WEBSJOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND WESEA ISSN: 1974-1400-X,

ENGINEERING APPLICATION Vol 11, No 2, 2022, 623.-629

EVALUATING SELF-CLEANING TITANIUM DIOXIDE NANOPARTICLE

COATING ON LATERITIC STRAW-
BALE PANEL: A REVIEW

L. A. Taiwo and A. A. Adedeji

Department of Civil Engineering, Ilorin, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT
An inward look into the activities and processes connected with the productions of the conventional bricks,
show that there are ruinous effects of environmental pollution and degradation, due to the emission of CO 2, and
other gases and particulates. These coupled with the increased cost of bricks production, and high cost of
building construction have been the bane of the recent struggles in a bid to craft out a more sustainable and cost-
friendlier approach and a construction material that can serve the goal of low-cost housing. With this, there is a
need to explore sustainable approaches to the needs of the building industry. These struggles led to the
emergence of the straw bale as a construction units in building. Although cost friendly in nature, it has no shield
against water, termites and combutions, thereby making its application insignificant. Photocatalysts (TiO2) as an
alternative self-healing material can serve as preventing measures against aesthetic problem that occur from
presence of rain, condensation water) on stucco since provision of water-resistance barrier behind the stucco is
not practical in straw-bale construction because it breaks the structural bond between the plaster and the straw-
bale besides reduces the ability of a wall to dry outward (Graziani et al., 2015; Tokunbo et al., 2017).
Researches have shown that the self-cleaning TiO2 lateritic straw-bale design can prevent the penetration of
water, and other liquid and stubborn stains into the panels, due to its high refractive index. This by virtue of its
application will help in addressing rural and urban settlement as a result of the lack of exposure to the
processing of values out of rural and farm produce, prevent the straw bale panel from water and combustion
attacks to aid the durability of the wall, attainment of the low-cost hosuing, eco-friendly and economically
efficable housing and construction materials and units. From the experiment and numerical analysis conducted,
the self cleaning properties of TiO2 is established, and the effect of the TiO2 nanoparticles on the strength of the
panel is also evaluated. It is recommended herewith that cost function and its optimal vales is for the design of
structures by the composite action of the concrete be carried out appropriately.

Keywords: Self-cleaning, titanium dioxide, nanoparticle, coating, lateritic straw-bale panel

1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

With the increase in the world population today and the global economic recession plaguing many countries
of the world (Nigeria included), there is a high demand for housing and diminishing conventional building
materials. Hence, the need to construct viable and readily available low-cost materials has become a necessity in
the fast-growing society in other to tackle the problems of housing deficiency. With this, the construction
industry has witnessed a continual shift in its bid to deliver low-carbon buildings embodied with a greater use of
plant-based materials as a major component (Daniel, et al., 2014). Among the various plant-based materials,
research attentions were shifted to materials that provide significant benefits in terms of costs, human health,
and environmental sustainability, of which straw is a good fit (Stefano, Renata, & Dario, 2019).
Straw is a natural fibre which is classified as by-products of agricultural produce. It is made up of cellulose,
lignens, hemicelluloses, and silica. Straw is gotten from several agricultural products such ascorn, wheat, rice
(the toughest due to its high silica content), oats, and barley among others. Straw is considered as a waste
product in most countries and is being disposed of either by burning or any other way which have a direct or
indirect impact on the environment. Burning of the straws leads lead to the black cloud which results in serious
chronic heart and lungs diseases. Coal burning also results in many adverse health effects such as arsenic,
mercury and selenium poisoning (Hilton, 2007; Bhattarai et al., 2012).
As remarkably highlighted, straw is a strong and durable construction material. In addition to that, it is
practical, functional and yet stylish. It is a renewable, cost effective and locally available material. Straws
typically embodied very low energy; it reduces the energy demand of a building because of its high insulating
properties and also preserves carbon for the building. Straw which is the end product of farming season has
become one of the major headaches for farmers as it will not decay easily. The world’s largest producers of

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straw producing grains like China, India, Nigeria, and other countries have not been able to utilize it for
productive work. In India, it is majorly used for paper production but this is not enough for proper utilization.
Similarly in China, as part of their commitment to investing in sustainable and environmentally-supprt
buildings, embraced the constructions of nearly Zero-Eenergy building, making use of straws. The purpose of
this system and techniques of construction is to aid the country’s target of achieving a zero-energy consumption
(Xunzhi, et al., 2020)
The rationale behind the adoption of straw bale construction was developed as an improvision strategy due to
lack of building materials in Nebraska, in the early 19th century. The existence of straws as a construction
material, was first brough to light of usage by settlers of the sandhills region of Nebraska. In 1890s Nebraska
commenced this straw bale for building buildings, churches, schools, officials and grocery stores. In those times
they focus onthe stability of the bale wall system, structural stability, plastering and moisture control. So, straw
bale construction has been a boom for the economic environmental building alternative.
Conventional buildings have very low capacities for insulation so heating from coal burning inefficiently
escapes the wall. (Hiton, 2007), reported that straw bale constructions has considerably better heat preservation
and has been shown to be a promising building alternative that meets housing needs and also energy efficient
goals in the rural community.Straw bale has properties such as high adaptability and malleability which makes it
suitable for residential building. Straw bale has been offered as an alternative means to reduce carbon emission
in residential houses because of its heat absorption properties. More than 22% of rural households rely on coal
for domestic cooking and heating needs, reducing the rural population’s dependence on coal would be an
important part of sustainable development (Kumar et al., 2012). The production of thestraw bale is more
sustainable over the years than any other conventional construction materials mainly because it is an agricultural
waste as shown in Figure 1

Figure 1: Example of staking of straw bale (Ajamu and Adedeji., 2013)

Recently, the use of fibres in the design of concrete has become a common practice among construction
engineers, particularly due to its low cost, availability, and reduction of concrete weight. Natural fibres used for
such purposes are categorized into mineral fibres (e.g asbestos). Plant fibres (including flax, hemp, kenaf, ramie,
banana fibres) and animal fibres (silk, wool) (Saxena et al., 2011). However, since straw bale performance is
influenced by several factors, researchers and designers have found it difficult to define which parameters
should be used in both experimental and simulation studies. The fact of the acceptance of straw bale in its
diverse and composite applications show its wider market support. While there exist some parametric definitions
of their ability to support loadbearing and non-loadbearing applications, their thermal resistance that is of
greatest benefit to building performance (Shawn, Dan, pete, & Aurélie, 2020). With this fact, there is great
potential to significantly improve the thermal resistance and mechanical performance of straw bales for
construction by reconfiguring the baling process to orientate the straws preferentially, and also produce bales
sizes more suited for contemporary construction practices (Shawn, et al., 2020).
Further researches show that the characteristics of straw vary from one specimen to another, and they are not
applicable in all circumstances. In order to perform best as a construction material, straw bales should be dry,
with a moisture content below 20% (calculated as a percentage of the total weight of the bale) (Sabapathy,
2019), free from seeds that can attract rodents, and compact, in order to remain stiff when loads are applied. The

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ability of a surface to clean itself is attractive in terms of cost, maintenance, and the environment. There is a cost
associated with cleaning solvents, and a time cost in scrubbing surfaces, along with a replacement cost from
solvent use. Reducing these costs not only benefits an individual, but also benefits society as a whole by
eliminating solvent vapour into the environment, while also eliminating the harmful effects of bacteria from the
surface. Self-cleaning laterite Straw-bale construction is a relatively sustainable renewable construction method,
comprised of titanium dioxide (TiO2), stucco and straw. The presence of TiO2 aids the development of internal
structure of the constructed straw bale panel, an excellent self-cleansing, and smog-abating functionalities,
especially when added to cement-based materials (George , et al., 2020). Having established the rational
behind the adoption of straw bale panels, the application of TiO 2 nanoparticle to help prevent incessant water or
moisture percolation is an advantageous stand point of this research study. In a similar study by (Adedeji,
Aminu, & Adedeji, 2018) on the effect of temperature on strawbale wall rendered with laterite and clay
Nanoparticle, a submission of the thermal effectiveness of the laterite plastered straw bale building model. The
centre of the research did not cover the use of self-cleansing nanoparticle material to aid the self-cleansing
property of the straw bale panel and its ability offer a better mechanical bond to both plaster and stucco.
In view of this, this research study aims to evaluate the self-cleansing property of TiO2 nanoparticle coating
on lateritic straw bale panel in an optimized design mix.

2. RESEARCH REVIEW
Straw bale is a compressed bundle of straw which is arrangedin round, rectangular or square shape attached
together with wire. These are gotten from the dry stems of cereal plants after the seeds have been removed. The
dimension of straw bale vary per circumstance but the standard size are 900mm x 450mm x 350mm/ 584mm x
1168mm x 400mm. The average weight of a 20% moisture straw bale of the above size is 65% less than an
equivalent brick wall and 62% less than the concrete block wall. (Bhattarai et al., 2012).

2.1 Properties of Straw Bale

Moisture content and Isothern relationship: - Straw material is vulnerable to degeneration by certain values
because it composes of natural organic material. One of the main concerns with straw bale structures is the
determination of moisture contents because high moisture content leads to faster decay. In assessing straw
degradation, Bronsmema (2010) reported that it is important to consider multiple environmental factors that
affect straw decay. Yin et al. (2018) discovered while comparing the water absorption rate of different straw
bale material that Surface and cross-sectional structure of rice and wheat species are different at micro-scale but
sorption isotherns were not significantly different. This factor plays an important role in selecting and measuring
the water absorption rate of straw to use.There is a direct correlation between the moisture content of straw and
the temperature and the relative humidity of the surrounding environment (Lamond and Graham, 1993).
Sound Insulation: - Sound insulation refers to the capacity of a barrier to prevent the passage of sound energy
from the air on the source side to that on the far side, sound absorption refers to the inability of a material to
reflect the energy received from the source as defined by Jones (2001) and Adedeji (2008). Jones (2001) posited
that there is an over whelming experimental evidence that strawbale walls offer far more sound insulation than
20th century wall building techniques.
Thermal Conductivity and Fire Resistance: - The thermal resistance of straw bales is dependent on straw type
and density, straw orientation, and thickness. Although loose straw is quite flammable, once packed in a bale it
is too dense to allow enough air combustion (Bruce, 2003).

2.2 Principle Of Heterogengeous Photocatalysis

Transition metals oxides (such as Iron, Titanium, Nickel, etcetera.) are known to exhibit a photocatalytic
behaviour, i.e., these metal oxides can act as a catalysts and promote oxidation or reduction process when
activated by radiation. TiO2 exhibits this property in its polymorphic state (anatase, brookite, and rutile) iis the
most relevant. TiO2, a semiconduction for use in photocatalytic process posseses the following characteristics:
ease of production and usage, chemical and biological inertia, high efficiency and low cost. Linsebigler et al.
(1995) posited that, TiO2 do not posses efficient solar light activation, since activation is promoted by UV light,
which is ess than 10% solar light energy. Carp et al. (2004) described the parameters which are most used to
determine the efficiency of photoactivation, and specifically photocatalysis as the following: (i) Reaction
environment (oxygen level, humidity, pH level of the environment): (ii) wavelength and intensity of activating
light source, which must provide enough energy to overcome the semiconductor band gap; (iii) Initial
concentration of the compound sample to be degraded and formation of intermediate products competing for
absorption, even deactivating TiO2.; and (iv) catalyst surface area and porosity.

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2.3 Properties Of Titanium Dioxide (TiO2)

In recent years, advancement in building finishing and construction has introduce photocatalytic and
superhydrophilic self-cleaning glass nanocoating. These products are based on the photocatalytic property of a
layer of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles deposited on the surface of any kind. TiO 2, when exposed to ultra
violent radiation react with oxygen and water molecules adsorbed on their surface to produce radicals leading to
oxidative species. Various metal oxides have been tested for photocatalytic applications, among all these metals
TiO2 has received the most attention because of its chemical stability and high reactivity under UV radiation.
When a TiO particle absorbs a photon with hv≥Eg( Eg= band gap of TiO=3.2eV) (Ni et al., 2007), an electron is
transferred from the valency bond to the conduction band (e -), leaving behind a positive hole (h+). If the two
interacts with absorbed species, it forms radicals capable of oxidizing a wild range of organic pollutants into
H2O and CO2 (Akhavan and Ghaderi, 2010). This property of TiO 2 is used for the slef-cleaning functionality to
a variety of materials, Straws of various kinds included.

2.4 Self Cleaning Properties of TiO2

One of the fascinating properties of TiO2 is its self-cleaning ability, this arises from the UV radiation, the
alteration of TiO2 wettability and formation of highly hydropholic surface. Wan et al. (1997) defined this ability
as photoinduced super-hydrophilicity, and also involves the reduction of Ti 4+ to Ti3+ by electrons and
simultaneous hole trapping at lattice sites. This reduces the bond strength between reduced titanium and the
closest oxygen, which is then removed when another water molecule arrives in contact with the surface and
adsorbs on it. This creates a highly hydroxylated surface layer, which is responsible for hydrogen bonds with
water and consequent increased hydrophilicity of the surface.
Dirts and particles can adhere on the surface of TiO2 coated surface, even when irradiated, the advantage of
the presence of TiO2 is the ability to easily remove the dirtsandparticles from the surface as only UV light and
water are required to remove the stains and dirts. The difference between the aesthetic appearance of a structure
constructed with and without the admixture of TiO2 is shown

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Figure 2 and

Figure 3. Self-cleaning has become popular in many fields of engineering, chemistry, pharmarcy, etc. even in
clothing some companies are producing self cleaning cotton fabric for easier cleaning and deodorizing.Self
cleaning products have gained the most in environment and construction industry with manufacturing of of self-
cleaning glass, tiles, paints, mortars and many other materials.

Figure 2: Straw bale building without plaster (Cadmon, 2019)

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Figure 3: Straw-bale Building with Lime Plaster (Morrison, 2012)

2.5 Stucco/Render
A straw bale plaster consist of three major components such as aggregate(mansory sand or similar sand),
water and binder (cement). The type of binder used are mostly project type, local conditions and owner’s
preference dependent. According to Adedeji (2007), plasteres serve many functions in a wall system, these
includes: protection of the underlying surface, permission or prevention of the migration of vapour or liquid
moisture and air current, carrying structural loads, provision of fire resistance, sound and thermal insulation,
provision of smooth and hygienic surface, and the resistance of surface abrasion and accepts a decorative
finishes. Stucco or exterior plaster, is defined as a hardened mix of fine aggregate and inorganic binders, it is
majorly used for wall and ceilings finish. In recent times, the stucco is often made of steel mesh reinforced
cement applied directly to the strawbales.
The common practice in stucco mix as a volumetric ratio is in the form of C:L:S, (C is the cement, L is the
lime component, and S is the sand). The stucco used in strawbale walls ranges from high-stregnth or shortcrete
to cement-lime mixture to earthbased plasters (laterites/clay) and without lime or cement stabilizer.

2.6 Lateritic/Clay Plaster

Earthened/clay plaster consist of locally sourced lateritic/clay soil, sand, and water mixed on site. Earthen
plasters have been used successfully for centuries, but unfortunately, their use continues to be met with
sceptiscism (Magwood and Mack, 2000). Because of the variability in the properties of locally sourced soil, it is
very difficult to predict the structural behavior of an earthen plaster.some builders have used bagged clay which
has been proceesed to ensure greater quality control(Vardy, 2009).

3. EVALUATION REVIEW
(a) The process of evalustion starts with the study and analysis of the self-cleansing properties of TiO2
nanoparticles. Laboratory experimental works involved the properties of the lateritic soil, rice straw, water, and
TiO2, which makes them suitable for construction work, and compare the properties of the resulting lateritic
panel with or without the TiO2 nanoparticle mix and coating. The process includes studying and analsyis of self-
cleaning properties of the nanoparticles of TiO2, mixing of the naoparticles with lateritic soil and studying the
composition and chemical reaction.
(b) For the design mix, two different TiO2 incorporation approaches is employed herewith. This entaisl the
addition of different percentage proportions of the TiO2 nanoparticles to a known quantity of lateritic clays
(inter-mixing) at a high mixing rate. This forms the first mix matrix, and different percentage proportions is
established to know the best/accurate quantity of the TiO2 nanoparticle added to the laterite. The trial mix matrix

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obtained with the nanoparticles, laterites and water serve as the basis of the determination of the percentage of
each composition for optimal mix design.
The second nanoparticle incorporation approach is in the form of a coating after the ordinary material-mixed
fabricated straw bale panel. The proportions obtained based on the calculated mix design and statistical
inferences from previous researches determine the percentage of the nano-particle coating that would be applied
on the fabricated straw bale panel.
(3) From the mix matrix is obtained after proper laboratory analysis, the laterite based straw bale panel is then
fabricated without any nanoparticle coating or intermix, which serves as the reference upon which the
establishment of the analysis of the effect of the self-cleasing property of the TiO2 nanoparticle would be based.
After the reference mix must have been employed in fabricating the straw bale panel, the other two
nanoparticle-incoporated mixes (Intermixing with the laterite, and TiO 2 coating) would be used to fabricate the
straw bale panel. After the fabrication of the panels, property tests on each of the panels would be used to
establish the comparative analysis upon which the determination of the self-cleansing property of the TiO2
nanoparticle would be based. The property test would be comprised of the physical, chemical and mechanixal
test of the staw bale panel.
(4) A numerical model will be created for the reference straw bale panel and the two TiO2 incorporated self-
cleaning lateritic straw-bale panel using ANSYS software for futher investigation of the physical and
mechanical properties.
(5) Perform optimal experimental designs using a class of laboratory deisgns that are optimal with respect to
some statistical criterion,
From the work done, Table 1 shows the common software use and recommended for the reliability-optimal
design of stuctures
Table 1 List of possible application of cirent softwares
S/N Softwares Uses
1 ANSYS, SAP 2000v18 For structural analysis and design needs (creation
of model, finite element incidences, end
conditions, load application, solution- analysis
types, analysis of the input and extent of output
results).
2 STAAD Pro VBi For analysing time dependent effects, such as
creep, shrinkage and cracking
3 SPSS For statistical data
4 Microsoft office (Excel, power For data analysis and typing
point and word)

4. RESULT
From the above reviews, the effect of the addition of TiO2 to the lateritic plastered straw bale has been
established, and the optimal design at which the self-cleaning abilities of TiO2 is most potent is recommended
for further investigation

5. CONCLUSION
From the experiment and numerical analysis conducted, the self cleaning properties of TiO2 is established, and
the effect of the TiO2 nanoparticles on the strength of the panel is also evaluated. The cost function and its
optimal vales is recommended for the design of structures the composite action of the concrete.

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