11-24

Solution A car is moving at a constant velocity. The upstream velocity to be used in fluid flow analysis is to
be determined for the cases of calm air, wind blowing against the direction of motion of the car, and wind blowing
in the same direction of motion of the car.
Analysis In fluid flow analysis, the velocity used Wind
is the relative velocity between the fluid and the solid 110 km/h
body. Therefore:
(a) Calm air: V = Vcar = 110 km/h
(b) Wind blowing against the direction of motion:
V = Vcar + Vwind = 110 + 30 = 140 km/h
(c) Wind blowing in the same direction of motion:
V = Vcar - Vwind = 110 - 30 = 80 km/h
Discussion Note that the wind and car velocities are added when they are in opposite directions, and subtracted
when they are in the same direction.

11-29
Solution An advertisement sign in the form of a rectangular block that has the same frontal area from all four
sides is mounted on top of a taxicab. The increase in the annual fuel cost due to this sign is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow of air is steady and incompressible. 2 The
car is driven 60,000 km a year at an average speed of 50 km/h. 3 The
overall efficiency of the engine is 28%. 4 The effect of the sign and
the taxicab on the drag coefficient of each other is negligible (no
interference), and the edge effects of the sign are negligible (a crude AD
approximation). 5 The flow is turbulent so that the tabulated value of
the drag coefficient can be used.
Properties The densities of air and gasoline are given to be 1.25 TAXI
kg/m3 and 0.72 kg/L, respectively. The heating value of gasoline is
given to be 42,000 kJ/kg. The drag coefficient for a square rod for
normal flow is CD = 2.2 (Table 11-1).
Analysis Noting that 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, the drag force acting on the sign is
3 2
F D=C D A
ρV 2
2
=(2. 2)(0 .9×0.3 m2 )
(1. 25 kg/m )(50/3 .6 m/s )
2 (
1N
1 kg⋅m/s2 )
=71.61 N
Noting that work is force times distance, the amount of work done to overcome this drag force and the required
energy input for a distance of 60,000 km are

W drag =F D L=(71 . 61 N)(60,000 km/year )=4 .30×106 kJ/year

W drag 4 .30×106 kJ/year
Ein = = =1 . 54×107 kJ/year
ηcar 0 . 28

Then the amount and cost of the fuel that supplies this much energy are
mfuel E in /HV (1. 54×107 kJ/year )/(42 ,000 kJ/kg )
Amont of fuel= = = =509 L/year
ρfuel ρ fuel 0.72 kg/L
Cost=(Amount of fuel )( Unit cost )=(509 L/year)($1 .10/L)=$560/year
That is, the taxicab will use 509 L of gasoline at a cost of $560 per year to overcome the drag generated by the
advertisement sign.

Discussion Note that the advertisement sign increases the fuel cost of the taxicab significantly. The taxicab
operator may end up losing money by installing the sign if he/she is not aware of the major increase in the fuel cost,
and negotiate accordingly.
11-31
Solution A submarine is treated as an ellipsoid at a specified length and diameter. The powers required for
this submarine to cruise horizontally in seawater and to tow it in air are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The submarine can be treated as an ellipsoid. 2 The flow is turbulent. 3 The drag of the towing
rope is negligible. 4 The motion of submarine is steady and horizontal.
Properties The drag coefficient for an ellipsoid 40 km/h
with L/D = 25/5 = 5 is CD = 0.1 in turbulent flow Submarine
(Table 11-2). The density of sea water is given to be
1025 kg/m3. The density of air is given to be 1.30
kg/m3.
Analysis Noting that 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, the velocity of the submarine is equivalent to V = 40/3.6 = 11.11 m/s.
The frontal area of an ellipsoid is A = D2/4. Then the drag force acting on the submarine becomes
3 2

In water:
F D=C D A
ρV 2
2
=(0. 1)[ π(5 m )2/4 ]
(1025 kg/m )(11 .11 m/s)
2 (
1 kN
1000 kg⋅m/s 2 )
=124.2 kN

3 2

In air:
F D=C D A
ρV 2
2
=(0.1)[ π (5 m )2 /4 ]
(1 .30 kg/m )(11 .11 m/s )
2 (
1 kN
1000 kg⋅m/s2 )
=0.1575 kN

Noting that power is force times velocity, the power needed to overcome this drag force is
Ẇ drag =F D V =(124 .2 kN)(11. 11 m/s) (11 kW
kN⋅m/s )
=1380 kW
In water:

Ẇ drag =F D V =(0 .1575 kN)(11. 11 m/s) (11 kW

kN⋅m/s )
=1 .75 kW
In air:
Therefore, the power required for this submarine to cruise horizontally in seawater is 1380 kW and the power
required to tow this submarine in air at the same velocity is 1.75 kW.
Discussion Note that the power required to move the submarine in water is about 800 times the power required
to move it in air. This is due to the higher density of water compared to air (sea water is about 800 times denser than
air).
11-42
Solution A plastic sphere is dropped into water. The terminal velocity of the sphere in water is to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 The fluid flow over the sphere is laminar (to be verified). 2 The drag coefficient remains constant.
Properties The density of plastic sphere is 1150 kg/m3. The density and dynamic viscosity of water at 20°C are
r = 998 kg/m and m = 1.002´10-3 kg/m×s, respectively. The drag coefficient for a sphere in laminar flow is CD = 0.5.
3

Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached when the drag force equals the weight of the
solid object less the buoyancy force applied by the fluid,
2
ρf V
F D=W −F B F D=C D A , W = ρs gV , and F B=ρ f gV
where 2
Here A = D2/4 is the frontal area and V = D3/6 is the volume of the sphere. Substituting and simplifying,

( )
2 2
ρf V πD 2 ρf V πD 3 V2 ρ gD
CD A =ρs gV −ρf gV → CD =( ρ s −ρf ) g → C D = s −1
2 4 2 6 8 ρf 6
Solving for V and substituting,

Water
V=
√ 3 CD
The Reynolds number is
√
4 gD( ρ s / ρ f −1) 4( 9. 81 m/s 2 )(0. 006 m)(1150/998-1)
=
3×0 . 5
=0 . 155 m/s

3 -3
ρ VD (998 kg/m )(0. 155 m/s)(6×10 m)
Re= = =926
μ 1 .002×10-3 kg⋅m/s
which is less than 2105. Therefore, the flow is laminar as assumed.

Discussion This problem can also be solved “usually more accurately” using a trial-and-error approach by using
CD data from Fig. 11-34. The CD value corresponding to Re = 926 is about 0.5, and thus the terminal velocity is the
same.

11-64
Solution A spherical dust particle is suspended in the air at a fixed point as a result of an updraft air motion.
The magnitude of the updraft velocity is to be determined using Stokes law.
Assumptions 1 The Reynolds number is low (at the order of 1) so that Stokes law is applicable (to be verified). 2
The updraft is steady and incompressible. 3 The buoyancy force applied by air to the dust particle is negligible since
air << dust (besides, the uncertainty in the density of dust is greater than the density of air). (We will solve the
problem without utilizing this assumption for generality).
Properties The density of dust is given to be rs = 2.1 g/cm3 = 2100 kg/m3. The density and dynamic viscosity
of air at 1 atm and 25C are f = 1.184 kg/m3 and  = 1.84910-5 kg/ms.
Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached (or the suspension of an object in a flow
stream is established) when the drag force equals the weight of the solid object less the buoyancy force applied by
the surrounding fluid,
F D=W −F B F D=3 πμ VD W= ρs gV , and F B=ρ f gV
where (Stokes law),
Here V = D3/6 is the volume of the sphere. Substituting,
3
πD V
3 πμ VD= ρs gV − ρf gV → 3 πμ VD=( ρs −ρ f )g
6 Air
Dust
Solving for the velocity V and substituting the numerical values, the updraft
velocity is determined to be

The Reynolds number in this case is

3
ρ VD (1.184 kg/m )(0. 619 m/s)(0 .0001 m)
Re= = =4 .0
μ 1. 849×10 -5 kg⋅m/s

which is in the order of 1. Therefore, the creeping flow idealization and thus Stokes law is applicable, and the value
calculated is valid.

Discussion Flow separation starts at about Re = 10. Therefore, Stokes law can be used as an approximation for
Reynolds numbers up to this value, but this should be done with care.
11-67E
Solution A pipe is crossing a river while remaining completely immersed in water. The drag force exerted on
the pipe by the river is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The outer surface of the pipe is smooth so that Fig. River water
11-34 can be used to determine the drag coefficient. 2 Water flow in V = 10 ft/s
the river is steady. 3 The turbulence in water flow in the river is not T = 70F
considered. 4 The direction of water flow is normal to the pipe.
Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water at 70F are
 = 62.30 lbm/ft3 and  = 2.36 lbm/fth = 6.55610-4 lbm/fts.
Analysis Noting that D = 1.2 in = 0.1 ft, the Reynolds number Pipe
for flow over the pipe is D=
3 L=
VD ρVD (62 .30 lbm/ft )(10 ft/s)(0 .1 ft )
Re= = = =9 . 50×10 4
ν μ 6. 556×10−4 lbm/ft⋅s

The drag coefficient corresponding to this value is, from Fig. 11-34, CD = 1.1. Also, the frontal area for flow past a
cylinder is A = LD. Then the drag force acting on the cylinder becomes
3 2
F D=C D A
ρV 2
2
=1 .1×(140×0 .1 ft 2 )
(62 .30 lbm/ft )(10 ft/s)
2
1 lbf
32 . 2 lbm⋅ft/s 2 (
=1490 lbf
)
Discussion Note that this force is equivalent to the weight of a 1490 lbm mass. Therefore, the drag force the
river exerts on the pipe is equivalent to hanging a mass of 1490 lbm on the pipe supported at its ends 70 ft apart. The
necessary precautions should be taken if the pipe cannot support this force. Also, the fluctuations in water flow may
reduce the drag coefficients by inducing turbulence and delaying flow separation.

8-118E
Solution The flow rate of water is to be measured with an orifice meter. For a given pressure drop across the
orifice plate, the flow rate, the average velocity, and the head loss are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible.
Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water are given to be  = 62.36 kg/m3 and  = 7.53610-4
lbm/fts, respectively. We take the density of mercury to be 847 lbm/ft3.
Analysis The diameter ratio and the throat area of the orifice are

The pressure drop across the orifice plate can be expressed as

ΔP=P1 −P2 =( ρHg −ρ f )gh

Then the flow rate relation for obstruction meters becomes

V̇ = A o C d
√ 2(P 1−P2 )
4
ρ( 1−β )
= Ao Cd
√ 2( ρHg− ρf ) gh
4
ρ f (1−β )
=A o C d
√ 2( ρHg / ρf −1 ) gh
1−β 4
As a first quess, the discharge coefficient of the orifice meter is approximated as Cd = 0.61. Substituting, the flow
rate is determined to be

The average velocity in the pipe is determined by dividing the flow rate by the cross-sectional area of the pipe,

The head loss between the two measurement sections can be estimated from the energy equation. Since z1 = z2, the
head form of the energy equation simplifies to

The Reynolds number of flow through the pipe is

The values calculated above are reasonable approximations, but are not exact since we guessed the value of the
discharge coefficient. We correct by substituting  and Re values into the orifice discharge coefficient relation,

Using this refined value of Cd, the flow rate becomes 0.2370 ft3/s, which differs from our original result by less than
1%. Plugging in this volume flow rate, we get V = 2.716 ft/s, and hL = 5.255 ft H2O, Re = 74920, and the new Cd =
0.6042. our final answers to three digits are thus , V = 2.72 ft/s, and hL = 5.26 ft H2O.

Discussion If we do not iterate, and just assume that Cd = 0.61 for the discharge coefficient, the results differ
by about 1%. In some engineering analyses, this is a negligible error, but to be consistent and as accurate as
possible, we should iterate as shown here.

8-11C
Solution We are to discuss the effect of surface roughness on pressure drop in pipe flow.

Analysis In turbulent flow, tubes with rough surfaces have much higher friction factors than the tubes with
smooth surfaces, and thus surface roughness leads to a much larger pressure drop in turbulent pipe flow. In the
case of laminar flow, the effect of surface roughness on the friction factor and pressure drop is negligible.

Discussion The effect of roughness on pressure drop is significant for turbulent flow, as seen in the Moody
chart.

8-121
Solution A Venturi meter equipped with a differential pressure gage is used to measure to flow rate of water
through a horizontal pipe. For a given pressure drop, the volume flow rate of water and the average velocity through
the pipe are to be determined.
Assumptions The flow is steady and
incompressible.
Properties The density of water is given to be
 = 999.1 kg/m3. The discharge coefficient of
Venturi meter is given to be Cd = 0.98.
Analysis The diameter ratio and the throat
area of the meter are

Differential
pressure
 β=d / D=3/5=0. 60
A 0 =πd 2 /4=π (0 . 03 m )2/ 4=7. 069×10−4 m 2

Noting that P = 5 kPa = 5000 N/m2, the flow rate

becomes

which is equivalent to 2.35 L/s. The

average flow velocity in the pipe is determined by dividing the flow rate by the cross-sectional area of the pipe,
3
V̇ V̇ 0 . 00235 m /s
V= = = =1. 20 m/s
Ac πD2 /4 π (0 .05 m)2 /4

Discussion Note that the flow rate is proportional to the square root of pressure difference across the Venturi
meter.

8-128
Solution The flow rate of water is to be measured with flow nozzle equipped with an inverted air-water
manometer. For a given differential height, the flow rate and head loss
caused by the nozzle meter are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The discharge
coefficient of the nozzle meter is Cd = 0.96.
44 cm
Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water are given to be
 = 998 kg/m3 and  = 1.00210-3 kg/ms, respectively. The density of the
air in the manometer is assumed to by 1.20 kg/m3.
Analysis The diameter ratio and the throat area of the meter are
β=d / D=2/4=0.50
A 0 =πd 2 /4=π (0 . 02 m )2 /4=3. 142×10−4 m 2

We use manometry to calculate P, and we need to iterate since we do not know the exact value of discharge
coefficient. As a first guess, we set Cd = 0.96, and the flow rate becomes

V̇ = A o C d
√ 2( P1 −P2 )
4
ρ(1− β )
= Ao Cd
√ 2( ρw −ρ air )
ρw (1−β )
4

=
π (0 .020 m )2
4
(0 . 96)
3
=0 . 0009146 m /s
√
2(998−1. 20 ) kg/m3 (9 .81 m/s 2 )(0. 44 m )
3 4
( 998 kg/m )((1−0 . 50 )

which is equivalent to about 0.915 L/s. The average flow velocity in the pipe is
V̇ V̇ 0 . 0009146 m 3 /s
V= = 2 = =0 .7278 m/s
Ac πD /4 π (0 .040 m)2 /4
The Reynolds number of flow through the pipe is
 3
ρ VD (998 kg/m )(0.7278 m/s )(0.04 m )
Re= = =2.900×104
μ -3
1 .002×10 kg/m⋅s
Substituting the  and Re values into the orifice discharge coefficient relation gives
6.53 β 0 .5 6 .53 (0 .50 )0. 5
C d =0 . 9975− 0. 5 =0 . 9975− =0. 9704
Re (2 . 900×10 4 )0. 5
This is a corrected value of discharge coefficient. It is close to our original guess of 0.96, but is more accurate. We
iterate another time using this corrected value of Cd, yielding V̇ = 0.0009245 m3/s from which V = 0.7357 m/s, and
Re = 2.931104. Using this corrected value of Re, we get Cd = 0.9705. One further iteration reveals that the solution
has converged. The final results are V = 0.736 m/s, Re = 2.93104, Cd = 0.971, and V̇ = 0.000925 m3/s (to 3
significant digits each).
The head loss between the two measurement sections can be determined from the energy equation. Since z1
=z2, the energy equation simplifies to
P1−P 2 V 22−V 21 [(D /d )4 −1 ]V 21 [(4/2)4 −1 ](0 . 736 m/s )2
h L= − =h w − =0. 44 m− =0. 0259 m H2O
ρf g 2g 2g 2(9 . 81 m/s )
2

So, the head loss is hL = 0.0259 m of water (to three significant digits).
Discussion You could save some calculations by ignoring the air density compared to water and by not
iterating, but the results would not be as accurate.

OUTSIDE PROBLEM:
a)
Ergun equation: L = 0.5 m, epsilon = 0.3, u = 0.5 m/s, dp = 460e-6 m, viscosity = 1.8e-5 pa.s, density = 1.3
kg/m3
 Pressure drop = 72.5 kPa

b)
Using Darcy’s law: Pressure drop = 72.5 kPa, L = 0.05 m, u = 0.5 m/s, viscosity = 1.8e-5 pa.s
 k = 6.2e-12 m2