M Abdul Rehman

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 The analysis thus far has been limited to dc networks,
networks in which the currents or voltages are fixed in
magnitude except for transient effects.
 Now analysis of networks in which the magnitude of
the source varies in a set manner is done e.g.
Alternating Current (AC).
 The term alternating indicates only that the waveform
alternates between two prescribed levels in a set time
sequence.

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 One of the important reasons for concentrating on the
sinusoidal ac voltage is that it is the voltage generated
by utilities throughout the world.

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Generation
◦ Sinusoidal ac voltages are available from a variety of
sources.
◦ An ac voltage is originated at a power plant; such a
power plant fueled by water power, oil, gas, or nuclear
fusion.
◦ In each case an ac generator (also called an
alternator) is the primary component in the energy
conversion process.

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 The power to the shaft developed by one of the energy
sources listed will turn a rotor (constructed of
alternating magnetic poles) inside a set of windings
housed in the stator (the stationary part of the dynamo)
and will induce a voltage across the windings of the
stator, as defined by Faraday’s law,

 Through proper design of the generator, a sinusoidal ac

voltage is developed that can be transformed to higher
levels for distribution through the power lines to the
consumer.

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 Definitions
◦ Waveform: The path traced by a quantity, such as
the voltage , plotted as a function of some variable
such as time, position, degrees, radians, temperature,
and so on.
◦ Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform
at any instant of time; denoted by lowercase letters
(e1, e2).
◦ Peak amplitude: The maximum value of a waveform
as measured from its average, or mean value, denoted
by uppercase letters (such as Em for sources of
voltage and Vm for the voltage drop across a load).
For the waveform, the average value is zero volts, and
Em is as defined by the figure.

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o Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value of a
function as measured from the zero-volt level. For the
waveform, the peak amplitude and peak value are the
same, since the average value of the function is zero
volts.

 Peak-to-peak value: Denoted by Ep-p or Vp-p, the

full voltage between positive and negative peaks of the
waveform, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the
positive and negative peaks.

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 Periodic waveform: A waveform that continually
repeats itself after the same time interval. The
waveform ois a periodic waveform. Period (T): The time
interval between successive repetitions of a periodic
waveform (the period T1T2T3in Fig. 13.3), as long as
successive similar points of the periodic waveform are
used in determining T.
 Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one
period of time. The cycles within T1, T2, and T3 may
appear different , but they are all bounded by one
period of time and there-fore satisfy the definition of a
cycle.

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 Frequency(f): The number of cycles that occur in 1 s.
The frequency of the waveform (a) is 1 cycle per
second, and (b), 2 .5 cycles per second. If a waveform
of similar shape had a period of 0.5 s [(c)], the
frequency would be 2 cycles per second.

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 The unit of measure for frequency is the hertz (Hz),
where
1 hertz (Hz) =1 cycle per second (c/s)

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 Find the period of a periodic waveform with a
frequency of
◦ a. 60 Hz.
◦ b. 1000 Hz.

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 Determine the frequency of the waveform of the
following Fig.

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The oscilloscope is an instrument that will display alternating
waveforms such as those described above. A sinusoidal pattern
appears on the oscilloscope with the indicated vertical and
horizontal sensitivities. The vertical sensitivity defines the voltage
associated with each vertical division of the display. Virtually all
oscilloscope screens are cut into a crosshatch pattern of lines
separated by 1 cm in the vertical and horizontal directions. The
horizontal sensitivity defines the time period associated with each
horizontal division of the display. For the pattern of the Fig. and
the indicated sensitivities, determine the period, frequency, and
peak value of the waveform.

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 The polarity and current direction will be for an
instant of time in the positive portion of the sinusoidal
waveform.
 The polarity and current direction will be for an
instant of time in the positive portion of the sinusoidal
waveform.

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 The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating
waveform whose shape is unaffected by the response
characteristics of R, L, and C elements.
 If the voltage across (or current through) a resistor,
coil, or capacitor is sinusoidal in nature, the resulting
current (or volt-age, respectively) for each will also
have sinusoidal characteristics.

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 The unit of measurement for the horizontal axis is the
degree.
 A second unit of measurement frequently used is the
radian (rad).
 It is defined by a quadrant of a circle where the distance
subtended on the circumference equals the radius of the circle.
 If we define x as the number of intervals of r (the
radius) around the circumference of the circle, then

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 The sinusoidal waveform can be derived from the
length of the vertical projection of a radius vector
rotating in a uniform circular motion about a fixed
point.
 The velocity with which the radius vector rotates
about the center, called the angular velocity, can be
determined from the following equation:

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 Determine the angular velocity of a sine wave having
a frequency of 60 Hz.

 Determine the frequency and period of the following

sine wave.

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 Given w=200 rad/s, determine how long it will take the
sinusoidal waveform to pass through an angle of 90°.

 Find the angle through which a sinusoidal waveform

of 60 Hz will pass in a period of 5 ms.

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 The basic mathematical format for the sinusoidal
waveform is

◦ where Am is the peak value of the waveform and α is

the unit of measure for the horizontal axis

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 The equation a wt states that the angle a through
which the rotating vector will pass is determined by
the angular velocity of the rotating vector and the
length of time the vector rotates.
 For example, for a particular angular velocity (fixed
w), the longer the radius vector is permitted to rotate
(that is, the greater the value of t), the greater will be
the number of degrees or radians through which the
vector will pass.

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 For a fixed time interval, the greater the angular
velocity, the greater the number of cycles generated.

 with wt as the horizontal unit of measure.

 For electrical quantities such as current and voltage,
the general format is

 where the capital letters with the subscript m

represent the amplitude, and the lowercase letters i
and e represent the instantaneous value of current or
voltage, respectively, at any time t.

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 The angle at which a particular voltage level is
attained can be determined by rearranging the
equation

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 a. Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the
sinusoidal function v=10 sin 377t is 4V.
 b. Determine the time at which the magnitude is
attained.

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 Sketch e = 10 sin 314t with the abscissa
 a. angle in degrees.
 b. angle in radians.
 c. time in seconds.

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 Thus far, we have considered only sine waves that
have maxima at pi/2and 3pi/2, with a zero value at
0,pi,and 2pi.
 If the waveform is shifted to the right or left of 0°,the
expression becomes

 where θ is the angle in degrees or radians that the

waveform has been shifted.
 If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis
with a positive-going (increasing with time) slope
before 0°, the expression is

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 At wt=α=0°, the magnitude is determined by Am sinθ.
If the wave-form passes through the horizontal axis
with a positive-going slope after 0°

◦ At wt=α=0°, the magnitude is Am sinθ, which, by a

trigonometric identity, is Am sinθ .
 If the waveform crosses the horizontal axis with a
positive-going slope 90°(pi/2) sooner, it is called a
cosine wave

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 The terms lead and lag are used to indicate the
relationship between two sinusoidal waveforms of the
same frequency plotted on the same set of axes.

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 The phase relationship between two waveforms
indicates which
 one leads or lags, and by how many degrees or radians
 In Fig., the cosine curve is said to lead the sine curve by
90°, and the sine curve is said to lag the cosine curve by
90°.
 The 90° is referred to as the phase angle between the two
waveforms.
 In language commonly applied, the waveforms are out of phase
by 90°.
 The phase angle between the two waveforms is
measured between those two points on the horizontal
axis through which each passes with the same slope.
 If both wave-forms cross the axis at the same point with the same
slope, they are in phase.

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 What is the phase relationship between the sinusoidal
waveforms of each of the following sets?

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 Phase Measurements:
◦ First note that each sinusoidal function has the same
frequency, permitting the use of either waveform to
determine the period.

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◦ In Fig. (a) the average height of the sand may be
required to determine the volume of sand available.
◦ The average height of the sand is that height obtained if
the distance from one end to the other is maintained
while the sand is leveled off.
◦ The area under the mound of Fig. (a) will then equal the
area under the rectangular shape of Fig. (b) as
determined by A=h*h.
◦ Of course, the depth (into the page) of the sand must be
the same for Fig. (a) and (b) for the preceding
conclusions to have any meaning.

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◦ In Fig. (a) the distance extends.
◦ The situation could be one where a landscaper would
like to know the average height of the sand if spread
out over a distance such as defined in Fig. (a).
◦ The result of an increased distance is as shown in
Fig. (b).

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◦ If the distance parameter includes a depression, as
shown in Fig. (a), some of the sand will be used to fill
the depression, resulting in an even lower average
value for the landscaper, as shown in Fig. (b).
◦ For a sinusoidal waveform, the depression would have
the same shape as the mound of sand (over one full
cycle), resulting in an average value at ground level
(or zero volts for a sinusoidal voltage over one full
period).

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 The algebraic sum of the areas must be determined,
since some area contributions will be from below the
horizontal axis.
◦ Areas above the axis will be assigned a positive sign,
and those below, a negative sign.
◦ A positive average value will then be above the axis,
and a negative value, below.
 The average value of any current or voltage is the
value indicated on a dc meter.
◦ In other words, over a complete cycle, the average
value is the equivalent dc value.

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 Determine the average value of the waveforms of Fig.

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 Find the average values of the following waveforms
over one full cycle for the following figures.

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 Finding the area under the positive pulse of a sine
wave using integration, we have

 After integrating, we obtain

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 Since we know the area under the positive (or
negative) pulse, we can easily determine the average
value of the positive (or negative) region of a sine
wave pulse by

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◦ The area of the positive (or
negative) pulse of a sine wave is
2Am

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 Determine the average value of the sinusoidal
waveform

 Determine the average value of the sinusoidal

waveform

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 The peak-to-peak value of the sinusoidal function is
16mV+2mV=18 mV.
 The peak amplitude of the sinusoidal wave-form is, therefor
18 mV/2 =9 mV.
 Counting down 9 mV from 2 mV (or 9 mV up from -16 mV)
results in an average or dc level of -7 mV, as noted by the
dashed line of its question’s Fig.

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 Determine the average value of the sinusoidal
waveform

 For the waveform of Fig., determine whether the average

value is positive or negative, and determine its
approximate value.

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 From the appearance of the waveform, the average value
is positive and in the vicinity of 2 mV.

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 A fixed relationship between ac and dc voltages and
currents can be derived from the experimental setup
shown in Fig.
 A resistor in a water bath is connected by switches to a dc and
an ac supply.
 If switch 1 is closed, a dc current I, determined by the resistance
R and battery voltage E, will be established through the resistor
R.
 The temperature reached by the water is determined by the dc
power dissipated in the form of heat by the resistor.

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 If switch 2 is closed and switch 1 left open, the ac current
through the resistor will have a peak value of Im.
 The temperature reached by the water is now determined by
the ac power dissipated in the form of heat by the resistor.
 The ac input is varied until the temperature is the same as that
reached with the dc input.
 When this is accomplished, the average electrical power
delivered to the resistor R by the ac source is the same as that
delivered by the dc source.
 The power delivered by the ac supply at any instant of time is

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 The average power delivered by the ac source is just the first
term, since the average value of a cosine wave is zero even
though the wave may have twice the frequency of the original
input current waveform.
 Equating the average power delivered by the ac generator to
that delivered by the dc source,

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 the equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is
0.707 of its maximum value.
 The equivalent dc value is called the effective value of the
sinusoidal quantity.

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 Find the rms values of the sinusoidal waveform in
each part of Fig.

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 For part (a),Irms=0.707(12*10^-3A)=8.484 mA.
 Note that frequency did not change the effective value in (b)
above compared to (a).
 For part (b), again Irms=8.484 mA.
 For part (c), Vrms=0.707(169.73 V)=120 V,
 the same as available from a home outlet.

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 The 120-V dc source of Fig.(a) delivers 3.6 W to the
load. Determine the peak value of the applied voltage
(Em) and the current (Im) if the ac source [Fig.(b)] is to
deliver the same power to the load.

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 Find the effective or rms value of the waveform of Fig.

 Calculate the rms value of the voltage of Fig.

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 Determine the average and rms values of the square
wave of Fig.

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 Find the actual vrms of the following

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◦ The d’Arsonval movement employed in dc meters can
also be used to measure sinusoidal voltages and
currents if the bridge rectifier of Fig. is placed
between the signal to be measured and the average
reading movement.
◦ The bridge rectifier, composed of four diodes
(electronic switches), will convert the input signal of
zero average value to one having an average value
sensitive to the peak value of the input signal.

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◦ Fundamentally, conduction is permitted through the
diodes in such a manner as to convert the sinusoidal
input of Fig. (a) to one having the appearance of Fig.
(b).
◦ The negative portion of the input has been effectively
“flipped over” by the bridge configuration. The
resulting waveform of Fig. (b) is called a full-wave
rectified waveform.

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◦ The zero average value of Fig. (a) has been replaced by
a pat-tern having an average value determined by

◦ The movement of the pointer will therefore be directly

related to the peak value of the signal by the factor
0.637.
◦ Forming the ratio between the rms and dc levels will
result in

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