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Schwarzschild Solution

Technical Report · January 2019

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24863.20641/1

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 Schwarzschild Solution

Ata Özdemir
Department of Physics
Bilkent University
(Dated: January 4, 2019)
This paper presents a derivation of the temporally static and spatially isotropic solution of the
Einstein’s Field Equations for a non-rotating body in vacuum with no electrical charge; otherwise
known as the Schwarzschild Solution, as the final report for the PHYS491 - Senior Project I course
under the supervision of Prof. Ahmet Eris.

I. INTRODUCTION Thus, to reach such a solution, the method used is

quite roughly; calculating components of the Ricci Ten-
Einstein’s theory of General Relativity, first published sor for a general form of metric for given conditions and
in 1915, is a geometric theory of gravity in which gravity equating them to 0. Hence, to do so, we start by calcu-
is theorized to be a manifestation of the curvature of the lating Christoffel Symbols.
space-time; which is caused by massive objects[5].
To comprehend this property of theory; a classical field
equation would be in the form that it would have a field II. CALCULATION OF CHRISTOFFEL
of a physical quantity/term which is operated upon, such SYMBOLS
as magnetic field, electric potential on, let say, left hand
side, and another physical term/quantity on the right General metric for spatially isotropic, temporally static
hand side which is causing the field on the left hand side. space-time is[5]:
For example, Newton’s theory of gravitation in Classi-
cal Field Theory, would be expressed by Poisson’s Equa- ds2 = A(r)dt2 − B(r)dr2 − r2 dθ2 − r2 sin2 θdφ2 (3)
tion, which is, Laplacian of the gravitational potential
on the left hand side, and a mass density that is forming The method used for the calculation of the Christoffel
this gravitational potential on the right hand side along Symbols of this metric is Lagrangian method[3][4], such
with gravitational constant[5], such that: that; letting L be the Lagrangian associated with given
metric, Euler-Lagrange equation is written as:
∇2 Φ = 4πGρ (1)
d  ∂L  ∂L
− =0 (4)
Yet, differing (perhaps at a revolutionary level) at this dτ ∂ ẋi ∂xi
point, what Einstein’s Field Equations introduced was
an entirely geometric expression, without any physical along with the geodesic equation:
component to it on the left hand side, which is caused
by the physical parameters given on the right hand side, ẍk + Γkij ẋi ẋj = 0 (5)
and gravity would entirely be the manifestation of the
geometry on the left hand side, or precisely[1][2][5]: so that, writing the Euler-Lagrange equation should pro-
vide us the geodesic equation by:
1 8πG
Rij − gij R + gij Λ = − 4 Tij (2) h d  ∂L  ∂L i
2 c ẍk + Γkij ẋi ẋj = g kl − (6)
dτ ∂ ẋl ∂xl
where on the left side Rij is Ricci Tensor and R is Ricci
Scalar multiplied by the metric tensor gij , which are all from which we can easily pull Christoffel Symbols.
expressing the geometry (curvature) of a field, and the Therefore, let us first define L:
energy-momentum tensor Tij on the right hand side along
1  ds 2 1
= A(r)ṫ2 − B(r)ṙ2 − r2 θ̇2 − r2 sin2 θφ̇2

with terms like speed of light and gravitational constant. L=
This paper, therefore, intends to present the deriva- 2 dτ 2
(7)
tion of the first exact solution to this equation (ignoring Then, let us first write components of the Euler-Lagrange
flat space-time solution) which was first done by Karl for the t coordinate (Γ0ij ):
Schwarzschild, and hence named after him. The solu-
tion assumes a temporally static and spatially isotropic d  ∂L 
(spherically symmetric) metric, caused by a non-rotating = A(r)ẗ + A0 (r)ṙṫ
dτ ∂ ṫ
massive object in vacuum with no electrical charge, which
means that each component such as Ricci Tensor, energy-
momentum tensor, or cosmological constant are all going ∂L
to amount to 0. =0
∂t
 2

Thus our geodesic equation for this part is simply: Thus:

1 h d  ∂L  ∂L i 1
ẍ0 + Γ0ij ẋi ẋj = − Γ212 = Γ221 =
A(r) dτ ∂ ṫ ∂t r
A0 (r) Γ233 = − sin θ cos θ
= ẗ + ṙṫ = 0
A(r)

Hence: Finally using the components of the Euler-Lagrange for

φ coordinate (Γ3ij ):
1 A0 (r)
Γ001 = Γ010 =
2 A(r) d  ∂L 
= −r2 sin2 θφ̈ − 2r sin2 θṙφ̇ − 2r2 sin θ cos θθ̇φ̇
Passing onto components of the Euler-Lagrange for r co- dτ ∂ φ̇
ordinate (Γ1ij ):

d  ∂L 
= −B(r)r̈ − B 0 (r)ṙ2 ∂L
dτ ∂ ṙ =0
∂φ

∂L 1 1
= A0 (r)ṫ2 − B 0 (r)ṙ2 − rθ̇2 − r sin2 θφ̇2 Geodesic equation can be written as:
∂r 2 2
Geodesic equation takes the form: 1 h d  ∂L  ∂L i
ẍ3 + Γ3ij ẋi ẋj = − −
1 h d  ∂L  ∂L i r2 sin2 θ dτ ∂ φ̇ ∂φ
ẍ1 + Γ1ij ẋi ẋj = − − 2
B(r) dτ ∂ ṙ ∂r = φ̈ + ṙφ̇ + 2 cot θθ̇φ̇ = 0
r
1 A0 (r) 2 1 B 0 (r) 2
= r̈ + ṫ + ṙ
2 B(r) 2 B(r)
Hence:
r 2 r sin2 θ 2
− θ̇ − φ̇ = 0
B(r) B(r) 1
Γ313 = Γ331 =
r
Therefore:
Γ323 = Γ332 = cot θ
0
1 A (r)
Γ100 =
2 B(r) In summary:
1 B 0 (r)
Γ111 =
2 B(r) 1 A0 (r)
r Γ001 = Γ010 = (8)
Γ122 =− 2 A(r)
B(r) 0
1 A (r)
r sin2 θ Γ100 = (9)
Γ133 =− 2 B(r)
B(r) 1 B 0 (r)
Γ111 = (10)
Continuing with the components of the Euler-Lagrange 2 B(r)
for θ coordinate (Γ2ij ): r
Γ122 =− (11)
B(r)
d  ∂L  r sin2 θ
= −r2 θ̈ − 2rṙθ̇ Γ133 = − (12)
dτ ∂ θ̇ B(r)
1
Γ212 = Γ221 = (13)
∂L r
= −r2 sin θ cos θφ̇2 Γ233 = − sin θ cos θ (14)
∂θ
1
Geodesic equation is: Γ313 = Γ331 = (15)
r
1 h d  ∂L  ∂L i Γ323 = Γ332 = cot θ (16)
ẍ2 + Γ2ij ẋi ẋj = − −
r2 dτ ∂ θ̇ ∂θ
2 Now we shall continue with the calculation of the com-
= θ̈ + ṙθ̇ − sin θ cos θφ̇2 = 0
r ponents of the Ricci Tensor Rij
 3

III. CALCULATION OF THE RICCI TENSOR Repeating the same procedure with i = 2:
COMPONENTS
R2j = ∂j Γ020 − ∂t Γ02j + Γl20 Γ0lj − Γl2j Γ0l0

We can express Ricci Tensor in terms of the Christoffel + ∂j Γ121 − ∂r Γ12j + Γl21 Γ1lj − Γl2j Γ1l1
Symbols in the following way[5]: + ∂j Γ222 − ∂θ Γ22j + Γl22 Γ2lj − Γl2j Γ2l2
+ ∂j Γ323 − ∂φ Γ32j + Γl23 Γ3lj − Γl2j Γ3l3
Rij = ∂j Γkik − ∂k Γkij + Γlik Γklj − Γlij Γklk = (0 − 0 + 0 − 0)
+ (0 − 0 + 0 − 0)
= ∂j Γ0i0 − ∂t Γ0ij + Γli0 Γ0lj − Γlij Γ0l0
+ (0 − 0 + 0 − 0)
+ ∂j Γ1i1 − ∂r Γ1ij + Γli1 Γ1lj − Γlij Γ1l1
+ (0 − 0 + Γ323 Γ33j − Γ22j Γ323 )
+ ∂j Γ2i2 − ∂θ Γ2ij + Γli2 Γ2lj − Γlij Γ2l2
= (Γ331 − Γ221 ) cot θ
+ ∂j Γ3i3 − ∂φ Γ3ij + Γli3 Γ3lj − Γlij Γ3l3 1 1
= − cot θ = 0
r r

Finally, for i = 3:

R3j = ∂j Γ030 − ∂t Γ03j + Γl30 Γ0lj − Γl3j Γ0l0

A. Off-Diagonal Components (i 6= j) + ∂j Γ131 − ∂r Γ13j + Γl31 Γ1lj − Γl3j Γ1l1
+ ∂j Γ232 − ∂θ Γ23j + Γl32 Γ2lj − Γl3j Γ2l2
Therefore let us start calculating components of the + ∂j Γ333 − ∂φ Γ33j + Γl33 Γ3lj − Γl3j Γ3l3
Ricci Tensor using this relation, for first i = 0 :
= (0 − 0 + 0 − 0)
= (0 − 0 + 0 − 0)
R0j = ∂j Γ000 − ∂t Γ00j + Γl00 Γ0lj − Γl0j Γ0l0 = (0 − 0 + 0 − 0)
= (0 − 0 + 0 − 0) = 0
+ ∂j Γ101 − ∂r Γ10j + Γl01 Γ1lj − Γl0j Γ1l1
+ ∂j Γ202 − ∂θ Γ20j + Γl02 Γ2lj − Γl0j Γ2l2 Therefore it is shown that all off-diagonal components of
+ ∂j Γ303 − ∂φ Γ30j + Γl03 Γ3lj − Γl0j Γ3l3 the Ricci Tensor are 0 (Rij = 0 for i 6= j).
= (0 − 0 + 0 − 0)
+ (0 − 0 + 0 − 0) B. Diagonal Components
+ (0 − 0 + 0 − 0)
+ (0 − 0 + 0 − 0) = 0 Continuing with the calculation of diagonal compo-
nents:

Now let’s try the same with i = 1: R00 = ∂t Γ000 − ∂t Γ000 + Γl00 Γ0l0 − Γl00 Γ0l0
+ ∂t Γ101 − ∂r Γ100 + Γl01 Γ1l0 − Γl00 Γ1l1

R1j = ∂j Γ010 − ∂t Γ01j + Γl10 Γ0lj − Γl1j Γ0l0 + ∂t Γ202 − ∂θ Γ200 + Γl02 Γ2l0 − Γl00 Γ2l2
+ ∂t Γ303 − ∂φ Γ300 + Γl03 Γ3l0 − Γl00 Γ3l3
+ ∂j Γ111 − ∂r Γ11j + Γl11 Γ1lj − Γl1j Γ1l1
= (0 − 0 +  Γ100
Γ0
10 − 
 Γ100
Γ0
10 )

+ ∂j Γ212 − ∂θ Γ21j + Γl12 Γ2lj − Γl1j Γ2l2  1 A00 B − B 0 A0 1 (A0 )2 1 A0 B 0 
+ ∂j Γ313 − ∂φ Γ31j + Γl13 Γ3lj − Γl1j Γ3l3 + 0− + −
2 B2 4 AB 4 B2
= (0 − 0 + 0 − 0) 0
1 A
+ (0 − 0 + 0 − )
+ (0 − 0 + 0 − 0) 2r B
+ (0 − 0 + 0 − 0) 1 A0
+ (0 − 0 + 0 − )
2r B
+ (0 − 0 + Γ313 Γ33j − Γ21j Γ323 ) 00 0  0
A A A B 0  A0
= Γ313 Γ332 − Γ212 Γ323 =− + + −
2B 4B A B rB
cot θ cot θ A0 A0
 B0  1 A00
 A0 
= − =0 = + − +
r r 4B A B B 2 r
 4

IV. SOLVING THE FIELD EQUATIONS

R11 = ∂r Γ010 − ∂t Γ011 + Γl10 Γ0l1 − Γl11 Γ0l0 It is mentioned in the beginning that a solution in vac-
uum for a non-rotating massive object with no electrical
+ ∂r Γ111 − ∂r Γ111 + Γl11 Γ1l1 − Γl11 Γ1l1 charge is assumed; therefore, the field equation we want
+ ∂r Γ212 − ∂θ Γ211 + Γl12 Γ2l1 − Γl11 Γ2l2 to solve reduces to[5]:
+ ∂r Γ313 − ∂φ Γ311 + Γl13 Γ3l1 − Γl11 Γ3l3 Rij = 0 (17)
 A00 A − (A0 )2 (A0 )2 A0 B 0 
= 2
−0+ 2
− Hence, field equations to solve are simply the diagonal
2A 4A 4AB components of the Ricci Tensor, which was calculated in
1 1 l  1
+ (∂r Γ11 − 
  ∂r Γ11 + 
  Γ11 Γl1 −  Γ11 Γ1l1 )
l 
the previous section, equated to 0, such that:
1 1 B0
+ ( − 2 − 0 +
2
− ) A00 A0  A0 B 0  A0
r
r 2Br R00 = − + + − =0 (18)
1 1 B0 2B 4B A B rB
+ ( − 2 − 0 +
2
− )
r
r 2Br
A00 A0  A0 B0  B0 A00 A0  A0 B0  B0
= − + − R11 = − + − =0 (19)
2A 4A A B rB 2A 4A A B rB

1 r  A0 B0 
R22 = + − −1=0 (20)
R22 = ∂θ Γ020 − ∂t Γ022 + Γl20 Γ0l2 − Γl22 Γ0l0 B 2B A B

+ ∂θ Γ121 − ∂r Γ122 + Γl21 Γ1l2 − Γl22 Γ1l1

R33 = sin2 θR22 = 0 (21)
+ ∂θ Γ222 − ∂θ Γ222 + Γl22 Γ2l2 − Γl22 Γ2l2
B
+ ∂θ Γ323 − ∂φ Γ322 + Γl23 Γ3l2 − Γl22 Γ3l3 Then, multiplying eq(18) with A and adding it to eq(19):
rA0
= (0 − 0 + 0 + ) B A00 A0  A0 B0
 A0
2AB R00 + R11 = − + + −
0 A 2A 4A A B rA
 B − rB 1 rB 0  00
+ 0+ + − + A 0
A0  A B0
 B0
B2 2B 2 −  + −
 
B +
l  2 l 2 2A 4A A B rB
+ (0 − 0 + Γ22 Γl2 −  Γ22 Γl2 ) A0 B0
=⇒ + =0
1 cos2 θ 1 rA rB
+ (− 2 − 0 + 2 +

)
sin θ sin θ
B Finally, rearranging:
1 r  A0 B0 
= + − −1
B 2B A B A0 B + B 0 A = 0 (22)

Seeing the equivalence of this equation to:

R33 = ∂φ Γ030 − ∂t Γ033 + Γl30 Γ0l3 − Γl33 Γ0l0 d

(AB) = A0 B + B 0 A
+ ∂φ Γ131 − ∂r Γ133 + Γl31 Γ1l3 − Γl33 Γ1l1 dr

+ ∂φ Γ232 − ∂θ Γ233 + Γl32 Γ2l3 − Γl33 Γ2l2 It is observed that AB is a constant, namely AB = α.
α
Thus, substituting B = A into the eq(20):
+ ∂φ Γ333 − ∂φ Γ333 + Γl33 Γ3l3 − Γl33 Γ3l3
rA0 sin2 θ A rA  A0 A0 
= (0 − 0 + 0 + ) R22 = + + −1=0
2AB α 2α A A
A rA0
B sin2 θ − rB 0 sin2 θ 2
sinθ rB 0 sin2 θ =⇒ 1 = + =⇒ A + rA0 = α
+ (0 + + − + ) α α
B2 2B 2

 B
sin2 θ Again seeing the equivalence of this result to:
+ (0 + ( 2
cos θ − sin2 θ) +  − 2
cosθ+ )
B d
(rA) = α (23)
+ (0 − 0 + Γl33
Γ3l3 − Γl33
Γ3l3 )
 
dr
!
1 r  A0 B 0 Then multiplying both sides with dr and integrating, we
= sin2 θ + − −1 get:
B 2B A B
= sin2 θR22 rA = rα + C
 5

where C is the integration constant. Then dividing both Then, considering the metric in the weak-field limit; such
sides with r, A becomes: that it tends to Newtonian Theory of Gravitation, we
observe that:
 k
A(r) = α 1 + (24) A(r) 2Φ
r →1+ 2 (27)
c 2 c
where k is just a modification of the initial integration
constant such that k = Cα . Remembering also; B = A ,
α Where Φ is the Newtonian gravitational potential such
B becomes: that Φ = − GM
r . Therefore, we also find k as:
 k −1 2GM
B(r) = 1 + (25) k=−
r c2
At this point, final job left is to determine the exact val- Therefore, Schwarzschild’s solution[6] to Einstein’s Field
ues for α and k. Equations in vacuum finally becomes:
Hence, we first observe that in the limit r → ∞, our
metric should approach to that of a flat space-time met-  2GM  2 2  2GM −1 2
ds2 = 1 − 2 c dt − 1 − 2 dr − r2 dΩ2
ric, such that: c r c r
(28)
A(r)r→∞ = α = c2 (26) where dΩ2 = dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 .

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