Group Assignment

Contents
Unit One
o 1.1 Symbolic NLP (1950s – early 1990s)
o 1.2 Statistical NLP (1990s–2010s)
o 1.3 Neural NLP (present)
 1.4  Methods: Rules, statistics, neural networks
o 1.5 Statistical methods
o 1.6 Neural networks
o 1.7Common NLP tasks
o 1.8 Text and speech processing
o 1.9 Morphological analysis
o 1.10 Syntactic analysis
o 1.11 Lexical semantics (of individual words in context)
o 1.12 Relational semantics (semantics of individual sentences)
o 1.13 Discourse (semantics beyond individual sentences)
o 1.14 Higher-level NLP applications
o 1.15 General tendencies and (possible) future directions
o 1.16 Cognition and NLP
o Unit 2
o
o 2. Bitcoin’s origin ,early growth ,and evolution
o 2bitcoin used for?
o 2Bitcoin basic features
o 2Bitcoin’s economics feature
o 2 Who decides what Bit coin is?
 Unit three
o Web 3.0 technology
o Web 3.0
o Key features of 3.0
o Layers of web3.0
o How does web 3.0 work
o How will web 3.0 change our lives
o Key Application of Web 3.0
o Advantage and disadvantage of web3.0
 Group Assignment
Unit one(1) Natural
processing Language

What is natural language processing?

▪ Natural language processing (NLP) refers to the branch of computer science and more specifically,
the branch of artificial intelligence concerned with giving computers the ability to understand text and
spoken words in much the same way human beings can.
▪ Natural language processing strives to build machines that understand and respond to text or voice
data and respond with text or speech of their own.
• NLP combines computational linguistics, rule-based modeling of human language, machine learning
and deep learning models. Together, these technologies enable computers to process human
language in the form of text or voice data and to ‘understand’ its full meaning, complete with the
speaker or writer’s intent and sentiment. In fact, a typical interaction between humans and machines
using Natural
Language Processing could go as follows:
1.A human talks to the machine 2.The machine captures the audio
3.Audio to text conversion takes place 4.Processing of the text’s data
5.Data to audio conversion takes place
6.The machine responds to the human by playing audiofile
Why is NLP
difficult?
• Natural Language processing is considered a difficult problem in computer science. It’s the nature of
the human language that makes
NLP difficult.
• The rules that dictate the passing of information using natural languages are not easy for computers
to understand.
• Some of these rules can be high-leveled and abstract;
for example,when someone uses a sarcastic remark to pass information.
• On the other hand, some of these rules can be low-levelled; for example, using the character “s” to
signify the plurality of items.
• Comprehensively understanding the human language requires understanding both the words and
how the concepts are connected to deliver the intended message.
• While humans can easily master a language, the ambiguity and imprecise characteristics of the
natural languages are what make NLP difficult for machines to implement.
NLP tasks (How does it Works)
▪ NLP entails applying algorithms to identify and extract the natural language rules such that the
 Group Assignment
unstructured language data is converted into a form that computers can understand. When the text
has been provided, the computer will utilize algorithms to extract meaning associated with every
sentence and collect the essential data from them.

What are the techniques used in NLP?

Syntactic analysis and semantic analysis are the main techniques used to complete Natural Language
Processing tasks.
1. Syntactic analysis
• Syntax refers to the arrangement of words in a sentence such that they make grammatical sense.
• In NLP is used to assess how the natural language aligns with the grammatical rules.
•Computer algorithms are used to apply grammatical rules to a group of words and derive meaning
from them. Here are some syntax techniques that can be used:
•Stemming: It involves cutting the inflected words to their root form.
•Morphological segmentation: It involves dividing words into individual units called morphemes.
• Word segmentation: It involves dividing a large piece of continuous text into distinct units.
• Part-of-speech tagging: also called grammatical tagging, is the process of determining the part of
speech of a particular word or piece of text based on its use and context.
For example: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition,conjunction..
• Parsing: the process of determining the syntactic structure of a text by analyzing its constituent
words based on an underlying grammar of the language.
• Sentence breaking: It involves placing sentence boundaries on a large piece of text.
2. Semantic analysis
• Semantics refers to the meaning that is conveyed by a text. Semantic analysis is one of the difficult
aspects of Natural Language Processing that has not been fully resolved yet.
• It involves applying computer algorithms to understand the meaning and interpretation of words
and how sentences arestructured.
Here are some techniques in semantic analysis: •Named entity recognition (NER): It involves
determining the parts of a text that can be identified and categorized into preset groups.
Examples of such groups include names of people and names of places.
• Word sense disambiguation is the selection of the meaning of a word with multiple meanings
through a process of semantic analysis that determine the word that makes the most sense in the
given context.
• Speech recognition, also called speech-to-text, is the task of reliably converting voice data into text
data. Speech recognition is required for any application that follows voice commands or answers
spoken questions. What makes speech recognition especially challenging is the way people talk
quickly, slurring words together, with varying emphasis and intonation, in different accents, and often
using incorrect grammar .
• Natural language generation is sometimes described as the opposite of speech recognition or
speech-to-text; it's the task of putting structured information into human language.
 Group Assignment
• Sentiment analysis attempts to extract subjective qualities, attitudes,emotions, sarcasm, confusion,
suspicion from text.
• Co-reference resolution is the task of identifying if and when two wordsrefer to the same entity .
The most common example is determining the person or object to which a certain pronoun refers
(e.g., ‘she’ = ‘Mary’), but it can also involve identifying Anaphor or an idiom in the text.

Ambiguity
• We say some input is ambiguous if there are multiple alternative linguistic structures that can be
built for it. Example: - I made her duck.
• Possible interpretations:
1. I cooked waterfowl for her
2. I cooked waterfowl belonging to her
3. I created (plaster?) duck she owns.
4. I caused her to quickly lower her head or body.
5. I waived my magic want and turned her into undifferentiated waterfowl.
Disambiguation
• The models and algorithms as ways to resolve ordisambiguate these ambiguities.
• For example:
deciding whether duck is a verb or a noun can be solved by part-of-speech tagging. deciding whether
make means “create” or “cook” can be solved by word sense disambiguation.
• Resolution of part-of-speech and word sense ambiguities are two important kinds of lexical
disambiguation. A wide variety of tasks can be framed as lexical disambiguation problems. For
example,
• A text-to-speech synthesis system reading the word lead needs to decide whether it should be
pronounced as in lead pipe or as in lead me on.

Some NLP applications

• Spelling and grammar checking • Optical character recognition (OCR)

• Screen readers Machine aided translation
• Information retrieval • Document classification
• Document clustering • Information extraction
• Augmentative and alternative communication • Question answering
• Summarization • Text segmentation
• Exam marking • Report generation •
Machine translation • Email understanding •
Dialogue systems
 Group Assignment

Unit 2
Blockchain and BitCoin Technology
What is Blockchain?
Blockchain defined
Blockchain is defined as a ledger of decentralized data that is securely shared. Blockchain
technology enables a collective group of select participants to share data. With blockchain cloud
services, transactional data from multiple sources can be easily collected, integrated, and shared.
Data is broken up into shared blocks that are chained together with unique identifiers in the form
of cryptographic hashes.

Blockchain provides data integrity with a single source of truth, eliminating data duplication and
increasing security.

In a blockchain system, fraud and data tampering are prevented because data can’t be altered
without the permission of a quorum of the parties. A blockchain ledger can be shared, but not
altered. If someone tries to alter data, all participants will be alerted and will know who make the
attempt.

How does blockchain technology work?

Think of a blockchain as a historical record of transactions. Each block is “chained” to the
previous block in a sequence, and is immutably recorded across a peer-to-peer network.
Cryptographic trust and assurance technology applies a unique identifier—or digital fingerprint
—to each transaction.

Trust, accountability, transparency, and security are forged into the chain. This enables many
types of organizations and trading partners to access and share data, a phenomenon known as
third-party, consensus-based trust.

All participants maintain an encrypted record of every transaction within a decentralized, highly
scalable, and resilient recording mechanism that cannot be repudiated. Blockchain does not
 Group Assignment
require any additional overhead or intermediaries. Having a decentralized, single source of truth
reduces the cost of executing trusted business interactions among parties that may not fully trust
each other. In a permissioned blockchain, used by most enterprises, participants are authorized to
participate in the network, and each participant maintains an encrypted record of every
transaction.

Any company or group of companies that needs a secure, real-time, shareable record of
transactions can benefit from this unique technology. There is no single location where
everything is stored, leading to better security and availability, with no central point of
vulnerability.

To learn more about blockchain, its underlying technology, and use cases, here are some
important definitions.

 Decentralized trust:
The key reason that organizations use blockchain technology, instead of other data stores, is
to provide a guarantee of data integrity without relying on a central authority. This is called
decentralized trust through reliable data.

 Blockchain blocks:
The name blockchain comes from the fact that the data is stored in blocks, and each block is
connected to the previous block, making up a chainlike structure. With blockchain
technology, you can only add (append) new blocks to a blockchain. You can’t modify or
delete any block after it gets added to the blockchain.

 Consensus algorithms:
Algorithms that enforce the rules within a blockchain system. Once the participating parties
set up rules for the blockchain, the consensus algorithm ensures that those rules are
followed.

 Blockchain nodes:
Blockchain blocks of data are stored on nodes—the storage units that keep the data in sync
or up to date. Any node can quickly determine if any block has changed since it was added.
When a new, full node joins the blockchain network, it downloads a copy of all the blocks
currently on the chain. After the new node synchronizes with the other nodes and has the
latest blockchain version, it can receive any new blocks, just like other nodes.

There are two main types of blockchain nodes:

 Full nodes store a complete copy of the blockchain.

 Group Assignment
 Lightweight nodes only store the most recent blocks, and can request older blocks when
users need them.

Three types of blockchain

 Public blockchain.
A public, or permission-less, blockchain network is one where anyone can participate
without restrictions. Most types of cryptocurrencies run on a public blockchain that is
governed by rules or consensus algorithms.

Permissioned or private blockchain.

A private, or permissioned, blockchain allows organizations to set controls on who can access
blockchain data. Only users who are granted permissions can access specific sets of data.
Oracle Blockchain Platform is a permissioned blockchain.

 Federated or consortium blockchain.

A blockchain network where the consensus process (mining process) is closely controlled by
a preselected set of nodes or by a preselected number of stakeholders.

Benefits of blockchain—The business value

The use of blockchain technology is expected to significantly increase over the next few years.
This game-changing technology is considered both innovative and disruptive because blockchain
will change existing business processes with streamlined efficiency, reliability, and security.

Blockchain technology delivers specific business benefits that help companies in the following
ways:

 Establishes trust among parties doing business together by offering reliable, shared data
 Eliminates siloed data by integrating data into one system through a distributed ledger
shared within a network that permissioned parties can access
 Offers a high level of security for data
 Reduces the need for third-party intermediaries
 Creates real-time, tamper-evident records that can be shared among all participants
 Group Assignment
 Allows participants to ensure the authenticity and integrity of products placed into the
stream of commerce
 Enables seamless tracking and tracing of goods and services across the supply chain
 Provides food safety with Oracle Blockchain Platform

Blockchain IoT partnerships

Blockchain is no longer an emerging technology. In fact, blockchain has continued to progress
solutions and address business needs with other technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI),
the Internet of Things (IoT), and machine learning. These key technology partnerships help users
achieve important insights from data.
In an IoT deployment, traditional IT systems are not built to handle the massive amount of data
that is generated. The volume, velocity, and variety of data produced by IoT networks could
overwhelm enterprise systems or severely limit the ability to trigger timely decisions against
trusted data. Blockchain’s distributed ledger technology has the potential to address
thesescalability challenges with improved security and transparency
What is Bitcoin?
Bitcoin is the first and most widely recognizedcryptocurrency. It enables peer-
to-peer exchange of value in the digital realm through the use of a
decentralized protocol, cryptography, and a mechanism to achieve global
consensus on the state of a periodically updated public transaction ledger
called a 'blockchain.'
 Group Assignment

Practically speaking, Bitcoin is a form of digital money that (1) exists

independently of any government, state, or financial institution, (2) can be
transferred globally without the need for a centralized intermediary, and (3)
has a known monetary policy that arguably cannot be altered.
At a deeper level, Bitcoin can be described as a political, philosophical, and
economic system. This is thanks to the combination of the technical features it
integrates, the wide array of participants and stakeholders it involves, and the
process for making changes to the protocol.
Bitcoin can refer to the Bitcoin software protocol as well as to the monetary
unit, which goes by the ticker symbol BTC.
Launched anonymously in January 2009 to a niche group of technologists,
 Group Assignment

Bitcoin is now a globally traded financial asset with daily settled volume
measured in the tens of billions of dollars. Although its regulatory status varies
by region and continues to evolve, Bitcoin is most commonly regulated as
either a currency or a commodity, and is legal to use (with varying levels of
restrictions) in all major economies. In June 2021, El Salvador became the first
country to mandate Bitcoin as legal tender.

Bitcoin's origin, early growth, and evolution

Bitcoin is based on the ideas laid out in a 2008 whitepaper titled Bitcoin: A
Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System.
The paper detailed methods for "allowing any two willing parties to transact
directly with each other without the need for a trusted third party." The
technologies deployed solved the 'double spend' problem, enabling scarcity in
the digital environment for the first time.
The listed author of the paper is Satoshi Nakamoto, a presumed pseudonym
for a person or group whose true identity remains a mystery. Nakamoto
released the first open-source Bitcoin software client on January 9th, 2009,
and anyone who installed the client could begin using Bitcoin.
Initial growth of the Bitcoin network was driven primarily by its utility as a
novel method for transacting value in the digital world. Early proponents were,
by and large, 'cypherpunks' - individuals who advocated the use of strong
cryptography and privacy-enhancing technologies as a route to social and
political change. However, speculation as to the future value of Bitcoin soon
became a significant driver of adoption.
The price of bitcoin and the number of Bitcoin users rose in waves over the
following decade. As regulators in major economies provided clarity on the
legality of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies, a large number of Bitcoin
 Group Assignment

exchanges established banking connections, making it easy to convert local

currency to and from bitcoin. Other businesses established robust custodial
services, making it easier for institutional investors to gain exposure to the
asset as a growing number of high-profile investors signaled their interest.

What is Bitcoin used for?

At its most basic level, Bitcoin is useful for transacting value outside of the
traditional financial system. People use Bitcoin to, for example, make
international payments that are settled faster, more securely, and at lower
transactional fees than through legacy settlement methods such as the SWIFT
or ACH networks.
In the early years, when network adoption was sparse, Bitcoin could be used
to settle even small-value transactions, and do so competitively with payment
networks like Visa and Mastercard (which, in fact, settle transactions long after
point of sale). However, as Bitcoin became more widely used, scaling issues
made it less competitive as a medium of exchange for small-value items. In
short, it became prohibitively expensive to settle small-value transactions due
to limited throughput on the ledger and the lack of availability of second-layer
solutions. This supported the narrative that Bitcoin's primary value is less as a
payment network and more as an alternative to gold, or 'digital gold.' Here,
the argument is that Bitcoin derives value from a combination of the
technological breakthroughs it integrates, its capped supply with 'built-into-
the-code' monetary policy, and its powerful network effects. In this regard, the
investment thesis is that Bitcoin could replace gold and potentially become a
form of 'pristine collateral' for the global economy.
Another popular narrative is that Bitcoin supports economic freedom. It is said
to do this by providing, on an opt-in basis, an alternative form of money that
 Group Assignment

integrates strong protection against (1) monetary confiscation, (2) censorship,

and (3) devaluation through uncapped inflation. Note that this narrative is not
mutually exclusive from the 'digital gold' narrative.

Bitcoin’s basic features

 Decentralized: Nobody controls or owns the Bitcoin network, and there is no
CEO. Instead, the network consists of willing participants who agree to the
rules of a protocol (which takes the form of an open-source software client).
Changes to the protocol must be made by the consensus of its users and
there is a wide array of contributing voices including 'nodes,' end users,
developers, 'miners,' and adjacent industry participants like exchanges, wallet
providers, and custodians. This makes Bitcoin a quasi-political system. Of the
thousands of cryptocurrencies in existence, Bitcoin is arguably the most
decentralized, an attribute that is considered to strengthen its position as
pristine collateral for the global economy.

 Distributed: All Bitcoin transactions are recorded on a public ledger that has
come to be known as the 'blockchain.' The network relies on people voluntarily
storing copies of the ledger and running the Bitcoin protocol software. These
'nodes' contribute to the correct propagation of transactions across the
network by following the rules of the protocol as defined by the software
client. There are currently more than 80,000 nodes distributed globally, making
it next to impossible for the network to suffer downtime or lost information.

 Transparent: The addition of new transactions to the blockchain ledger and

the state of the Bitcoin network at any given time (in other words, the 'truth' of
 Group Assignment

who owns how much bitcoin) is arrived upon by consensus and in a

transparent manner according to the rules of the protocol.

 Peer-to-peer: Although nodes store and propagate the state of the network
(the 'truth'), payments effectively go directly from one person or business to
another. This means there’s no need for any ‘trusted third party’ to act as an
intermediary.

 Permissionless: Anyone can use Bitcoin, there are no gatekeepers, and there is
no need to create a 'Bitcoin account.' Any and all transactions that follow the
rules of the protocol will be confirmed by the network along the defined
consensus mechanisms.

 Pseudo-anonymous. Identity information isn't inherently tied to Bitcoin

transactions. Instead, transactions are tied to addresses that take the form of
randomly generated alphanumeric strings.

 Censorship resistant: Since all Bitcoin transactions that follow the rules of the
protocol are valid, since transactions are pseudo-anonymous, and since users
themselves possess the 'key' to their bitcoin holdings, it is difficult for
authorities to ban individuals from using it or to seize their assets. This carries
important implications for economic freedom, and may even act as a
counteracting force to authoritarianism globally.

 Public: All Bitcoin transactions are recorded and publicly available for anyone to
see. While this virtually eliminates the possibility of fraudulent transactions, it also
makes it possible to, in some cases, tie by deduction individual identities to
specific Bitcoin addresses. A number of efforts to enhance Bitcoin's privacy are
underway, but their integration into the protocol is ultimately subject to Bitcoin's
quasi-political governance process.
 Group Assignment

Bitcoin's economic features

Fixed supply: One of the key parameters in the Bitcoin protocol is that the supply
will expand over time to a final tally of 21 million coins. This fixed and known total
supply, it is argued, makes Bitcoin a 'hard asset,' one of several characteristics that
has contributed to its perceived value from an investment perspective.

 Disinflationary: The rate that new bitcoins are added to the circulating supply
gradually decreases along a defined schedule that is built into the code.
Starting at 50 bitcoins per block (a new block is added approximately every 10
minutes), the issuance rate is cut in half approximately every four years. In May
2020, the third halving reduced the issuance rate from 12.5 to 6.25 bitcoins per
block. At that point 18,375,000 of the 21 million coins (87.5% of the total) had
been 'mined.' The fourth halving, in 2024, will reduce the issuance to 3.125
BTC, and so on until approximately the year 2136, when the final halving will
decrease the block reward to just 0.00000168 BTC.

 Incentive driven: A core set of participants, known as miners, are driven by

profit to contribute the resources needed to maintain and secure the network.
Through a process known as Proof-of-Work (PoW), miners compete to add
new blocks to the chain that constitutes the ledger (the blockchain). The
hardware and energy costs associated with PoW mining contribute to the
security of the network in a decentralized fashion along game-theory driven
principles. The profit motive is considered important in this regard. Further,
since miners tend to sell their earned bitcoin to cover their significant mining-
related costs, the mining process is seen as a fair mechanism for widely
distributing bitcoin.

Who decides what Bitcoin is?

 Group Assignment

Bitcoin is not a static protocol. It can and has integrated changes throughout
its lifetime, and it will continue to evolve. While there are a number of
formalized procedures for upgrading Bitcoin (see "How does Bitcoin
governance work?"), governance of the protocol is ultimately based on
deliberation, persuasion, and volition. In other words, people decide what
Bitcoin is.
In several instances, there have been significant disagreements amongst the
community as to the direction that Bitcoin should take. When such
disagreements cannot be resolved through deliberation and persuasion, a
portion of users may - of their own volition - choose to acknowledge a
different version of Bitcoin.
The alternative version of Bitcoin with the greatest number of adherents has
come to be known as Bitcoin Cash (BCH). It arose out of a proposal aiming to
solve scaling problems that had resulted in rising transaction costs and
increasing transaction confirmation times. This version of Bitcoin began on
August 1st, 2017.

Unit 3
 Group Assignment

What Is Web 3.0 Technology?

It is anticipated that Web 3.0 will be:-

Open - Open-source software will be used to build content platforms.

Trustless - Everyone will use Zero Trust, and network protection will reach
the edge.

Distributed - Interaction between devices, users, and services will be possible

without a centralized authority's approval.

The following are further Web 3 forecasts:

All transactions will be tracked on a distributed ledger that uses blockchain

technology, and data transfers will be decentralized.

Smart contracts that are open to everyone will relieve people of the need to
rely on a centralized organization (like a bank) to maintain data integrity.

The entertainment sector will significantly increase its revenue from the
metaverse.

Blockchain technology will make it possible for consumers to instantly

produce digital goods and non-fungible tokens (NFTs), which will protect
intellectual property and personally identifiable information (PII).

Users' data will be able to be profited from.

 Group Assignment

What Is Web 3.0?

Tim Berners-Lee, a developer who created the WWW or World Wide Web,
originally referred to Web 3.0 as the Semantic Web and saw an intelligent,
self-sufficient, and open Internet that employed AI and machine learning to
function as a "global brain" and interpret content conceptually and
contextually.

Due to technological constraints, such as how expensive and challenging it is

to translate human language into machine understandable language, this
idealized version didn't quite work out.

Following is a list of typical Web 3.0 traits:

The semantic web is a development in online technology that enables people to

produce, share, and connect material through search and analysis. Instead of
using numbers and keywords, it is centered on word understanding.

It uses machine learning and artificial intelligence. The final result is the
formation of Web 3.0 to grow smarter and more receptive to user demands. If
these ideas are paired with Natural Language Processing (NLP), the result is a
computer that uses NLP.

It illustrates how the Internet of Things connects various devices and

applications (IoT). This procedure is made possible by semantic metadata,
allowing for the efficient exploitation of all available data. In addition, anyone
can access the internet from anywhere at any time without a computer or
other smart device.

It gives users a choice to interact in public or in private without exposing them

to dangers through a third party, providing "trustless" data.

3-D graphics are used. In fact, this is already evident in e-commerce, virtual
tours, and computer gaming.

It makes participation easier without requiring consent from a ruling entity.

It's without authorization.

It is applicable to: 
 Group Assignment
Metaverses: A limitless, virtual environment that is 3D-rendered

Blockchain video games adhere to the NFTs' ideals by enabling users to

possess actual ownership of in-game resources.

Digital infrastructure and privacy: Zero-knowledge proofs and more secure

personal data are used in this application.

Financial decentralization. Peer-to-peer digital financial transactions, smart

contracts, and cryptocurrencies are examples of this use.

Autonomous decentralized organizations. Online communities are owned by

the community.

Key Features of Web 3.0

Although Web 3.0 has not yet been given a formal definition, it does have
several distinguishing characteristics: -

Decentralization: A fundamental principle of Web 3.0. In Web 2.0, computers

search for data that is kept at a fixed location, typically on a single server,
using HTTP in the form of distinct web addresses. Information might be
stored simultaneously in numerous locations and become decentralized with
Web 3.0 since it would be found based on its content rather than a single
location. This would give individuals more power by dismantling the
enormous databases that internet goliaths like Meta and Google presently
maintain.

With Web 3.0, users will be able to sell their own data through decentralized
data networks, ensuring that they maintain ownership control. This data will
be produced by various powerful computing resources, such as mobile phones,
desktop computers, appliances, automobiles, and sensors.

Decentralization and open source software-based Web 3.0 will also be trustless
(i.e., participants will be able to interact directly without going via a trusted
intermediary) and permissionless (meaning that each individual can access
without any governing body's permission). This means that Web 3.0
applications—also known as dApps—will operate on blockchains,
 Group Assignment
decentralized peer-to-peer networks, or a hybrid of the two —such
decentralized apps are referred to as dApps.

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning: With the help of the
Semantic Web and natural language processing-based technologies, Web 3.0
will enable machines to comprehend information similarly to humans. Web
3.0 will also make use of machine learning, a subset of artificial intelligence
(AI) that mimics human learning by using data and algorithms, gradually
improving its accuracy. Instead of just targeted advertising, which makes up
the majority of present efforts, these capabilities will result in faster and more
relevant outcomes in a variety of fields like medical development and new
materials.

Connectivity and ubiquity: With Web 3.0, content and information are more
accessible across applications and with a growing number of commonplace
devices connected to the internet. The Internet of Things is one such example

Layers of Web 3.0

Web 3.0 is propelled by four new layers of technological innovation:

Edge Computing - While web 2.0 changed currently commoditized personal

computer technology in data centers, web 3.0 pushes the data center out to the
edge (i.e. edge computing) and into our hands.

Decentralized Data Network - Users will own their data on web 3.0 since data
is decentralized. Different data generators can sell or share their data without
losing ownership or relying on intermediaries using decentralized data
networks.  

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning - Artificial intelligence and

machine learning algorithms have advanced to the level that they can now
make useful and occasionally life-saving predictions and acts.  

Blockchain - Blockchain is a decentralized technology that uses smart

contracts to execute transactions. These smart contracts define the semantics
of a web 3.0 application. As a result, everyone who wants to develop a
blockchain application must use the shared state machine.
 Group Assignment

How Does Web 3.0 Work?

Your information is stored on your cryptocurrency notecase in web3. On
web3, you'll interact with apps and communities through your wallet, and
when you log off, you'll take your data with you. Since you are the owner of
the data, you may theoretically choose whether to monetize it.

With our guiding principles established, we can start looking at how certain
web3 development features are meant to accomplish these objectives.

Data ownership: When you use a platform like Facebook or YouTube, these
businesses gather, own, and recoup your data. Your data is stored on your
cryptocurrency wallet in web3. On web3, you'll interact with apps and
communities through your wallet, and when you log off, you'll take your data
with you. Since you are the owner of the data, you may theoretically choose
whether to monetize it.

Pseudonymity: Privacy is a feature of your wallet, just as data ownership.

Your wallet serves as your identification on web3, which makes it difficult to
connect it to your actual identity. Therefore, even if someone can observe the
activity of a wallet, they won't be able to identify your wallet. "My personal
information is hidden, but my behavior is visible." It was quoted by Neuroth.

There are services that help customers connect to their cryptocurrency wallets
used for illegal behavior. However, your identity is concealed for daily use.

Although wallets increase the level of privacy for bitcoin transactions, privacy
coins like Zcash and Monero give transactions total anonymity. Blockchains
for privacy coins allow observers to track transactions, but they are unable to
view the wallets involved.

Web3 will feature decentralized autonomous entities running apps (DAOs). As

a result, decisions are no longer made by a centralized authority but rather by
users who own governance tokens, which may be acquired by taking part in
the maintenance of these decentralized programmes or by purchasing them.

In a typical corporation, the CEO is responsible for implementing changes

approved by the shareholders. Token holders in a DAO can vote on
modifications that, if approved, are immediately incorporated into the DAO's
 Group Assignment
code via a smart contract. Everyone gets access to the source code of a DAO
since they are democratized.

How Will Web 3.0 Change Our Lives?

Due to its decentralized nature, which is made possible by distributed ledger
technology and smart contracts, Web 3.0 is intended to produce sustainable
results. It also lowers costs by doing away with middlemen, manual mediation,
and arbitration.

For everybody, Web 3.0 offers a much more individualized surfing experience.
Websites will be able to automatically adjust to our device, location, and any
accessibility needs we may have, and web apps will become far more receptive
to our usage patterns.

We believe that the emergence of Web 3.0 will improve our lives for the
following three reasons, which we believe are fairly appropriate:

1. A More Customized Browsing Process

There is no denying the ease of being able to quickly click through to a
particular offer for something you actually need or desire and that you would
have missed otherwise, regardless of how intrusive those advertisements may
occasionally feel.

2. Improved search
As was already mentioned, using a search engine in natural language is highly
effective. The benefits go far beyond the consumer as the learning curve
virtually disappears, and businesses are increasingly able to optimize their
websites for search engines in a more organic way as opposed to using
complicated keyword techniques.

3. More Advanced App Interfaces

The multidimensional Web 3.0 will help more than just websites; it will also
enable web apps to provide users with far richer experiences. Consider a
 Group Assignment
mapping service like Google, which can now include route planning, lodging
suggestions, and real-time traffic updates in addition to the fundamentals of
location search. Simply put, in the Web 2.0 age, this was not feasible.

Key Applications of Web 3.0

With blockchain at its core, Web 3.0 makes it possible for an expanding range
of new apps and services, such as the following:

NFT: Non-fungible Tokens (NFTs) are tokens that are individually unique and
are kept in a blockchain with a cryptographic hash.

DeFi: Decentralized blockchain technology is being utilized as the foundation

for decentralized finance (DeFi), a new use case for Web 3.0 that allows for the
provision of financial services beyond the constraints of conventional
centralized banking infrastructure.

Cryptocurrency: A new universe of money that strives to be distinct from the

traditional world of fiat cash is being created through Web 3.0 apps like
cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin.

dApp: Decentralized applications (dApps) are programmes that run

programmatically and are logged in an immutable ledger. They are built on
top of the blockchain and use smart contracts to facilitate service delivery.

Chain-crossing bridges: In the Web 3.0 age, there are numerous blockchains,
and cross-chain bridges provide some kind of connectivity between them.

DAOs: DAOs are poised to potentially take on the role of Web 3.0's governing
bodies, offering some structure and decentralized governance.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Web

3.0Advantages -
In terms of data security, end-users will benefit the most from data
encryption.
 Group Assignment
Due to decentralized data storage, users will be able to access data in any
situation. Users will receive multiple backups that will aid them if the server
crashes.
Most blockchain systems are developed by non-profits, which provides an open-source blockchain
platform that allows for collaborative design and development.

The data will be provided from any location and on any device.

Web 3.0 is useful for problem-solving and heavy knowledge-generation tasks.

Disadvantages - 
To make the technology accessible to more people worldwide, the devices'
capabilities and qualities will need to be expanded.

Any websites built on web 1.0 technology will become obsolete once web 3.0 is
fully implemented on the Internet.

Web 3.0 technology is more intelligent, efficient, and accessible than in

previous generations. However, the technology isn't quite ready for general
use.

With easier access to a user's information and reduced privacy thanks to web
3.0, reputation management will be more important than ever.

Blockchain Certification Training Course

Gain expertise in core Blockchain conceptsVIEW COURSE

Agumented reality
Augmented Reality Interfaces Mona Singh and Munindar P. Singh Abstract A confluence of
technological advances (in handheld and wearable sensing, computing and communications),
exploding amounts of information, and user receptiveness is fueling the rapid expansion of
augmented reality from a novelty concept to potentially the default interface modality in
coming years. This article provides a brief overview of AR from the perspective of its
application in natural web interfaces, including a discussion of the key concepts involved and
the technical and social challenges that remain. What is Augmented Reality? Augmented
Reality (AR) user interfaces have grown tremendously in the last few years. What is drawing
great interest to AR is not only the fact that AR involves novel or “cool” technologies, but that it
promises to help users overcome the information overload brought upon them by the Web. AR
helps present information in a succinct manner: the information comes to the user in its
 Group Assignment
“natural” home—where the user can easily benefit from and act on it. We propose the following
definition of augmented reality: AR presents a view of the real, physical world that incorporates
additional information that serves to augment the view. Of course, all views of the world are
just that—views. An implicit intuition is that the first view is somehow direct or canonical in
that it can be treated as reality itself and further augmented with additional information. The
augmented “information” is information in the broadest sense and could include nonsense or
false information and express any data type (text, image, video, and so on). A baseline example
of AR according to the above definition would be a bird’s eye view or satellite picture of a city
(the “reality”) overlaid with street and building names (the “augmentation”). AR is most
naturally associated with settings where the aspect of reality considered is proximal to the user
and is current; the augmenting information can likewise be proximal and current, or not,
depending on the specific setting. Moreover, the most common settings involve visual
representation (whether still images or videos), although in principle one might augment any
interface modality. For example, an app may play audio signals from the environment along
with commentary on the relevant sounds (such as bird calls for ornithologists or various safety
warning chimes for training building occupants). 2 Examples and Nonexamples of Augmented
Reality We confine our attention to the uses of AR in providing natural web interfaces, and
especially to phone-based AR, which is becoming widely available. Here are some example AR
apps:  Navigation. The directions a user is taking are highlighted, e.g., stating whether a turn is
coming up. In vehicular displays, the appropriate highway lane or next turn may be identified.
Figure 1 shows a screenshot of an Android AR navigation app
(https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.w.argps). Figure 1: Screenshot from the AR
GPS Drive/Walk Navigation app.  Commerce. A common theme is presenting advertisements
according to the user’s location or, more specifically, regarding any object recognized in a
camera view. The figures below show how the Blippar app (http://blippar.com/) progresses,
beginning from the user pointing a phone camera at a grocery item. First, it recognizes the real-
world object (bottle). Next, it places an interactive object (recipe book) as an augmentation. 3
Figure 2: Blippar: identifying a product. Figure 3: Blippar: augmenting a product with an
interactive recipe book.  Captioning. Generalizing from Blippar, a user would point a phone
camera at a scene. The phone would display a real-time image of the scene augmented with
metadata associated with scene or its salient parts. For example, a user may point a camera at a
remote mountain peak and see its name, height, and current weather. Or, the app may identify
landmarks in a city, or provide category descriptions (e.g., “restaurant” or “museum”) of
various buildings. Additional examples involve presenting art, education, gaming, and fashion.
An example in fashion is showing how the user would appear when wearing specified apparel.
Although our definition of AR is broad, it excludes certain applications even though they may
sometimes be described as AR.  Immersive virtual reality (IVR). AR exposes the real world to
a user though with virtual information embedded in it whereas IVR places a user in a virtual
world (http://www.kinecthacks.com/augmented-reality-telepresence-via-kinect/).  Photo
editing. An example is Mattel’s “digital mirror” (http://mashable.com/2013/02/11/barbie-
makeup-mirror/) wherein a user can edit a picture of herself with lipstick or glitter. Another is
the Snaps iPhone app (https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/snaps!/id600868427?mt=8). There is no
augmentation of reality in these cases. Were the edited pictures used in place of the original
faces in a real scene, we could consider such editing as a form of authoring for an AR app. 4 
Augmented media. An example is the Guinness Book of World Records providing 3D
animations of some world records
(http://www.appsplayground.com/apps/2012/09/03/augmented-reality-sharks-star-inguinness-
world-records-2013-app/). The distinction between augmented reality and augmented media
falls along a continuum. One would imagine pure AR as the augmentation of “natural” reality.
 Group Assignment
However, all too often AR would work only when the reality has been suitably prepped. An
example is the Amazon app. Here the user takes a picture of the barcode of a product of
interest. The app finds the product on Amazon and presents a user interface for immediate
purchase. The app relies upon a media object—a barcode—that would be embedded in the
product without regard to AR. Going further, one may affix QR codes on physical artifacts
specifically for AR (http://www.npr.org/2013/07/29/206728515/activists-artists-fightback-
against-baltimores-slumlords), in effect, treating the reality as less natural and more symbolic.
The extreme form is, as in the Guinness example above, where the user interaction follows
purely on the media object and has no bearing on the reality except to access the media object.
Architecture for AR The figure below shows a conceptual, reference architecture of an AR app,
including its essential components and some image-related annotations as examples. (AR could
potentially apply to any sense, including audio.) A Reality Sensor (camera) observes a part of
the reality. It passes the image it obtains along with metadata such as geolocation tags to the
Trigger Matcher. The Trigger Matcher checks if its input matches the relevant app-specific
trigger, such as the geolocation being near a specific landmark or the image showing the
landmark. It produces matched metadata, such as its semantic category and outline. The
Augmentation Selector takes the matched metadata from the Trigger Matcher and retrieves
relevant information, such as the year the landmark was built. It constructs an augmenting
image, such as a text bubble or a map pin placed relative to the original image, and passes it to
the Reality Augmenter. The Reality Augmenter combines the images, potentially as simply as
overlaying a map pin on the original image, and causes the combined image to be rendered for
the user. [AR-arch.pdf] Realizing Augmented Reality Enabling Technologies The above
architecture highlights the necessary enabling technologies. First, AR needs suitable sensors in
the environment and on the user’s person, including finegrained geolocation and image
recognition in order to obtain a sufficiently accurate representation of the reality. 5 Second,
trigger matching and image augmentation require ways to understand the scene in order to
determine the relevant components and display augmentations. These include techniques such
as image processing (with face recognition an important subcategory). Third, trigger matching
and subsequent user interaction presume ways to determine the user’s attention and immediate
context, e.g., via technologies for input modalities including gaze tracking, touch, and gesture
and speech recognition. Fourth, AR presupposes a substantial information infrastructure, e.g.,
accessible via cloud services, for obtaining pertinent components of the user’s longer term
context, including intent and activities and determining what components of the real-world to
augment, with what, and when. Additionally, AR requires significant computing and
communications infrastructure undergirding the above. User Platforms The above technologies
are realized on three main types of end-user platforms, each against a backdrop of cloud
services. Mobile phones are the most prevalent of these platforms today with vehicles and
wearable computers to follow soon. Modern phones include high-quality cameras, geolocation
capabilities, numerous other sensors, and sufficient computing and communications
capabilities. A driver in vehicle has a need for accessing information of nearby and upcoming
locations. The windshield of a vehicle provides an intuitive venue for rendering augmented
information. Vehicles have practically unlimited (electric) power and can support powerful
computing and communications. Wearable computers, of which Google Glass is a well-known
example, are becoming viable. Like smart phones and vehicles, wearable computers provide
numerous sensors and close access to a user’s current environment and the user’s immediate
context and attention. Wearable sensors, including on the user’s skin, clothing, or shoes, offer
access to a user’s biometric and environmental data and can thus enable smart apps. Today’s
wearable computers are, however, are limited in power, computing, and communications.
Toward a Taxonomy of AR Apps The following are the essential ingredients of an AR app: Their
possible ranges of varieties suggest a classification of AR apps.  Trigger. The event or the
 Group Assignment
observation upon which the augmentation occurs. Typical values are location or object
recognition (which could occur at multiple levels of granularity, ranging from types of objects to
faces of specific people). 6 A type of a location trigger is matching on GPS coordinates. For
example, Nokia City Lens (http://www.1800pocketpc.com/nokia-city-lens-augmented-reality-
location-app-forlumia-devices/) provides information about places of interest nearby. It enables
a user to search for restaurants, hotels, and shops, and obtain more information about them.
Blippar (Figures 2 and 3) exemplifies object recognition. Having a phone provide relevant
information from a barcode is quite common. The Amazon Mobile app
(https://www.amazon.com/gp/anywhere/sms/android) enables users to obtain the product
description from Amazon for any UPC symbol captured in a camera. Similar apps are available
from Google Shopper and eBay’s RedLaser (https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?
id=com.ebay.redlaser). An example of face recognition is Recognizr, a now-defunct augmented
ID app (http://www.tat.se/blog/tat-augmented-id/), which identifies a person and displays their
online profile and contact details.  Interactivity. The extent to which the user can interact with
the augmented information through the app. In general, in apps where the reality is shown in a
direct view there may be occasion for the user to interact only with the augmented information,
not the reality. An example of no interactivity is road names augmented on a satellite image; an
example of medium interactivity is Blippar wherein a user can request a recipe or video by
selecting the appropriate marker. BMW Service’s app
(http://www.bmw.com/com/en/owners/service/augmented_reality_introduction_1.html) exhibits
medium interactivity: it displays servicing instructions and advances the instructions whenever
its user asks for the next step. An example of high interactivity is advertisement icons that open
up automatically to reveal discounts when approached.  User interface modalities. A user may
interact with the augmented information through gesture, gaze, speech, and touch in addition to
traditional modalities such as joysticks. Touch and speech are common these days. Google Glass
provides a speech interface.  Naturalness of view. The AR app could be triggered based on
natural reality (Recognizr) or require specific features embedded in the environment or
physical objects (Amazon). Opportunities and Prospects Modeling and applying user context
remains the key challenge of realizing high-quality user experience. AR promises a way to
present information and support user actions in ways that are sensitive to a user’s current
context. Usability Challenges AR faces the same core usability challenges as traditional
interfaces, such as the potential for overwhelming a user with too much information and
making it difficult for the user to determine a relevant action. However, AR exacerbates some of
these challenges because there may be 7 many kinds of augmentation possible at once and apps
that are to be proactive run the risk of overwhelming the user. Can the user tell the difference
between reality and the augmentation? Confusion may lead to user errors by conveying an
erroneous impression of the world. Is the augmentation aligned with reality? Maintaining
alignment is nontrivial because reality can change fast, especially in unanticipated ways. For
example, in an AR navigation app, the traffic signal may change state or an accident may occur
well before the augmented information is updated. How can a user transition between AR and
traditional apps? For example, a user searching for a product may need to move between an
AR-enabled app (to identify relevant products) and a traditional app (to search and purchase).
However, transitions across apps may be confusing if their underlying metaphors are
incompatible. How should the augmenting information be organized? For example, if a relevant
product comes in different varieties, colors, or prices, it would help to group related products in
a way that is coherent with the user’s intent. An AR app that presents all the information at
once may serve only to mislead the user. Social Challenges AR is strikingly different from
previous computing technologies both in terms of what it accomplishes and in terms of its
physical trappings. Just as for other new technologies, it might take years before people begin to
widely adopt it except in settings where there is a pressing need or a significant immediate
 Group Assignment
benefit. Because AR is useful when the augmentations are salient given the user’s context,
including attributes and prior experiences, the violation of privacy of the user or those present
nearby is a potential risk. For example, an advertisement would be most useful if it were for
something the user wanted. However, a user upon receiving such an effective advertisement
might wonder about how his or her personal information has propagated across the value
chain. Business Models From the standpoint of business models, we anticipate that AR apps
would function like traditional apps in many respects. A key difference would be in terms of
who owns, i.e., controls, the AR space. Presumably, the current app (or the entity that controls
it) would control the display. For example, instead of advertisements being displayed for
keywords as in today’s web, in AR, advertisements may be displayed for appropriate triggers,
such as particular locations or patterns. However, just that apparently technical change from
keywords to locations or patterns may lead to the emergence of new entities in the business
ecosystem, such as those who would tackle maintaining the augmented information