑝,𝑢 = 𝐶𝑝,𝑙 = = = 0.1061
𝑞∞ 2.828 × 105

𝜏 431 −0.2
431 𝑥 −0.2 𝑥 −0.2
𝑐𝑓,𝑢 = 𝑐𝑓,𝑙 = = × 𝑠 = × ( ) =
𝑞∞ 2.828 × 105 2.828 × 105 cos(5°) 656.6

𝑑𝑦𝑢 𝑑𝑦𝑙
= tan(5°) , = − tan(5°)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑐 𝑑𝑦𝑢 𝑑𝑦𝑙 𝑐
𝑐𝑑 = [∫ (𝐶𝑝,𝑢 − 𝐶𝑝,𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑐𝑓,𝑢 + 𝑐𝑓,𝑙 )𝑑𝑥 ]
𝑐 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
1 𝑐 𝑐
𝑥 −0.2 𝑥 −0.2
= [∫ (0.1061 × tan(5°) + 0.1061 × tan(5°))𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝑐 0 0 656.6 656.6
1 𝑐 0.8
= [2 × 0.1061 × tan(5°) × 𝑐 + 2 × ]
𝑐 0.8 × 656.6
1 20.8
= [2 × 0.1061 × tan(5°) × 2 + 2 × ] = 0.022
2 0.8 × 656.6

10
Example 1.2:
Consider a cone at zero angle of attack in a hypersonic flow. The half-angle of the cone is 𝜃𝑐 , as shown
in figure. An approximate expression for the pressure coefficient on the surface of a hypersonic body
is given by the newtonian sine-squared law: 𝐶𝑝 = 2 sin2 𝜃𝑐 . Note that 𝐶𝑝 , hence, 𝑝, is constant along
the inclined surface of the cone. Along the base of the body, we assume that 𝑝 = 𝑝∞ . Neglecting the
effect of friction, obtain an expression for the drag coefficient of the cone, where 𝐶𝐷 is based on the
area of the base 𝑆𝑏 .

11
Solution:
From figure, the drag force on the shaded strip of surface area is:

𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝐷 = (𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑐 )(2𝜋𝑟) = 2𝜋𝑝𝑟𝑑𝑟
sin 𝜃𝑐

The total drag due to the pressure acting over the total surface area of the cone is:
TE 𝑟𝑏 0 𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑏
𝐷 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑝𝑟𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑝𝑟𝑑𝑟 + ∫ 2𝜋𝑝∞ 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑝𝑟𝑑𝑟 − ∫ 2𝜋𝑝∞ 𝑟𝑑𝑟
LE 0 𝑟𝑏 0 0

The first integral is the horizontal force on the inclined surface of the cone, and the second integral is
the force on the base of the cone. Combining the integrals, we have:
𝑟𝑏
𝑟𝑏2
𝐷 = ∫ 2𝜋(𝑝 − 𝑝∞ )𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋(𝑝 − 𝑝∞ ) = 𝜋(𝑝 − 𝑝∞ )𝑟𝑏2
0 2

Referenced to the base area, 𝑆𝑏 = 𝜋𝑟𝑏2, the drag coefficient is:

𝜋(𝑝 − 𝑝∞ )𝑟𝑏2 𝑝 − 𝑝∞
𝐶𝐷 = = = 𝐶𝑝 = 2 sin2 𝜃𝑐
𝑞∞ 𝜋𝑟𝑏2 𝑞∞

12
Example 1.3:
In low-speed, incompressible flow, the following experimental data are obtained for an NACA 4412
airfoil section at an angle of attack of 4°: 𝑐𝑙 = 0.85 and 𝑐𝑚,𝑐/4 = −0.09. Calculate the location of the
center of pressure.

Solution:
The moment coefficients and the center of pressure are related by:

𝑐𝑚,LE 𝑐𝑚,𝑐/4 1 𝑥cp

= − =−
𝑐𝑙 𝑐𝑙 4 𝑐
𝑥cp 1 𝑐𝑚,𝑐/4 1 −0.09
= − = − = 0.3559
𝑐 4 𝑐𝑙 4 0.85

13
Problem 1.3:
Consider an infinitely thin flat plate of chord 𝑐 at an angle of attack 𝛼 in a supersonic flow. The
pressures on the upper and lower surfaces are different but constant over each surface; that is, 𝑝𝑢 = 𝑐1
and 𝑝𝑙 = 𝑐2, where 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are constants and 𝑐2 > 𝑐1 . Ignoring the shear stress, calculate the location
of the center of pressure.

Solution:

For flat plate 𝜃 = 0°. Hence:

TE TE
𝑁 ′ = − ∫ (𝑝𝑢 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 sin 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ (𝑝𝑙 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑙 sin 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑙
LE LE
TE TE 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
= − ∫ 𝑝𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ 𝑝𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑙 = − ∫ 𝑝𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑝𝑙 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑝𝑙 − 𝑝𝑢 )𝑑𝑥
LE LE 0 0 0
= (𝑝𝑙 − 𝑝𝑢 )𝑐
TE
′
𝑀LE = ∫ [(𝑝𝑢 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 sin 𝜃)𝑥 + (−𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑦]𝑑𝑠𝑢
LE
TE
+ ∫ [(−𝑝𝑙 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 sin 𝜃)𝑥 + (𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃)𝑦]𝑑𝑠𝑙
LE
TE TE c c
= ∫ 𝑝𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑥𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ −𝑝𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝑥𝑑𝑠𝑙 = ∫ 𝑝𝑢 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ −𝑝𝑙 𝑥𝑑𝑥 =
LE LE 0 0
c
𝑐2
= ∫ (𝑝𝑢 − 𝑝𝑙 )𝑥𝑑𝑥 = (𝑝𝑢 − 𝑝𝑙 )
0 2
′ (𝑝𝑢 − 𝑝𝑙 )𝑐 2 𝑐
𝑀LE
𝑥cp =− ′ =− =
𝑁 2(𝑝𝑙 − 𝑝𝑢 )𝑐 2

14
Problem 1.4:
Consider an infinitely thin flat plate with a 1 m chord at an angle of attack of 10° in a supersonic flow.
The pressure and shear stress distributions on the upper and lower surfaces are given by 𝑝𝑢 =
4 × 104 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 5.4 × 104 , 𝑝𝑙 = 2 × 104 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 1.73 × 105 , 𝜏𝑢 = 288𝑥 −0.2, and 𝜏𝑙 =
731𝑥 −0.2, respectively, where 𝑥 is the distance from the leading edge in meters and 𝑝 and 𝜏 are in
newtons per square meter. Calculate the normal and axial forces, the lift and drag, moments about the
leading edge, and moments about the quarter chord, all per unit span. Also, calculate the location of
the center of pressure.

Solution:
For flat plate 𝜃 = 0°. Hence:
TE TE 𝑐
′
𝑁 = − ∫ (𝑝𝑢 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 sin 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ (𝑝𝑙 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑙 sin 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑙 = ∫ (𝑝𝑙 − 𝑝𝑢 )𝑑𝑥
LE LE 0
𝑐
= ∫ [2 × 104 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 1.73 × 105 − 4 × 104 (𝑥 − 1)2 − 5.4 × 104 ]𝑑𝑥
0
𝑐
= ∫ [1.19 × 105 − 2 × 104 (𝑥 − 1)2 ]𝑑𝑥
0

5
(𝑐 − 1)3 − (−1)3
4
= 1.19 × 10 × 𝑐 − 2 × 10 ×
3
3
5 4
(1 − 1) − (−1)3
= 1.19 × 10 × 1 − 2 × 10 × = 1.123 × 105 N
3
TE TE 𝑐
′
𝐴 = ∫ (−𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ (𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑙 = ∫ (𝜏𝑢 + 𝜏𝑙 )𝑑𝑥
LE LE 0
𝑐 𝑐
𝑐 0.8 10.8
= ∫ (288𝑥 −0.2 + 731𝑥 −0.2 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1019𝑥 −0.2 𝑑𝑥 = 1019 × = 1019 ×
0 0 0.8 0.8
= 1274 N

𝐿′ = 𝑁 ′ cos 𝛼 − 𝐴′ sin 𝛼 = 1.123 × 105 cos(10°) − 1274 sin(10°) = 1.106 × 105 N

𝐷′ = 𝑁 ′ sin 𝛼 + 𝐴′ cos 𝛼 = 1.123 × 105 sin(10°) + 1274 cos(10°) = 20755 N

15
 TE
′
𝑀LE = ∫ [(𝑝𝑢 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 sin 𝜃)𝑥 + (−𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑦]𝑑𝑠𝑢
LE
TE c
+ ∫ [(−𝑝𝑙 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 sin 𝜃)𝑥 + (𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃)𝑦]𝑑𝑠𝑙 = ∫ (𝑝𝑢 − 𝑝𝑙 )𝑥𝑑𝑥
LE 0
𝑐
= ∫ [4 × 104 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 5.4 × 104 − 2 × 104 (𝑥 − 1)2 − 1.73 × 105 ]𝑥𝑑𝑥
0
𝑐
= ∫ [2 × 104 (𝑥 − 1)2 − 1.19 × 105 ]𝑥𝑑𝑥
0
𝑐
= ∫ [2 × 104 (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥) − 1.19 × 105 𝑥]𝑑𝑥
0

4
𝑐4 𝑐3 𝑐2 5
𝑐2
= 2 × 10 × ( − 2 × + ) − 1.19 × 10 ×
4 3 2 2
4 3 2
1 1 1 12
= 2 × 104 × ( − 2 × + ) − 1.19 × 105 × = −57833 N. m
4 3 2 2

′ ′
𝑐 1
𝑀𝑐/4 = 𝑀LE + 𝑁′ = −57833 + 1.123 × 105 × = −29758 N. m
4 4
′
𝑀LE −57833
𝑥cp = − ′
=− = 0.515 m
𝑁 1.123 × 105

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Problem 1.5:
Consider an airfoil at 12° angle of attack. The normal and axial force coefficients are 1.2 and 0.03,
respectively. Calculate the lift and drag coefficients.

Solution:
The lift and drag coefficients can be obtained from:

𝑐𝑙 = 𝑐𝑛 cos 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑎 sin 𝛼 = 1.2 cos(12°) − 0.03 sin(12°) = 1.168

𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝑛 sin 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑎 cos 𝛼 = 1.2 sin(12°) + 0.03 cos(12°) = 0.2788

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Problem 1.6:
Consider an NACA 2412 airfoil. The following is a tabulation of the lift, drag, and moment
coefficients about the quarter chord for this airfoil, as a function of angle of attack.

𝛼 𝑐𝑙 𝑐𝑑 𝑐𝑚,𝑐/4
−2° 0.05 0.006 −0.042
0° 0.25 0.006 −0.040
2° 0.44 0.006 −0.038
4° 0.64 0.007 −0.036
6° 0.85 0.0075 −0.036
8° 1.08 0.0092 −0.036
10° 1.26 0.0115 −0.034
12° 1.43 0.0150 −0.030
14° 1.56 0.0186 −0.025

From this table, plot on graph paper the variation of 𝑥cp /𝑐 as a function of 𝛼.

Solution:
The normal force can be calculated from:

𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐𝑙 cos 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑑 sin 𝛼

The center of pressure is then calculated from:

𝑥cp 1 𝑐𝑚,𝑐/4
= −
𝑐 4 𝑐𝑛

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 𝛼 𝑐𝑛 𝑥cp /𝑐
−2° 0.05 1.09
0° 0.25 0.41
2° 0.44 0.34
4° 0.64 0.31
6° 0.85 0.29
8° 1.07 0.28
10° 1.24 0.28
12° 1.40 0.27
14° 1.52 0.27

Note that 𝑥cp moves forward as 𝛼 is increased, and that it closely approaches the quarter chord point
in the range of 𝛼 of 10° to 14°. At higher angles of attack, beyond the stall (𝛼 > 16°), 𝑥cp will reverse
its movement and move rearward as 𝛼 continues to increase.

19
Problem 1.13:
Consider a circular cylinder in a hypersonic flow, with its axis perpendicular to the flow. Let 𝜑 be the
angle measured between radii drawn to the leading edge (the stagnation point) and to any arbitrary
point on the cylinder. The pressure coefficient distribution along the cylindrical surface is given by
𝐶𝑝 = 2 cos2 𝜑 for 0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜋/2 and 3𝜋/2 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋 and 𝐶𝑝 = 0 for 𝜋/2 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 3𝜋/2. Calculate the
drag coefficient for the cylinder, based on projected frontal area of the cylinder.

Solution:

TE TE
𝐷′ = 𝐴′ = ∫ (−𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ (𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑙
LE LE
TE TE
= ∫ −𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ 𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑙
LE LE

1 TE 1 TE
𝑐𝑑 = ∫ −𝐶𝑝,𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ −𝐶𝑝,𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑙
2𝑟 LE 2𝑟 LE

Following our sign convention, note that 𝜃 is drawn counterclockwise in this sketch, hence it is a
negative angle (−𝜃). From the geometry:
𝜋
−𝜃 = −𝜑
2
Therfore:
𝜋
sin(−𝜃) = sin ( − 𝜑)
2
− sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜑

Also note that:

𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟𝑑𝜑

20
The drag coefficient integral can then be rewritten as:

1 π 1 π
𝑐𝑑 = ∫ 𝐶 cos 𝜑 𝑟𝑑𝜑 − ∫ 𝐶𝑝,𝑙 cos 𝜑 𝑟𝑑𝜑
2𝑟 0 𝑝,𝑢 2𝑟 2𝜋
π 3π
1 2 1 2
= ∫ 2 cos2 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝑑𝜑 − ∫ 2 cos 2 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝑑𝜑
2 0 2 2𝜋
π
2𝜋
2
= ∫ (1 − sin2 𝜑) cos 𝜑 𝑑𝜑 + ∫ (1 − sin2 𝜑) cos 𝜑 𝑑𝜑
3π
0
2
π
2𝜋
2
= ∫ (cos 𝜑 − cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑)𝑑𝜑 + ∫ (cos 𝜑 − cos 𝜑 sin2 𝜑)𝑑𝜑
2
3π
0
2
π 1 π 3π 1 3π 4
= sin ( ) − sin3 ( ) − sin ( ) − sin3 ( ) =
2 3 2 2 3 2 3

21