The Teacher and the School Curriculum Reviewer

Nature, Concepts, and Purposes of the Curriculum

Definition of Curriculum
“Curriculum“ began as a Latin word curere which means "a race" or "the course of a
race" “ to run/to proceed” or a runway on which one runs to reach a goal.

According to Ornstein and Hunkins

Curriculum can be defined as:
1. Plan for achieving goals
2. Dealing with the learner’s experiences
3. Dealing with people
4. As a field of study with its own foundations, knowledge, domains, research, theory,
principles, and specialists
5. In terms of subject matter

What is Curriculum?
Prescriptive Definition
The prescriptive definition of curriculum are those that give a provision of what “ought” to
happen, and they take a form of a plan, an intended program or some kind of expect opinion
about what needs to take place in the course of study.
Prescriptive Definitions of Curriculum
John Dewey (1902)
He defines curriculum as a continuous reconstruction, moving from the child’s present
experience out into that represented by the organized bodies of truth that we call studies—
the various studies are themselves experience—they are that of the race.
Frankin Bobbit (1918)
He defines curriculum as the entire range of experiences, both directed and undirected,
concerned in unfolding the abilities of the individual.
Harold O. Rugg (1927)
The curriculum is a succession of experiences and enterprises having a maximum life likeness
for the learner giving the learner that development most helpful in meeting and controlling
life situations.
Hollis Caswell (1935)
The curriculum is composed of all the experiences children have under the guidance of
teachers. Thus, curriculum considered as a field of study represents no strictly limited body
of content, but rather a process or procedure. (pp. 66, 70)

Ralph Tyler (1957)

He defines curriculum as all the learning experiences planned and directed by the school
attain its educational goals.
Robert Gagne (1967)
Curriculum is a sequence of content units arranged in such a way that the learning of each
unit may be accomplished as a single act, provided the capabilities described by specified
prior units (in the sequence) have already been mastered by the learner. (p. 23)
James Popham & Eva Baker (1970)
Curriculum is all planned learning outcomes for which the school is responsible. Curriculum
refers to the desired consequences of instruction.
J. L. McBrien & R. Brandt (1997)
K. [Curriculum] refers to a written plan outlining what students will be taught (a course of
study). Curriculum may refer to all the courses offered at a given school, or all the courses
offered at a school in a particular area of study.
Indiana Department of Education (2010)
Curriculum means the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials,
resources, and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives. (n. p.)

Descriptive Definition
Descriptive definitions go beyond “how things ought to be” to how things really are in the
real classroom.
Descriptive Definitions of Curriculum
Hollis Caswell & Doak Campbell (1935)
All the experiences children have under the guidance of teachers.
Thomas Hopkins (1941)
Those learning's each child selects, accepts, and incorporates into himself to act with, on, and
upon, in subsequent experiences.
W. B. Ragan (1960)
All experiences of the child for which the school accepts responsibility.
Glen Hass (1987)
He defines curriculum as the set of actual experiences and perceptions of the experiences that
each individual learner has of his/her program of education.
Daniel Tanner & Laurel Tanner (1995)
They define curriculum as the construction of knowledge and experience that enables the
learner to grow in exercising intelligent control of subsequent knowledge and experience.
D. F. Brown (2006)
He defines curriculum as all students school experiences relating to the improvement of skills
and strategies in thinking critically and creatively, solving problems, working collaboratively
with others, communicating wall, writing more affectively, reading more analytically and
conducting research to solve problems.
E. Silva (1967)
An emphasis on what students can do with knowledge, rather than what units of knowledge
they have, is the essence of 21st-century skills.

The definitions provided for prescriptive and descriptive curricula vary primarily in
their breadth and emphasis. It would seem that a useful definition of curriculum should meet
two criteria: It should reflect the general understanding of the term as used by educators, and
it should be useful to educators in making operational distinctions.

Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools

Allan Glatthorn (2000) describes seven types of curriculum operating in the schools.
Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools
Recommended Curriculum
*Most of the school curricula are recommended.
*National agency may recommend a curriculum to be implemented in the elementary or
secondary education.
Written Curriculum
Most of the written curricula are made by curriculum experts with participation of teachers.
These were pilot-tested or tried out in sample schools or population.
Taught CurriculumThese are varied activities that are implemented in order to arrive at the
objectives or purposes of the written curriculum. May vary according to the learning styles of
students and the teaching styles of.
Supported Curriculum
There must be materials which should Support or help in the implementation of a written
curriculum. It should enable each learner to achieve real and lifelong learning.
Assessed Curriculum
This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. At the duration and end
of the teaching episodes, series of evaluations are being, done by the teachers to determine
the extent of teaching or to tell if the students are
Learned Curriculum
This refers to the learning outcomes achieved by the students. Learning outcomes are
indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behaviour which can either be cognitive,
affective or psycho-motor.
Hidden curriculum
This is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned but may modify
behaviour or influence learning outcomes.

Philosophical Foundations
“Knowledge is habitually defined as a belief that is true and justified.”– Plato the philosopher
Philosophical study assists us in dealing with our individual systems of convictions and
values, i.e. how we perceive and define the world around us

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

Specific principles deriving from the theory of learning include taking a variety of
subjects and problems into consideration. For this very reason, philosophy is one of the main
curriculum pillars. In this segment we will address some different educational ideologies that
impact curriculum decisions.
Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum
Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with framework for
planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in schools. It helps in answering what
schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials
and methods should be used. In decision making, philosophy provides the starting point and
will be used for the succeeding decision making.

The philosophy of a curriculum planner, implementer or evaluator reflects his or her life
experiences, common beliefs, social and economic background and education. For example,
John Dewey (1916) looks at education as a way of life" a laboratory in which philosophy
becomes concrete and is tested

Four educational philosophies and

how these relate to curriculum.
I.Idealism
II.Realism
III.Pragmatism
IV.Existentialism.

I. Idealism
The idealism doctrine suggests that
matter is an illusion and that reality
is mental. This stresses moral and
spiritual truth as the world's
primary reason and views
fundamental principles as pure, eternal and universal.
A. In other words, idealism is:
The most significant philosophy…most of the world’s religions are based on idealism.
Idealism as idea-ism. Plato—the Academy opened in 397 B.C., believed that material things
are of little consequence. The everyday world of things and objects is a shadowy copy of the
true idea which the soul carries within itself from heaven, reason is rooted in a spiritual soul.
B. Idealist philosophers:
Plato, Descartes, Kant, Spinoza, Leibniz, Hegel, Schopenhauer
Students are encouraged to stretch themselves through higher level thinking to become truth
seekers. The teacher will devote considerable time and energy to the one who goes astray
Idealism- No discipline problems, because the teacher knows the content well, likes to teach,
and knows the students. The idealist philosophy views the school as representing the
community.

II. Realism - Realistic proponents interpret the universe with respect to objects and matter.
They think human behavior is sensible when it is in accordance with nature’s laws and
governed by social laws. In applying these ideas to education, a second potential theory of
education begins to emerge. 'Realists' consider education a matter of reality rather than
speculation.
A. Realism: Objects exist regardless of how we perceive them. Focuses on the scientific
method and personal experience. The crux of realism is science—empirical, objective, and
experimental…with precise measurements.
B. Realist Philosophers:
Aristotle, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Montessori, Hobbes, Bacon, Locke
- Thomas Jefferson and Horace Mann embraced realism - Accountability in the schools is an
outgrowth of realism.

III. Pragmatism - In contrast to the traditional philosophies, i.e., idealism and Pragmatism
puts a significant emphasis on improvements, systems and uncertainty as it implies that the
meaning of a concept lies in its actual effects, as opposed to conventional ideologies, namely
idealism. Real implications are connected with the purposes of teaching and learning which
focus on practical aspects (Nash, 1995). Pragmatists say that learning takes place as the person
engages in environmental transaction. The essence of transition is central to this relationship.
In this sense, any values and ideas currently upheld would be considered timely as further
social development should refine or alter them. Therefore, to assume that the perceived
world is unchanging (idealism) and hereditary (realism) and disregard social and/or
perceptive adjustments is to the detriment of the welfare of children overall and their growth.
“Now you can see how pragmatism influenced curriculum structure.”

The curriculum should be planned according to the pragmatists, so that the student can think
critically instead of thinking. Therefore, teaching should be more exploratory than
explanatory in nature. And learning occurs in an active manner as students solve problems
that help them broaden their knowledge horizons and reconstruct their experiences in line
with the changing world.

Important facts about pragmatism:

A. Pragmatism
- evolved as a philosophical expression of the westward movement in America, followed by
scientific and technological advances, a new frontier of sorts
-Charles Peirce, William James, John Dewey
-Social reconstruction theory and progressive education also based on pragmatist philosophy
b. Theories of Education:
Experimentalism—through John Dewey’s emphasis on testing of ideas through
experimentation developed the progressive education theory. Curricula emphasize
experience and child-centered activities in which the process is stressed over any final
product.
c. George Herbert Meade: Science courses need to have an important role in schools.
Compartmentalization of curricular offerings is not desirable, because relationship of things
to each other needs to be presented. Play has an essential role. - Subject matter should relate
to students’ problems and experiences. - Education is a dialogue. - The teacher is the most
significant factor in instruction. - Broad fields of learning should be emphasized. - “The whole
is more concrete than the part.” - The research method can be used in many different classes.

IV. Existentialism
According to this theory, students should be granted the right to choose what to learn in a
variety of circumstances. This stresses that education must concentrate on the views and
emotions of the individual so that personal reactions or responses to life circumstances can be
understood. In this phase, the person is of primary concern. Since life is based on personal
meaning, the essence and existentialism of education should be decided to a large extent by
the learner. Individual students should not be pushed into predetermined study programs.
In recent years, existentialism became more popular.
Nowadays, many educators speak about focusing on the pupil, encouraging curriculum
diversity and stressing learners' personal needs and interests. Maybe here we can note the
idea behind the framework of open distance education. The autonomy of learners, which
seem to indicate existentialists, has been and continues to be the key feature of the mode of
distance learning.

Tidbits on existentialism:
A. Existentialism: Focuses on the individual, Not a logical theory, but one that can be felt
as an attitude or mood
-Awareness, anxiety, choice take on special meaning
- Revolt against the traditional philosophical stance
- A way of life which involves one’s total self in complete seriousness about the self
B. Choice:
- I make the choice. Even no choice is a choice.
- I must consider the alternatives.
- I must be aware of what the alternatives can do or lead to because I am responsible for my
choice.
- I must make the choice as though it were for all humankind.
d. Thoreau:
- “Let me forever go in search of myself; never for a moment think I have found myself; be as
a stranger to myself, never a familiar seeking acquaintance still.”

a. Perennialism.
Perennialism is the most conservative educational philosophy and is rooted in realism. It
advocates the permanency of knowledge that has stood the test of time and the values that
have moral and spiritual bases. The curriculum of the perennialist is subject centered. It
draws heavily on defined disciplines or logically organized bodies of content. It emphasizes
teaching learning of language, literature, sciences and arts. The teacher is considered as an
authority in his/her particular discipline and teaching is considered an art of imparting
information knowledge and simulating discussion.
Tidbits on perennialism:
A. Perennialism
- Based on the philosophy of realism
- Traditional and conservative, follows the beliefs of Aristotle
- Robert Maynard Hutchins, president of the University of Chicago…human nature is
rational and constant and can be predicted to do things in certain ways, therefore education
should be based unchanging, absolute, and universal truths
b. Perennialists
- Humanities are works that provide insights into the good, the true, and the beautiful
- The Great Books are works considered to be classic, should be a part of everyone’s general,
liberal, and humanistic education
- Precision is important. The universe is understood through quantitative terms.
- Three primary approaches to learning: didactic teaching of concepts, coaching of skills,
seminars using the Socratic method

B. Progressivism
Progressivism is a development over pragmatic philosophy and is in contrast to perennialist
thinking in education.
-Horace Mann and Henry Bernard of the nineteenth century contributed significantly to
progressivism through their writings.
-According to progressivism the skill and tools of learning include problem solving methods
and scientific inquiry; in addition, learning experiences should include cooperative behavior
and self-discipline, both of which are important for democratic living (Ornstein and Hunkins,
1988).
-Dewey and William Kilpatrick both referred to this role as the "the leader of group activities".
-The teacher and students planned activities together,but the teacher was to help students
locate, analyses, interpret and evaluate data to formulate their own conclusions.

Although the progressive movement in educational encompassed many different theories

and practices, it was united in its opposition to the following traditional attributes and
practices (Ornsetein and Hunkins, 1988)
- The authoritarian teacher
- Excessive dependence on text book methods
- Memorization of factual data and learning by excessive drilling
- Static aims and materials that reject the notion of a changing world
- Attempts to isolate education from individual experiences and social reality.
Although the major thrust of progressive education waned in the 1950s with the advent of
"essentialism", the philosophy has left its imprint on education and educational practices of
today. Contemporary progressivism is expressed in several movements including those for a
socially relevant curriculum i.e., a match between subjects taught and students' needs.

c. Essentialism
Essentialism with its roots in both idealism and realism, evolved mainly as a critique of
progressive thought in education. The proponents of essentialism do not totally reject
progressive methods, as they do believe that education should prepare the learner to adjust
with the changing society. Essentialism learning should consist in mastering the subject
matter that reflects currently available knowledge in various disciplines. The teacher is
considered a master of a particular subject and is to be respected as an authority because of
the knowledge and high standards he or she holds. In many ways, the ideas of essentialism
lie behind attacks on the quality of education by the media and by local pressure groups, and
also to a good extent on distance education.
Facts about Progressivism
a. Progressivism
- Followers looked to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, author of Emile who believed in natural
education without coercion
- Pestalozzi, Rousseau’s follower, believed that education should involve the entire child—
body, emotions, and intellect
- William Heard Kilpatrick—advanced cooperative learning, intrinsic rewards, liberal
classroom discipline…”project method”
b. Kilpatrick’s projects
- The creative project
- The enjoyment project
- The problem project
- The specific learning project
- Progressive educators more concerned with child’s needs and interests than with academic
subject matter

C. Reconstructionism
-A group of thinkers felt that progressivism put too much emphasis on child-centered
education that mainly served the individual child and middle class, with its play theories and
private schools.
-Reconstructionism views education as a means to reconstruct the society. The
reconstructiorlists believe that as the school college is attended by virtually all the youth, it
must be used as a means to shape the attitudes and values of each generation.
-- The Reconstructionist curriculum consists of subjects which promote new social, economic
and political education.
- The subject matter is to be used as a vehicle for studying social problems, which must serve
as the focus of the curriculum.
Views of some recent Reconstructionist have been put forth by Ornstein and Hunkins,
(1988) who have given a Reconstructionist program of education which emphasize the
following:
- Critical-examination of the culture heritage of a society as well as the entire civilization;
- Scrutiny of controversial issues;
- Commitment to bring about social and constructive changes;
- Cultivation of a planning-in-advance attitude that considers the realities of the world we
live in; and
- Enhancement of culture renewal and internationalism;
-Reconstructionism expands the field of curriculum to include intuitive, personal, mystical,
political and social systems of theorizing.
-In general, the curriculum advocated by Reconstructionist, emphasizes sociology,
psychology and philosophy, and not the hard sciences.
-The thrust is on developing individual self-realization and freedom through cognitive and
intellectual activities, and thus on liberating people from the restrictions, limitation and
controls of society
The Reconstructionist, including such recent proponents as Mario Fantini, Iiarold Shane and
Alvin Toffler, seek a curriculum that emphasizes, cultural pluralism, internationalism, and
futurism. Students should be taught to appreciate life in a world of many nations -a global
village - with many alternatives for the future, they advocate.

d. Essentialism:
- Very traditional and conservative, in direct opposition to progressive education
- Teach elementary children to read, write, and compute mathematically, teach secondary
students to have higher order thinking skills
- Resurfaced as “back to basics”

1. Philosophical Terms
- Philosophy: philo means love, and sophos meanswisdom— love of wisdom
- Metaphysics is the study of the nature of reality, of what is real, draw back the nonessentials
and examine what remains…an idealist sees reality as nonmaterial, realist sees an objective
order, independent of humans
- Epistemology…the theory of knowing and of knowledge, deals with the nature of learning
itself—idealist teacher may use the Socratic method to bring out latent ideas, Realists believe
knowledge begin in the sensations we get from objects in the environment.
2. Axiology
- Concerned with value, divided into two areas, ethics and aesthetics
- Ethics deals with moral values and appropriate conduct.
- Aesthetics considers values in beauty and art.
- The good, the true, and the beautiful
3. Logic
- Addresses the rules of correct and valid thinking and considers the rules of inference that
we use to frame propositions and arguments
- Deductive logic moves from general statements to particular instances and applications
- Inductive logic moves from particular instances and applications to generalizations

Generalization.
Each of the four major philosophies just described begins with a particular view of human
nature and of values and truths, and then proceeds to suggest what such a view implies for
curriculum development. Before we conclude our discussion on the philosophical
foundations of curriculum, we should make note of a few educational philosophies in order
to reinforce what has been said so far.

Psychological Foundations
Curriculum Approach- A curriculum approach shows the viewpoints of curriculum
development and design, the role of the learner, the teacher, the Curriculum specialist in
planning the curriculum. It also includes the goals and objectives of the curriculum
Educational Psychology
-deals with how people learn by offering a framework for understanding the teaching/
learning process.
-It therefore stresses that diversity among students must be recognized
What is Psychology?
-The scientific study of the mind and behavior.
-It is concerned with the question of how people learn.
Psychology of Learning
1. Psychology theories provide insight into understanding the teaching and learning process:
A.What is learning?
B.Why do learners respond as they do to teachers’ efforts?
C.What impact does the school and culture have on students learning?
2. Psychology theories provide principles and direction for curriculum developer:
A.How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning?
B.What is the optimal level of student participation in learning the curriculums various
contents?
3. Contrasts of the three Major Theories:
A.Behaviorism - Learning tends to focus on conditioning or modifying behavior through
reinforcement and rewards.
B.Cognitive Psychology - Learning process focuses on student’s developmental stages,
multiple forms of intelligence, problem solving, critical thinking and creativity.
C.Phenomenology and Humanism - Learning deals with the learner’s needs, attitudes and
feelings. It emphasizes on affective domain of learning.

I. Behaviorism (The oldest theory of learning)

It is illustrated by such teaching- learning trends as:
-Micro-Teaching
-Instructional Training Models
-Individual Learning
-Direct Instruction
-Mastery Learning
a. It says that:
-Behavior is result of conditions in which learning takes place.
-If proper stimuli are provided, behavior can be moulded.
-It is possible to control learning experiences to create desired learning outcomes.
-It is important to reinforce positive behavior to ensure its repetition.
b. Many principles of behaviorism are used in curriculum development.
-Remediation of behavior, acquiring of skills and considerations.
-Defining short-term and long-term objectives.
-Suitable media and materials to suit the learner’s needs, and abilities.
-Positive reinforcement of positive behavior.
-Understanding learner’s needs better and developing activities and tasks according to that.
Behaviorism has gained popularity not only in educational field, but also in business and
industry, government and allied, health professions, or to say, wherever human beings are
involved.
c. Broadly, behaviorists advocate that:
-The actions would possibly be affected by the learning conditions;
-Learning attitudes and skills can alter or develop over time by using appropriate stimuli;
-Learning lessons can be structured to generate the optimal learning and controlled;
-Selective strengthening is essential;
-Rote education and knowledge memorization are not required.
d. A curriculum, according to behaviorists, should be based on the following concerns:
-Remedial measures, acquisition of skills, considerations of basic or advanced learning;
-Well-defined, short-term and long-term objectives;
-Appropriate instructional materials and media to suit the learner's abilities;
-Shaping behavior through prescribed tasks, phase by phase activities, close supervision of
activities and positive reinforcement; and
-Diagnosing, assessing and reassessing the learners' needs, objectives, activities, tasks and
instruction with a view to improving the curriculum.
e. We can observe manifestations of these guidelines in the theories, principles or trends
related to:
-Individualized education
-Instructional design and systems;
-Teacher-training techniques such as simulation teaching, microteaching, and competency-
performance based teacher education;
-Educational technology including programmed instruction
f. Main Theorists:
-Thorndike – Connectionism
-Pavlov (and Watson) – Classical Conditioning
-Skinner – Operant Conditioning
-Bandura – Observable Learning and Modeling
-Gagné – Hierarchical Learning

1. Edward Thorndike (1874 – 1949)

-Father of modern educational psychology & founder of behavioral psychology
-Started his research with animals using stimulus-response (classic conditioning) and
developed the idea of Connectionism.
-Connectionism - Defined learning as a connection or association of an increasing number of
habits.
1.1 Three Major Laws of Thorndike
-Law of Readiness - If nervous system is ready, conduction is satisfying and lack of
conduction is annoying.
-Law of Exercise - Justifies drill, repetition and review.
-Law of Effect- Justifies use of rewards and punishments, especially Skinner’s operant model.

2. Ivan Pavlov (1849- 1936)

-first to demonstrate Classical Conditioning.best known for his experiment with salivating
dogs.
-involves eliciting an unconditioned response by using previously neutral stimuli.
-Unconditioned stimuli create reflexes that are not “learned,” but are instinctual.
-Neutral and adequate stimuli are introduced at the same time.
3. James Watson
-took Pavlov’s findings to another level.
-emphasized that learning was observable or measurable, not cognitive.
-believed the key to learning was in conditioning a child from an early age based on Pavlov’s
methods.
-Nurture vs. Nature
-His theories strengthened the argument for the influence of experiences as opposed to
genetics.
4. Frederick Skinner (Let’s start with the first set of slides)
-one of the most influential American psychologists.
-began his research with rats at Harvard and pigeons during WWII.
-his work led to the development of the Theory of Operant Conditioning.
-the idea that behavior is determined or influenced by its consequence.
-Respondent vs. Operant behavior
-Respondent behavior is the elicited response tied to a
-Definite stimulus.
-Emphasized the use of positive and negative reinforcement
5. Albert Bandura
-Bandura- bridge/transition
-learning is social by observation, modelling and imitation
-showed that aggressive behavior can be learned from watching adults fighting, violent
cartoons or even violent video games. Passive behavior can also be learned from watching
adults with subdued actions
6. Robert Gagné (1916 – 2002)
-his Hierarchy of Learning notes the transition from behaviorism to cognitive psychology.
-The Hierarchy of Learning is an arrangement of 8 behaviors ranging from simple to complex.
-The first 5 behaviors are Behaviorist, the next 2 are both behaviorist and cognitive and the
last (highest form) is cognitive.
-The hierarchy suggests a “bottom-up” approach to learning where general
principles/concepts must be learned before advanced learning can take place.
-describes 5 observable and measurable learning outcomes
-Mental operations needed for each outcome differ.
-Gagné’s Instructional Events lead into cognitive psychology

5 observable and measurable learning outcomes:

-Intellectual Skills – “knowing how”
-Information - “knowing what”
-Cognitive Strategies - “learning strategies”
-Motor skills - Ability to coordinate movements
-Attitudes. - Feelings and emotions developed from positive and negative experiences.

II. Cognitivism (learning is cognitive in nature)

Piaget’s Cognitive Development:
Sensorimotor stage: 0-2 years Age: learns sensorimotor activities. He begins to establish
simple relations between objects.
Pre-operational stage: 2-7 years Age: learns to take a symbolic meaning, but can consider
only one dimension.
Concrete operational stage: 7-11 years Age: learns to organize data into logical relationships
and can learn concepts in problem solving situations.
Formal operational stage: 11 on-wards Age: can think about abstract ideas, formulate
hypotheses and deduce possible conclusions from them.

These stages follow a hierarchical order. Age limit is flexible for each stage depending on
hereditary and environmental factors. Tyler, Taba and Bruner based their curriculum
principles on Piaget’s theory

Tyler suggested three ways of organizing learning experience on the basis of Piaget’s
theory.
Continuity: implies repetition of skills and concepts in the curriculum in vertical recurring
way.
Sequence: concepts should be understood in a proper sequence so that each successive
experience builds on the preceding one.
Integration: integrate curriculum horizontally and is unified.in relation to other elements.

Taba suggested that Piaget’s theory has significant implications for a learner’s intellectual
development.
-Transform complex concepts into mental operations that are suitable for learners.
=[Assimilation, accommodation and equilibration are important-cognitive facts that must be
considered in curriculum development.
-Curriculum experiences should be compatible with existing experiences.

Bruner’s explained learning process on the basis of Piaget’s concepts of assimilation and
accommodation
Acquisition: refers to acquiring of new knowledge or replacing old knowledge with new.
Transformation: refers to the way in which an individual processes new information.
Evaluation: refers to understanding and analyzing information to solve a problem.

1. Cognitive Learning - learning is attainment of cognitive structure

which human process and store information
 2.Multiple Intelligences - there are eight types of Multiple Intelligence such as;
verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, bodily kinesthetic, musical,
interpersonal, intrapersonal and lastly naturalistic
3. Cooperative Learning- is where students work together in a group to master learning
goal despite of race, gender and cultural mix

III. HUMANISM (emphasizes on the intellectual and emotional growth of a student)

-Humanistic Approach includes:
-Formation of Desirable Attitudes
-Development of Humane Feelings
-Self-Actualization
-Freedom to Learn
-Value Classification

A. Maslow’s Theory (need hierarchy theory of human needs)

Physiological Needs: basic needs without which a person, can’t survive and maintain life.
Safety Needs: needs which are meant to protect our self like a house to save oneself from
many problems, security etc.
Love and Belonging Needs: needs to have a loving and understanding relationship with
people and to have a social circle.
Esteem Need: needs to be identified as a respectable person.
Self-actualization Needs: needs demand the development of best within a person.
Knowing and Understanding: needs are for a desire to learn and know the deepest of truth.

Maslow considered the experience of child as:

-Fundamental to learning.
-Emphasizing human qualities like creativity, values, and
-Giving importance to the dignity and work of the individual and focus on the psychological
development and human potential of the learners.

B. Carl Rogers
-Client- centered therapy (not tell directly whatto do but create atmosphere, sense their
taught and feelings)
-Classroom must be learner centered and teachers should facilitate learning.
C.Transfer of Learning (whatever a child learns in the school will get transferred to a child’s
life and therefrom to the society at large)

How this “transfer takes place?

-First opinion regarding how this transfer of learning takes place says that it is general and
automatic.
-Second opinion is that transfer ‘is not automatic,,but calls for effort in the sense that there
should be identifiable elements in the teaching of specific knowledge
-Third opinion is transfer takes place by generalization of the content or of method employed
in learning of that content.
-Fourth opinion is backed by cognitive field theory of learning and have influenced the
modern curriculum considerably.

D. Basic Human Needs and Curriculum (Basic human needs can be classified in such a
way that it calls for self-actualization and development tasks)
-This concept talks about the fulfillment or satisfaction that a person feels by achieving his
or her own potential.
-Self-actualization is possible through fulfillment of personal needs and interests. But schools
also have their institutional interests. So a balance has to be maintained between institutional
goals and individual goals.

E. Developmental Tasks
-When a task leads to happiness, satisfaction, feeling of achievement and so on, it is called
development task.
-Curriculum planners must ensure that learners are given situations which create happiness,
satisfaction and feeling of success
-A curriculum is successful of needs of the learners and what curriculum provides
complement each other.

Historical Foundations of Curriculum

Philippine education came about from various foreign influences
Franklin Bobhit (1876- 1956). - Bobbit presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes on
students need. Curriculum prepares students for adult life. To Bobbit, objectives with
corresponding activities should be grouped and sequenced. This can only be done if
instructional activities and tasks are clarified.
Werret Charters (1875-1952) - Like Bobbit, to Charters curriculum is a science. It gives
emphasis on students' needs. The listing of objectives and matching these with corresponding
activities ensures that the content or subject matter is related to objectives. The subject matter
and the activities are planned by the teacher.
William Kilpatrick (1871-1965)
-Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered.
-The project method was introduced by Kilpatrick where teacher and student plan the
activities.
-The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth.
-The curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction
Harold Rugg (1886-1960)- To Rugg, curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-
centered. With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should
produce outcomes. Harold Rugg emphasized social studies and the teacher plans curriculum
in advance.
Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)- Sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes,
organized knowledge and learner's interest. Caswell believes that curriculum is a set of
experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners’ interests
Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)- As one of the hallmarks of curriculum, tyler believes that
curriculum is a science and an extension of school's philosophy. It is based on students’
needs and interest. To Tyler, curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is
organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values. The process emphasizes problem solving.
The curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists.

Historical Foundations of Curriculum

The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes, principles and
content of the curriculum. The different changes are influenced by educational philosophy,
psychology and pedagogical theories. This implies that curriculum is ever changing putting
in knowledge and content from many fields of disciplines. Keeping these facts in view, we
shall now discuss how society influences the making of curriculum.

Relevant aspects in discerning the Historical Foundations of Curriculum

Early Christian Education- The values of early Christian education were a blend of Greek,
Roman and Hebrew ideals. The early Christian schools taught the liberal arts and also
concerned themselves with inducting new believers into church membership. The
Curriculum of the early Christian schools comprised the teaching of discipline, church,
doctrine moral standards, Christian theology, science, mathematics and astronomy

The Renaissance -Following increased quest for knowledge and thirst for adventure
‘humanistic schools’ were established. The curriculum of the ‘humanistic schools’
emphasized the study of man as a prerequisite to understanding man’s role and contribution
to society
-The height of the Renaissance saw the development of the university in response to the need
for a higher cadre of professional people with special faculty specializations.
-H.G.Good (1960) states that the university then developed faculties to cater for: - Studies in
liberal arts -Law studies - Medicine - Theology

The Scientific movement

The humanistic curriculum was enriched with the study of science, mathematics, history and
gymnastics. Ignatius of Loyola developed an expanded and advanced curriculum as a
counter movement to the reformation in Jesuit schools. The reformation contributed further
to educational growth by inciting the church into greater activity in elementary, secondary
and higher education (cubberley 1968)

The Scientific Movement in Education

Educators and philosophers of the sixteenth century were concerned more with observation
regarding the working of the universes. This was led by Francis Bacon among others. It led to
the philosophy of realism which has three district phases, with various implications of the
curriculum.
Humanistic Realism. Advocated student mastery of form and content of the old literature as
a basis for improving the present world.
Social Realism. Social Realism aimed at meeting the purposes of the contemporary world. It
was class conscious as a result it advocated an elicit education for the aristocracy. It
emphasized private tuition in the home, using paid tutors.
Sense Realism. It was concerned with problems of the current real world and emphasis on an
instructional approach based on sense perception

The Progressive movement in Education

The advocates of the progressive movement were reacting against the shortcomings in the
traditional school system.
They argued that:
A. The curriculum content of the traditional system included a great deal of meaningless and
needles content.
b. The traditional curriculum did not give utility education. It mainly emphasized academics
c. The traditional methods of teaching introduced the child to subject matter of no practical
value
d. The traditional curriculum was rigid and
The progressive education curriculum instead emphasized five approaches to the
teaching/learning process.
I. Teacher- pupils planning of curricular activities
II. Flexible curriculum and individualized instruction
III. Non-formal curriculum activities and physical training in areas such as games and relatd
hobbies.
IV. Learner centered methodology
V. Selection of study material in line with expressed interests and concerns of the learner.
Sociological Foundations of the Curriculum
Society, Education and Schooling
School is a special institution, created to serve specific social needs. It, therefore, not only
gets aims and objectives from society but its contents and methods are also determined in
accordance with the activities, carried on in society, for which the school functions.

A good society is the product of a good school system and a good school system is the
product of a good society. So, there must be intimate relationships between the school
and the society.

Social Change and the Curriculum

Culture plays an important role in man’s life. Awareness regarding various kinds of
culture can help an individual in adjusting to the natural and social environment,
developing an individual’s personality, socialization of the individual, proper use
of freedom, and understanding other cultures and proper meaning of liberality.

Growth of Technology
Technology is undoubtedly having a major impact on every aspect of our lives and that
includes today’s learning environments. It is shaping the way in which students learn,
teachers deliver material and the way in which we design spaces for future learning
opportunities. It is said that schools aren’t just investing in computer stations and keyboards
and we are witness to the fact, based on our planning and design work, and that they are
quickly embracing the “constant contact” trends that have changed our global culture. As
technology continues to evolve, it brings with its new opportunities and challenges for
educators and students.

Structure of the Family

The family is the primary unit for socializing children. No society is possible without
adequate socialization of its young. In most societies, the family is the major unit in which
socialization happens. Family provides its members with a social identity. Children are born
into their parents’ social class, race and ethnicity, religion, and so forth. Some children have
advantages throughout life because of the social identity they acquire from their parents,
while others face many obstacles because the social class or race/ethnicity into which they are
born is at the bottom of the social hierarchy.

Cultural Diversity
Students who attend schools with a diverse population can develop an understanding of the
perspectives of children from different backgrounds and learn to function in a
multicultural, multiethnic environment. students will need to learn how to interact in a
diverse environment.

Diversity in Values and Lifestyle

A system of beliefs and behaviors that recognizes and respects the presence of all diverse
groups in an organization or society, acknowledges and values their socio-cultural differences,
and encourages and enables their continued contribution within an inclusive cultural context
which empowers all within the organization or society.

Renewed Interest in Ethno-History

Within every learning environment there is a prevailing culture that influences all the other
components. In most learning environments, culture is often taken for granted or may be
even beyond the consciousness of learners.
Development in Telecommunications
Technology is changing every aspect of our lives. The benefits provided by new digital
approaches are having a huge impact on our societies. However, one of the greatest business
challenges is not about the devices, software or solutions it is about how we manage the
process of cultural change.

Planning for a Circular Change

Given today’s complex societal challenges, academia should work better with government,
industry and others in offering innovative solutions that benefit our society, economy and
environment. The purpose of education has evolved over time. It also differs slightly
depending on whether you take the view of society, the educator, or the parents future of
education now is what the great teachers have aspired to throughout the ages to inspire
children to learn and use their talents.
Curriculum Planning Curriculum Design and Organization
Curriculum planning is a complex activity involving the interplay of ideas from the
curriculum field and other related disciplines. However, the ultimate purpose of curriculum
planning is to describe the learning opportunities available to students.
Thus curriculum planning is ultimately concerned with the experiences of learners.
In any teaching/learning situation, however, the concern is not only with what students ought
to learn, but also with how they are going to learn it. Curriculum plans that define concepts
or ideas without considering action, are incomplete since learning must eventually involve
the application of what has been learned. In the same way, plans that merely describe action
without considering purposes are also incomplete since otherwise, learning activity runs the
risk of being aimless. This relationship of content and process accentuates the need to
consider curriculum and instruction not as distinct entities, but rather as interdependent
concepts in the planning process.
Therefore curriculum planning involves decisions about both content and process.
Therefore curriculum planning involves decisions about a variety of issues/topics.
Curriculum planning thus involves many groups of people and levels of operation and is a
continuous process.\

Now, if we put together what is presented in the above boxes, we shall arrive at a working
definition of the term ‘curriculum planning’. We can define the term ‘curriculum planning’ as
a continuous process in which participants contribute at various levels towards making
decisions about:
- the purposes of learning
- how that purpose might be carried out through teaching
– learning situations whether the purpose identified and the means selected are both
appropriate and effective.

The planning phase lays the foundation for all of the curriculum development steps.
The steps in this phase include:
1. Identify Issue/ Problem/ Need
2. Form Curriculum Development Team
3. Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

Models of Curriculum Planning:

A. Technical Models:
1. The Tyler Model
2. The Taba Model
3. The Saylor and Alexander Model
4. The Goodlad Model
5. The Hunkins Model
6. The Miller and Seller Model
B. Non-Technical Models
1. Open Classroom Model
2. Weinstein and Fantini Model
3. Interpersonal Model

Types of curriculum design

There are three basic types of curriculum design:
• Subject-centered design
• Learner-centered design
• Problem-centered design
Intended Learning Outcomes are: Statements of what students are expected to be able to
do as a result of engaging in the learning process (studying a lecture/course/programme).
They are:
Expressed from the students' perspective.
Expressed in the form of action verbs leading to observable and assessable behaviour.
Related to criteria for assessing student performance. (EDGE, 2020)

5 Steps to writing ILOs

It can be useful to consider using the following 5-step process in designing ILOs:
1. Decide on the Purpose
2. Identify the Content
3. Select the Appropriate Verb
4. Add the Context (when necessary)
5. Ensure Clarity
Source: (University of Tasmania, 2020)

Curriculum Implementation
Curriculum Implementation refers to the act of working out the plans and suggestions that
have been made by curriculum specialists and subject experts in a classroom or school setting.
Teachers are the main curriculum implementers, while at the same time students,
parents, school administrators can be directly or indirectly involved in the implementation
process. (IGI Global, 2020)
Curricularists may follow Models of Curriculum Implementation depending on what may
suit their needs and concerns. During the implementation stage, several issues may arise
which make it important for curricularists to consider implementation as a process that
attempts to reduce the difference between existing practices and the practices suggested by
innovators or change agents.
Implementation is the act of putting the prescribed curriculum into practice in the school. It is
the ultimate objective of curriculum development process because only after this has been
done will learners have the opportunity to experience the curriculum and benefit from it.
(Bediako, 2019)
Ornstein and Hunkins in 1998 defined curriculum implementation as the interaction
between the curriculum that has been written and planned and the persons (teachers) who
are engaged in charged to deliver it. To them, curriculum implementation implies the
following:
Shift from what is the current to a new or enhanced curriculum.
Change in knowledge, actions, and attitudes of the persons involved.
Change in behavior using new strategies and resources.
Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable.
Curriculum implementation means putting into practice the written curriculum that has been
designed in syllabi, course study, curricular guides and subjects. It is a process wherein the
learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge, skills and attitudes that are aimed at
enabling the same learners to function effectively in the society. (SADC MoE Africa, 2000)

Curriculum implementation means putting into practice the written curriculum that has been
designed in syllabi, course study, curricular guides and subjects.
Models of Implementation
1. Overcoming Resistance to Change (ORC) Model
The letters here stands for Overcoming Resistance to Change. This model rests on the
assumption that the success or otherwise of curriculum implementation primarily depends
on the impact the developer can make on the consumers, i.e., teachers, students and the
society in general. If we desire change we must address people's misgivings, their
misapprehensions, or other such related factors. We must point out to them that the
curriculum incorporates, wherever possible and appropriate, their values, assumptions and
beliefs. And while addressing the persons within the system, we should remember that to get
the desired result the subordinates should be motivated rather than ordered. Curriculum
developers should, therefore, identify and deal with the concerns of the staff in various
educational institutions.
Developmental stages of concerns
Unrelated Concerns: At this stage, teachers do not perceive a relationship between
themselves and the suggested changes. For example, if a new program is being developed, a
teacher at this stage may or may not be aware of this effort. If he/she is aware of it, he/she
may not consider it something that concerns him/her. The teacher would not resist the change,
because he/she really does not perceive the change as something that influences his/her own
personal or professional domain.
Personal Concerns: At this stage, the teacher will react to the innovation in relation to his/her
personal situation. He/she is concerned with how the new program compares to the one
already in use. Therefore, when a new program is being launched, he/she would involve
himself/lherself in them activity.
Task-related Concerns: This stage relates to the actual use of the innovation. The teacher at
this stage will be concerned with the time required for reaching the new program, availability
of materials, strategies to be adopted, etc.
Impact-related Concerns: The teacher at this stage will be concerned with how the
innovation will influence others.
When working with the ORC model, we must deal directly with the concerns at stages 2, 3
and 4 in order to serve the purpose for which the change is effected. To achieve this purpose
we can meet the faculty members together. During this meeting, we can share our concerns
and map strategies for dealing with those concerns. Depending on the context and particular
needs we can administer questionnaires to gather and share information on concerns to make
such meetings successful.

2. Leadership-Obstacle Course (LOC) Model

LOC is the acronym for ;Leadership-Obstacle Course; model. This model treats staff
resistance to change as problematic and proposes that we should collect data to determine
the extent and nature of the resistance. We can do this by making sure that the following five
conditions exist:
a. the organizational members must have a clear understanding of the proposed innovation;
b. individuals within the organization must be given relevant skills so that they possess the
capabilities requisite for carrying out the innovation;
c. the necessary materials and equipment for the innovation must be furnished;
d. if need be, the organizational structure must be modified so that it is compatible with
the innovation being suggested;
e. the participants in the innovation must be motivated to spend the required time and effort
to make the innovation a success.
The LOC model extends the ORC model in several respects. While the ORC model
conceptualizes educational change as a two-stage process:
a. initiation; and
b. incorporation (or the innovation as part of the ongoing processes of the organization)
The LOC model considers educational change as a sequence of three stages:
a. initiation;
b. attempted implementation; and
c. incorporation
We should note here that implementation obstacles solved at one point of time using this
model may arise again at another point. This model, therefore, has a feedback and monitoring
mechanism to determine if problems once solved keep reappearing, etc.
3. Linkage Model
The linkage model recognizes that there are innovators in research and development centers,
universities, etc. Educators in the field, however, find some of their attempts at innovations
that are inappropriate for solving the problems. What is therefore needed is a match between
the problems and innovations-the establishment of linkages. This model envisages two
systems: user system and resource system. There has to be a link between these two systems.
The resource system should have a clear picture of the curriculum user problems, if it is to
retrieve or create appropriate educational packages. A successful resource system must
proceed through a cycle of diagnosis, search, retrieval, fabrication of solution, dissemination
and evaluation in order to test out its product. Thus, in the linkage model, the basic process is
the transfer of knowledge.
4. RCA model- The Rand Change Agent (RCA) model suggests that organizational dynamics
seem to be the chief barriers to change. As in ORD and LOC models it puts forward the
following three stages in the change process:
a. Initiation: At this stage, the curriculum developers work to secure the support for the
anticipated change. To support a change, such as a new program people must understand
and agree that it is legitimate. Thus, curriculum implementation activity requires the personal
backing of the individuals involved. For example, at this stage, we should inform the teachers
about the need for change and how it might take place.
b. Implementation: At this stage, the proposed change, i.e., the new program and the
organizational structure are adjusted to operationalize the change.
c. Incorporation: During this stage, the changes implemented become part of the established
program.
The assumption behind this is that the success of the implementation is a function of:
a. the characteristics of the proposed change;
b. the abilities of the academic and administrative staff;
c. the readiness of the local community; and
d. the organizational structure.
During the incorporation stage, the changes implemented become part of the established
program. At this stage, we outline the procedures in order to ensure that the program
implemented is provided with the necessary personnel and financial support. Which will in
turn ensure that the program continues to be delivered in the intended manner. We have said
that implementation serves as a means to evaluate the efficacy of the curriculum and its
impact on the target clientele, i.e, students, teachers, the society, etc. By implication, we
should not consider the implementation stage in the curriculum activity as an end in itself.
Therefore, we need to talk about curriculum evaluation too. (IGNOU, 2018)

Role of Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation

Stakeholders
• Are individuals or institution that are interrelated in the school curriculum.
• They are the one who put into action and give life to thecurriculum.
• They shape the school curriculum implementation.
Learners at the Center of Curriculum
They are the very reason a curriculum is developed.
They make and unmake the curriculum by their active and direct involvement.
How each individual learners contribute to the realization of a planned curriculum would
depend on the interaction and internalization of the different learning activities.
1.) LEARNERS (Pupils/ Students)
 They are the primary stakeholders in the curriculum.
2.) TEACHERS (As Curriculum Developers and Implementers)
Planning and writing the curriculum are the primary role of teacher.
3.)3.) CURRICULUM MANAGERS and ADMINISTRATORS
They supervise curriculum implementation, select and recruit new teachers, admit
students and procure equipment and materials needed for effective learning.
4.) PARENTS (as supporters to the curriculum)
It simply means that the parents are the best supporters of the school, especially because
they are one’s paying for their child education.
5.) COMMUNITY MEMBERS as Curriculum Resources
The community members may provide materials in the existing local community can very
well substitute for what are needed to implement the curriculum.
6.) OTHER STAKEHOLDERS in Curriculum Implementation
Professional Organizations- They are being asked by the curriculum especially to
contribute in curriculum review because they have voice in licensure examination,
curriculum enhancement and others.
Government- Represented by DepEd for basic education curricula and CHED for tertiary
and graduate education curricula. TESDA is for technical and vocational programs.
Professional Regulation Commission- The third agency that has high stake in school’s
curricula, because graduates of the different tertiary degrees must be certified as
professionals. While Supreme Courts has professional bar exam to certify lawyers and
Philippine Medical Association through its medical board exams for Licensure Examination
for Doctors. (Tugado, 2020)

Issues of Implementation
1. Poor involvement of teachers in matters relating to curriculum implementation.
The first issue of implementation is poor involvement of teachers in matters relating to
curriculum implementation either in planning or reform and that make good performances
impossible, no matter the teachers methodological competence; unfortunately teachers are
not involved at this stage of curriculum process. Ibrahim (2003) in Nwanze (2015) stated that
the involvement of teachers in curriculum planning induces good quality into the curriculum,
enriches the activities and also makes them more worthwhile.
2. Excess contents added to the curriculum to be covered by both the students and teachers
The second issue is excess contents added to the curriculum to be covered by both the
students and teachers possess serious challenges in curriculum implementation. Some
global and emerging issues, such as family life education. Citizenship education, education
on HIV/AIDS and drug abuse among others which are recently introduced in the school
curriculum as contents to be learnt by student/pupils without extending the instructional
hours affect its implementation. Afangideh (2009) in Obilo and Sangoleye (2010) states that
some teachers are having issues with such topics already, hence making it implementation a
challenge. He further maintained that the above is in addition to the already existing subjects.
Obilo and Saugoleye (2010) further maintained that the time allotted for the implementation
of these heavy academic loads is not adequate enough. A followed up issue on this matter is
that when these new courses are introduced or included in the existing curriculum, new
personnel who specialized in them were not usually employed neither do government send
the old staff on training on how to implement them.
3. Curriculum is implemented without the resources. The third issue is concerned with the
provision and distribution of materials that will enhance the achievement of the teaching
and learning objectives. Such materials include: textbooks, instructional, desks etc. this is
because for the curriculum contents to be effectively implemented at any stage of the
educational system, some materials which are expected to compliment the classroom
activities of the teacher should be provided for effective implementation at the classroom
levels of any of the educational programs. Sometimes the curriculum is implemented without
these resources making it difficult for learners to assimilate lessons. Fullan, (2001), argued
that, if obstacles to implementation were not removed, instead of moving ahead from the
implementation phase to the continuation phase, a change would suffer from the failure to be
used in the intended manner and the rejection by decision- makers.
4.Non-involvement of the society’s culture in the curriculum implementation
The fourth issue of curriculum implementation is non- involvement of the society’s culture in
the curriculum implementation. Curriculum is the instrument through which the society via
the schools educates its citizens, both adult and young.
5. Planning the implementation
The next issue is planning the implementation: it is essential that we plan the implementation
of a curriculum it will certainly help us to implement it successfully. Planning process
addresses needs and changes necessary and requisite resource for carrying out intended
actions. Put it differently, implementation-planning should focus on the following factors:
People (learners, educationists, policy makers, and the like); programs; and processes.
6. Communication
Communication is the next important issues that influence curriculum implementation stage.
We know that communication deals with messages, so sending and receiving is not sufficient
enough to ensure that communication will be effective or that messages sent will be accurate
or of high quality. The curriculum specialists, therefore, must be sure that the communication
network is comprehensive and that avenues for sending messages exist at all levels of the
curriculum implementation process.

In the classroom context, curriculum implementation means “teaching” what has been
written in the lesson plan. Implementing means using the plan as a guide to engage with the
learners in the teaching-learning process with the end in view that learning has occurred and
learning outcomes have been achieved. It involves the different strategies of teaching with the
support instructional materials to go with the strategy.