Fundamentals of RF and

Microwave PCBs
DESIGN GUIDE
 Table of Contents

1. Overview
....................................................................................................4
1.1. What are RF and microwave PCBs?...............................................5
1.2. Basics of RF and microwave board design .................................6
1.2.1. RF transmission lines ............................................................7
1.2.1.1. Microstrip line ..................................................................7
1.2.1.2. Coplanar waveguide (CPWG) ...........................................7
1.2.1.3. Comparison between microstrip line and CPWG .........8
1.2.1.4. Stripline ............................................................................8
1.2.2. What are transmission line parameters? ............................9
1.2.2.1. Effective dielectric constant (εr) ....................................9
1.2.2.2. Characteristic impedance ............................................10
1.2.2.2.1. 50Ω characteristic impedance for RF circuits .........11
1.2.3. Impedance matching ..........................................................12
1.2.3.1. What is a matching circuit? ...........................................12
1.2.3.1.1. RF stubs ....................................................................13
1.2.3.1.2. L network ..................................................................14
1.2.3.1.3. Matching circuit design aspects ............................14
1.2.3.2. Return loss and insertion loss .....................................15
2. RF PCB material selection ..................................................................16
2.1. Important properties of RF board materials ............................16
2.2. FR4 and modifications .................................................................18
2.3. PTFE, ceramics, and hydrocarbons ............................................19
2.4. Rogers PCB material ....................................................................20
2.4.1. RT/duroid™ ...........................................................................20
2.4.2. RO3000™ .................................................................................20
2.4.3. RO4000™ ................................................................................20
2.4.4. Rogers TMM® .......................................................................21

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 2.5. Materials for bonding ............................................................22
2.6. Combination of materials ......................................................22
3. Guidelines for RF and microwave PCB design? ............................23
3.1. What is an RF trace? ................................................................23
3.2. Grounding ................................................................................26
3.2.1. Grounding of shunt components ..................................26
3.2.2. Paddle ..............................................................................26
3.3. Vias ............................................................................................27
3.3.1. Ground stitching vias .......................................................28
3.4. Power supply decoupling .......................................................29
3.4.1. Decoupling capacitor design guidelines ........................30
4. RF PCB stack-up ...............................................................................31
4.1. 2-layer stack-up .......................................................................31
4.2. 4-layer stack-up ......................................................................32
5. RF component selection and placement ......................................33
5.1. Guidelines for component selection ....................................33
5.2. Design checks for RF component placement .......................34
6. Testing requirements .....................................................................35
7. Isolation requirements to avoid interference .............................36
7.1. Spatial isolation .......................................................................36
7.1.1. Via fencing ........................................................................36
7.1.2. X-Y axis isolation .............................................................37
7.2. Frequency isolation .................................................................38
7.2.1. RF shields ........................................................................38
7.2.2. Frequency hopping .........................................................39
8. RF board applications ....................................................................41

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 Overview

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of a number of radiations that are

classified based on their frequency or wavelength bands. These include
radio waves, infrared waves, microwaves, visible light, ultraviolet rays, and
gamma rays.

Notes
Increasing wavelength (�)

Increasing frequency (�)

UV + Visibile Spectrum

Electromagnetic spectrum

The electronic circuits that operate in the frequency ranges of radio

waves (3Hz - 300GHz) and microwaves (more than 1GHz) are considered
RF electronics. These devices form a major part of the electronic gadgets
available today. We use electronic goods that operate in the high-frequency
spectrum. The circuits of these devices are equipped with PCBs designed
to provide maximum efficiency while dealing with signals in the radio
frequencies.
As mentioned earlier, the signals in the electromagnetic spectrum with
frequencies between 3Hz and 300GHz fall in the radio frequency range.
Among these signals, the ones with frequencies above 1GHz are termed
microwaves. The name comes from the small wavelengths that these
signals exhibit. These waves are widely used in applications such as radar,
cooking, RF transmission, and so on.

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 Notes

1.1. What are RF and microwave

PCBs?

A small Bluetooth audio PCB

PCBs that operate at high frequencies to transmit data over the air, using
electromagnetic fields are called RF boards. Out of these, the boards that
operate above 1GHz are termed microwave boards. These include the
Bluetooth® and Wi-Fi modules that are commonly used in all electronic
communication devices. Bluetooth modules operate in the 2.4GHz ISM
frequency band. This band comprises electromagnetic radiation that falls in
2400 to 2483.5MHz frequency range. Wi-Fi modules work on the standard
2.4GHz and 5GHz frequency spectrums. As more and more devices are
preferred to be chord-less, the application of RF and microwave printed
circuit boards are increasing.

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 1.2. Basics of RF and microwave
board design

The design of circuit boards meant to operate in the RF and microwave

frequency spectrums requires special attention. The parameters such
as radio-frequency trace, power supply decoupling, via holes, and PCB
stack-up are particularly designed to work in the radio frequencies.
Thickness and cost also increase depending on the application. When it

comes to a wireless device

that transmits or receives
electromagnetic signals, the
main concerns regarding its
Notes design are the antenna and
RF layout. Therefore, the
antenna design, the circuit
board layout, and the casing
of the whole module play
vital importance in the overall
operation.
During the design phase,
PCB designers should
ensure there won’t be any
interference between traces
carrying radio waves and the
components placed nearby.
This type of interference will
affect the signal transmission
strength of the whole module.
Therefore, the layout is
arranged in such a way as to
reduce the EMI as much as
possible. The image below
shows different stages
involved in the design and
implementation of a radio-
frequency or microwave
circuit board.
RF PCB design stages

Let us now discuss all the

above stages in detail.

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 Notes
1.2.1. RF transmission lines

Transmission lines are conductors designed to carry electromagnetic

signals from one end to another. The main purpose of these lines is to
transmit the signals from the source to the destination with minimal loss.

The transmission lines are classified broadly into the following categories.

1.2.1.1. Microstrip line

A microstrip line is a simple type of transmission line where a signal trace

is placed on top of a substrate with a ground plane below. The cross-
sectional view of a microstrip line is shown below.

Microstrip transmission line

The important parameters of a microstrip line are the height of the

substrate (H), the dielectric constant of the substrate (εr), trace width (W),
trace thickness (T), and trace length (X).
To calculate the required trace widths for your design, check out our
trace width calculator.

1.2.1.2. Coplanar waveguide (CPWG)

A coplanar waveguide type transmission line will have a center copper

trace with two ground planes on either side and a ground plane below
the substrate. These ground planes are kept at a distance of ‘G’ from 7
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 the RF trace as mentioned in the figure below. The other important
parameters are the height of the substrate (H), the dielectric constant of
the substrate (εr), trace width (W), trace thickness (T).

Notes

CPWG transmission line

1.2.1.3. Comparison between microstrip line and CPWG

Microstrip line CPWG

Easy to fabricate Better isolation and reduced EMI

Effective dielectric constant >CPWG Minimizes cross-talk

for a given substrate

Compact layout Lower loss at high frequencies

1.2.1.4. Stripline
Stripline is made up of a fixed-width conductor placed in between two
reference planes. This means that the trace current has two return
paths, either to reference plane 1 or 2. This arrangement offers better
shielding to the RF trace and reduces EMI. There are two methods to

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 Notes
place the conductor in this arrangement. One is exactly at the center of
the dielectric medium and the other one is offset as shown below.

Stripline cross-section

1.2.2. What are transmission line parameters?

Transmission line parameters are the features that determine the

operation and design of any transmission line. At low frequencies and
DC voltages, IR losses are more dominant in the transmission lines. IR
loss occurs due to the resistance in the transmission line. However, as
the frequency increases parasitic capacitance and inductance play a
crucial role. The impedance of the trace becomes important and traces
behave as transmission lines. The concept of characteristic impedance is
essential to understand the transmission of information in transmission
lines. Insertion loss, reflection loss, and rise time become relevant.

1.2.2.1. Effective dielectric constant (εz)

In transmission lines, the propagation of signals is considered to be an

electromagnetic field propagation rather than a simple electric current
movement. Hence, the dielectric constant of air and the substrate, affect
the electromagnetic field. The resulting value of both is the effective
dielectric constant. The effective dielectric constant of a transmission line
is given by the following equation:

Equation 1

9
Where Cd is the line capacitance
Cair is the capacitance of the air

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 1.2.2.2. Characteristic impedance

Impedance is a parameter that influences the design of an RF trace

or transmission line. When the frequencies are low, the impedance
of a transmission line remains the same and does not depend on the
distance from the load or trace width. But when the frequencies are
high, the impedance changes as the distance from the load or width of
the trace varies. Characteristic impedance (Z0) is defined as the ratio of
the amplitudes of voltage and current of a signal transmitting through a
lossless transmission line.

Notes Equation 2

Z0 is calculated by considering the transmission line as a combination of

distributed capacitors and inductors. The capacitors are represented in
shunt connections and inductors in series.

Representation of a transmission line for Z0 calculation

The factors that affect the characteristic impedance of a transmission

line are:
• Substrate thickness
• Material type
• Trace width
• Trace thickness
• Distance between trace and ground fill

A general value of 50Ω is used as a characteristic impedance for most

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 Notes
of the RF circuits. Characteristic impedance helps to calculate the value
of the radio-frequency trace impedance. The characteristic impedance
at any point in the trace will remain constant, provided the trace
parameters are constant. The value of trace impedance Z is calculated
using the following equation.

Equation 3

where,
Z: impedance measured at a distance ‘l’ from the load
ZL: load impedance
Z0: characteristic impedance of the whole transmission line
β: phase constant
j: reactive part of the impedance
From this equation, it is clear that if ZL=Z0, then Z=Z0.
Need help to find out the optimal impedance value? Use our
Impedance Calculator tool.

1.2.2.2.1. 50Ω characteristic impedance for RF circuits

A characteristic impedance of 50Ω is a trade-off value to achieve

minimum loss and maximum power transfer. This can be explained from
the graph plotted below.

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 Normalized input v/s characteristic impedance plot
Notes In the above chart plotted between characteristic impedance and
normalized input values, it is clear that the maximum power transfer
between the source and load (transmission) or load and source
(reception) occurs at 30Ω. Similarly, the loss is lowest at 80Ω. 50Ω is a
value that lies in the middle of maximum power transfer and minimum
loss. That is why it is the preferred value of the characteristic impedance
in most RF circuits.

1.2.3. Impedance matching

It is clear from equation (3) that the maximum power flow occurs when
the impedance of the trace is equal to the characteristic impedance
(Z0). Hence, it is important to match these impedance values so that
maximum power transfer happens from the source to load or vice versa.
Matching circuits are used to match the measured impedance with the
characteristic impedance. Now the measured impedance at a particular
point of the RF circuit changes with the respective distances from the
source/load. To match this impedance with Z0, it is important that it does
not change with the distances from source/load. Therefore, matching
circuits are required near the source as well as the load.
For example, the standard frequency spectrums like 2.4GHz, assume 50Ω
as the characteristic impedance. As a result, impedance matching circuits
are designed to match this value.

1.2.3.1. What is a matching circuit?

A matching circuit is a passive circuit designed to change the impedance

of a circuit to match its characteristic impedance. Reactive components

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 Notes
such as inductors, capacitors, and RF stubs are used as matching circuit
components.

1.2.3.1.1. RF stubs

A stub is a portion of a transmission line that is only connected at one

end. Stubs are intentionally placed as matching circuits for circuit boards.
At times, unintentional stubs are formed on the boards due to specific
design patterns. These stubs are able to function as inductors, capacitors,
or resonant circuits at radio frequencies. Stubs placed intentionally
help to match the impedance of complex loads. Unintentional stubs will
increase the attenuation of the whole circuit and should be avoided.

Different types of RF stubs are given below:

Types of stubs

• Open circuited stub: The free end of the stub is left open-circuited.
• Short circuited stub: The free end of the stub is short-circuited.

The input impedance of a stub will be either inductive or capacitive and

depends on its electrical length and type (open- or short-circuited). As a
result, when the operating wavelengths are small, the length of the stubs
also reduces. For microwave frequency circuit boards, the size of the
stubs is conveniently small due to the low wavelengths.

Matching circuits will have different topologies. It depends on the

difference in values between the measured impedance at a point and
the characteristic impedance. A capacitance in series, followed by a shut

13
coil across the source operates as a simple matching circuit when the
difference between these values is minimal. Likewise, different topologies
are adopted.

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 1.2.3.1.2. L network

An L network is a simple lossless circuit that consists of two reactive

components arranged in an L formation. Different combinations such as
two capacitors, two inductors, one capacitor, and one inductor, etc., are
implemented. There are eight standard L network topologies. These are
given below:

Notes

Standard L-circuit topologies

Two important points to be noted before using L-networks in a circuit

are:
• Never use for wideband applications
• Not suitable for circuits operating in gigahertz frequencies

1.2.3.1.3. Matching circuit design aspects

Important aspects to consider while designing an impedance matching

circuit:
• Impedance is measured at the exact points where the components
are to be placed.
• Avoid using connectors to connect the shunt components. It is better
to place the components on the trace itself.
• For capacitors and inductors, choose components with high-Q values.
• For capacitors, series resonant frequency = 2 x operating frequency.
• For inductors, self-resonant frequency = 2 x operating frequency.

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 Notes
1.2.3.2. Return loss and insertion loss

Different stages of signal transmission through a transmission line

There are certain parameters that determine the effectiveness of

matching circuits. When a signal travels from a source to load (incident
signal), the initial power it carries is termed incident power (ViIi).
Ideally, the load should get the complete amount of this power. But in
real conditions, only a part of this power is received at the load. The
remaining part reflects back to the source since the impedance of the
circuit is not exactly equal to the characteristic impedance. The amount
of power that goes through is called inserted power or transmitted
power (VtIt). The rest is called reflected power (VrIr). These parameters are
used to define the following terms:

Among these, VSWR is the most common standard to analyze the

efficiency of the transmitted power through a line. Ideally, VSWR should
be 1. This indicates that no reflected voltages are there to interfere with

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the transmitting voltages causing more peaks and valleys in them. Hence
the values of Vmax and Vmin will be the same.

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 2. RF PCB material selection
FR4 is the most commonly used material for PCB fabrication. In the case
of RF and microwave circuit boards, FR4 causes some limitations. The
most prominent one is the change in the dielectric constant values at high
frequencies.
The following factors are considered to choose the best materials for a
board:
• Tolerance for signal losses
• Stability over high-frequency operating conditions
• Impedance stability
• Ability to absorb a large amount of heat generated during the
operation
Notes
• Cost of the material and ease of manufacturing
• Uniform dielectric constant and loss tangent values over wide
frequency ranges

Check out Sierra Circuits Material Selector tool to find the best
substrate for your application.

2.1. Important properties of RF board

materials

• Dielectric constant (εr or Dk): The dielectric constant indicates the

ability of a material to store electrical energy when placed in an electric
field. It changes with the direction of the material axis. High-frequency
operation also affects the dielectric constant. This is the main concern
in RF and microwave circuit boards. Therefore, it is important to choose
materials that are tested in varying frequency environments.The
materials for radio-frequency PCBs must have a relatively constant
εr value over a wide range of frequencies. Lower the values of εr,
the better, typically in the range of 3 to 3.5.
• Loss tangent (tan δ): Loss tangent is defined as the loss of signal
due to the dissipation of energy at the PCB substrate. This quantity is
dimensionless and is given by the phase angle between the resistive
and reactive components of a system/component. For example, take

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 Notes

the case of a capacitor. Ideally, it will only have a capacitance C. But in

real-life scenarios, it will have an equivalent series resistance (ESR) as
well. Hence the loss tangent is illustrated as given below.

Loss tangent illustration

Typical values of tan loss are around 0.0022 to 0.0095 for the frequency
range of 10-30GHz.

• Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE): CTE is the rate at which a

material expands or contracts with the application of temperature.
It affects various stages of PCB manufacturing and assembly. It is
always better to keep the CTE values of all the materials used in a
circuit board stack-up in the same range. If the values are having a
lot of differences, it produces thermal stress on the board at high
frequencies.

Note to the designer: Choose materials such that there is very little
difference between their CTE values for high thermal performance.
• Moisture absorption: The operating environment of the circuit board
is considered during the selection of material. Moisture absorption
capabilities are not a concern if a PCB is going to operate indoors. But
if the operating environment is filled with moisture, then this property
of the material is of greater concern.

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The commonly used materials for radio-frequency or microwaves are
discussed next.

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 2.2. FR4 and modifications

Plain FR4 (flame retardant level 4) does not perform well under high-
frequency conditions. Hence, we consider other options. The selection
depends on the operating frequency of the RF board and the incurring
losses. For example, suppose a PCB will only operate at frequencies less
than 2GHz, and the losses while using FR4 are significant only after 5GHz,
then it can be used as the material for the board.

Notes

Plain FR4 illustration

FR4 is modified to yield better performance. FR4 derivatives with enhanced

εr values are used for RF boards. When cost is a major concern rather than
high-frequency losses, plain FR4 is also used. For example, for normal FR4,
FR370HR, the values of dielectric constant and loss tangent are Dk= 4.04,
and Df= 0.021, and for the FR4 derivative, FR408HR, these are Dk=3.68 and
Df= 0.0092.

Thus, if a board operates at high frequencies and the losses are extremely
significant, then either FR4 material is enhanced or some other alternative
is used.

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 Notes

2.3. PTFE, ceramics, and

hydrocarbons
Most commonly used RF circuit board materials are made up of
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), ceramics, and hydrocarbons mixed
with one another or with a form of glass.

PTFE with micro-glass Ceramic filled PTFE Ceramic filled with

fiber/ woven glass hydrocarbon

Great signal quality Good signal quality Reduced signal quality
High cost Reduced cost Low cost
High CTE Low CTE Very low CTE
High rate of moisture Low rate of moisture Low rate of moisture

absorption absorption absorption

Good electrical Good electrical Poor electrical

characteristics characteristics characteristics

2.4. Rogers PCB material

Rogers Advanced Connectivity Solutions (ACS) is a manufacturer of a

PCB substrate material commonly called Rogers material. The core is
made up of Teflon or ceramic rather than fiberglass/epoxy. The main
advantage of using Rogers material is the high performance provided at
high-frequency applications. The table below compares Rogers material
with FR4.

Properties Rogers PCB material FR4

Cost High Lower
Dielectric constant In the range of 3 to 3.5 4.5

value
Temperature Less variation with More variation with

management change in temperature change in temperature 19

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 Dissipation factor Low High
Impedance stability High Low
Signal loss Low High

There are different classes of materials that come under Rogers

materials. These are explained below.

2.4.1. RT/duroid™

Notes

RT/duroid 5880 laminates. Image credit: Rogers corporation

RT/duroid™ is a composite laminate material with random glass or

ceramic-filled PTFE. These substrates are further classified into different
types such as RT/duroid 5870, 5880, 5880LZ, 6002, etc. RT/duroid
laminates offer reduced electrical loss and moisture absorption, stable
dielectric constant, and low outgassing.

2.4.2. RO3000™
RO3000 materials are PTFE filled with ceramic composite laminates
suitable for microwave and RF applications. The mechanical properties
of these materials are very stable over the high operating frequencies.
The dielectric constant values range from 3 to 10.2. These materials
are available with or without woven glass reinforcements. RO3003™,
RP3003G2™, RO3006™, RO3010™, etc., are some of the variants.

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 Notes

2.4.3. RO4000™

RO4000 LoPro® laminates. Image credit: Rogers corporation

RO4000 laminates are hydrocarbon ceramic materials that are generally

used in microwave frequencies. These laminate materials are thermally
robust and offer dielectric constant values between 2.55 to 6.15. RO4000
materials are easier to fabricate and are available in UL-94 V-0 flame
retardant versions. RO4000 LoPro®, RO4003C, RO4350B, etc., are some of
the variants.

2.4.4. Rogers TMM®

Rogers TMM® materials are thermal microwave laminates that come
with good mechanical properties, low thermal coefficient, and uniform
dielectric constant. These materials are resistant to chemicals and
therefore no damages occur during manufacturing and assembly. TMM®
10, TMM® 10i, TMM® 13i, TMM® 3, TMM® 4, etc., are the available variants.

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 2.5. Materials for bonding
Apart from the materials for laminates, bonding materials are also required
to join different layers. These adhesives differ for RF materials as compared
to conventional ones. Commonly used ones are fluorinated ethylene
propylene (FEP), ceramic-filled PTFE, and liquid crystal polymer (LCP). The
important parameters for these materials are low lamination temperature
and low re-melt temperature.

2.6. Combination of materials

Notes
Hybrid multi-layer circuit boards are composite boards made of different
materials for different layers. This mix and match of substrates help the
PCBs to achieve the desired properties. Therefore, the combination of
materials results in properties that are difficult to achieve using a single
one. The range of dielectric constant and thermal tolerances are broadened
as well.
When the applications are critical and solely performance-oriented, then it
is best to opt for hybrid multi-layer boards.
The combination of materials also helps to achieve cost benefits. When
the board is manufactured on a strict budget, it is best to use the different
materials to reduce the cost. For example, use Rogers material only for the
RF layers, and FR4 for the normal component layers. Such construction
reduces the material cost.

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 Notes

3. Guidelines for RF and

microwave PCB design
An RF PCB layout differs from a conventional layout in some important
parameters. The EMI interference, high-frequency signal channeling, etc.,
are factors that make the design for a radio-frequency or microwave
circuit board complex.
Given below are some basic design guidelines to be followed for an
RF board layout:
• The traces are considered as transmission lines and hence either
CPWG or microstrip design should be selected.
• The characteristic impedance of the traces should be based on the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
• Keep a uniform trace width to achieve a constant characteristic
impedance value.
• In the case of CPWG traces, the gap between the RF trace and ground
planes on either side should be constant throughout.
• Make sure that in the top layer of a CPWG transmission line, the gap
between the ground planes is less than the height of the substrate.
• The ground impedance is kept as low as possible. High-frequency
circuits require minimum impedance. When an RF IC component is
grounded through a single via or a narrow trace, the resulting ground
impedance value is substantial. Hence, it is best to use more than one
via for grounding. A pair of vias instead of one will reduce the resulting
ground impedance to 50%. Also, add a ground plane under an IC or an
RF trace. All these design techniques reduce the ground impedance
values.
• Use ICs wherever possible as components. These ICs are already
tested by the manufacturer and come in compact packages.

3.1. What is an RF trace?

An RF trace is a trace on a PCB layout designed to propagate radio
frequency signals with minimum losses. Apart from the guidelines given 23
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 above, there are specific design rules for RF traces. These traces are the
transmission lines whose characteristic impedance decides the overall
performance of the circuit board.

Let us have a look at the trace requirements:

• Keep the trace lengths as short as possible. As the trace length
increases, the attenuation also increases.
• Never place a normal trace and RF trace parallel to each other. This
results in interference of signals.
• Always provide a ground plane for establishing the return path of the
trace currents.
• Test points should not be placed on the traces. They will disturb the
matched impedance values.
• Avoid bends in the trace. Bends tend to change the controlled
impedance values of an RF trace. But in situations where bends are
unavoidable, try to make a uniform gradually curved bend rather than a
Notes sharp right-angled one as shown below.

Desirable bends in RF traces

• The bend radius needs to be of a value as given in the following

equation:

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 Notes
• If a right-angled bend is absolutely necessary, then a corner
compensation method, as shown below should be employed

Mitering of an RF trace

This method is called mitering of the trace. The amount of material to

be cut out for mitering is calculated by using the formula.

Where M: width of mitering

W: width of the RF trace
H: height of the substrate

• All the RF traces require proper grounding planes to establish a

return path for the signals.
• Use stubs only if absolutely necessary. A stub will increase the
reactive part of the impedance. Thus, it is better to place the
components on the traces rather than introducing a stub to connect
them to a trace.
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 3.2. Grounding
Grounding ensures a return path for the current propagating through a
trace or component. In PCB design, ground planes are assigned to carry
out this process. In RF boards, there are some special considerations
for the ground planes. For every layer with radio-frequency traces and
components, a dedicated ground plane is required. This plane should be
placed immediately under the component plane to make the return path
the shortest.

Notes

Desired ground plane placement

The ground plane should never be broken. If this plane is broken or

interrupted, the return currents will flow through some other short path. As
a result, a new current loop is formed that creates unwanted inductance in
the circuit. The ground plane is designed as wide as the design allows it to
be. Narrow planes will increase signal leakage. It is a good practice to use
ground planes above and below a conductor to improve the performance.

3.2.1. Grounding of shunt components

The components connected in parallel to the RF trace have a peculiar
grounding requirement. A minimum of two grounding vias is needed
for any shunt component in an RF transmission line. More than one
grounding via, as explained earlier, reduces the parasitic capacitance.

3.2.2. Paddle
A ground paddle is a solid ground plane provided directly under an IC
component on the component layer. Apart from providing a return path for
the current, paddles act as heat sinks. Therefore, the maximum possible

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 Notes
number of vias as per the layout considerations are accommodated in
these paddles.

A ground paddle with vias under an IC component

The vias implemented for the heat transfer are ideally plated through-
hole vias filled with thermally conductive paste to assist the process.

3.3. Vias

Vias are used to interconnect different layers in the PCB. The introduction
of a via induces parasitic capacitance and affects the high-frequency
operation of RF boards. Hence, in these boards, the design and
implementation of vias need to follow some additional guidelines:
• Dedicated vias for each pin or pad of a component.
• The vias between the top layer ground fillings and inner ground layer
should be:
• Spaced at a distance, not more than 1/20 of the signal wavelength.
• As many as possible as allowed by the design.
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 Frequency Wavelength 1/20th wavelength
2.5GHz 12cm 6mm
3.0GHz 10cm 5mm
4.0GHz 7.5cm 3.75mm
5.0GHz 6cm 3mm

• Restrict the use of vias to route an RF trace from a layer to another.

• Ground vias are required near all the pins in the top layer.
• Introduce more parallel vias to reduce the parasitic inductance.

3.3.1. Ground stitching vias

Notes
Via stitching is a process to establish connections between copper areas in
different PCB layers using vias. Ground plane via stitching ensures a shorter
ground return path for the current. This low resistance path reduces heat
dissipation and voltage drop. If it is not done, then different ground planes
will have different resistances and voltage drops. Thus ground plane via
stitching uses vias to connect all the ground planes and maintains a uniform
voltage drop throughout the circuit board.

Ground vias connected together

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

 Notes

3.4. Power supply decoupling

Power supply decoupling is the process of filtering out the noise from
the power supply signals. Capacitors are used for this purpose and these
capacitors are termed decoupling capacitors. Noise that is carried on
from the power supply will affect the quality of the signal. It also affects
the sensitivity of the circuit, causes undesired interference, and thus
reduces the RF output quality. Therefore, decoupling capacitors are
connected across the power supply.
Decoupling capacitors increase the impedance of the existing circuit.
Hence, these capacitors should have the least impedance in order to
maintain the impedance matching of the RF circuit. A capacitor will offer
minimum impedance if it is operated at the self-resonant frequency
(SRF). Therefore, first, the frequency of the noise that occurs in the
circuit is calculated, then capacitors with SRF closer to that frequency are
chosen.

Power supply decoupling capacitors

For a particular IC package, the SRF value of a capacitor will be higher if

the capacitance value is lower and vice versa. The figure above shows a
simple circuit with two decoupling capacitors connected in parallel. The
capacitance value of one is higher and the other is lower. The higher
capacitor filters the low-frequency noise in the system and stores the
energy. The lower capacitor filters out the high-frequency noise.

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 3.4.1. Decoupling capacitor design guidelines
The following are the design considerations for placing decoupling
capacitors in radio-frequency circuit boards:
• Place the decoupling capacitors on the same layer with the
components.
• The capacitor with the lowest value of capacitance should be placed
near the power supply.
• Place the capacitors as close to the IC pins as possible.
• Use small capacitance for high-frequency transients and large
capacitance for low-frequency transients.
• Always place the capacitors in parallel to the signal path.
• Each decoupling capacitor requires a dedicated ground via. Never
Notes share ground vias.

Decoupling capacitor placement guidelines

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

 Notes

4. RF PCB stack-up
The design for any PCB stack-up has the main agenda to preserve the
signal integrity and power integrity as much as possible. In the case of
RF boards, it is critical to keep maximum power and signal integrity. The
three most important aspects in the radio-frequency stack-up design are
given below:

1. Isolation between components and traces: The chances of interference

between signals propagating through nearby circuit elements are high
in RF circuit boards. This is because of the high-frequency operation.
Isolation between circuit elements in the same layer is taken care of
during the layout design of the board. But the same problem arises
between layers as well. Hence, during the stack-up design, this issue is
considered and enough isolation is provided.
2. Decoupling: Proper decoupling is required between ground and power
planes.
3. Number of layers and their arrangement: Number of layers required
to give the proper isolation, decoupling, and their arrangement, is of
utmost importance. Power and ground planes are placed as adjacent
internal layers. Components are placed on the surface layer nearest to
the ground plane.
To get an optimized stack-up, try our Stackup Planner tool.

4.1. 2-layer stack-up

2-layer stack-ups are generally not preferred for RF circuit boards.
This stack-up will not be enough to give the required clearance to deal
with high-frequency boards. But in some applications, to save cost and
make the design simple, a 2-layer stack-up is employed. The operating
frequencies of these PCBs will be in the kHz range and not in the GHz
range. The room available to route the radio-frequency components
separately will be very less in this design. The designers should try to
include all the RF components, decoupling capacitors, traces, etc., in
the top layer and try to provide an individual layer for the ground. An

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 example stack-up is shown below:

A typical 2-layer RF PCB stack-up

Notes
4.2. 4-layer stack-up
4-layer stack-ups are the most commonly used structure for RF PCBs.
This stack-up offers a dedicated ground and power plane. All the radio-
frequency signals and components are arranged in a single layer. Power
and ground planes are arranged as inner layers adjacent to these
component layers. The substrate thickness between an RF trace and the
grounding plane also plays a role to determine the trace thickness. Hence,
to design a stack-up, it is necessary to consider this fact. An example
4-layer stack-up is given below:

4-layer RF stack-up example

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

 Notes
5. RF component selection
and placement
The RF components that are mounted on a board are always carefully
selected in order to enhance the operation. The basis of component
selection is the high-frequency tolerance and operation. But apart from
this, there are several guidelines to be followed.

5.1. Guidelines for component

selection

• Capacitors made of ceramic COG/NPO materials are preferred (for

matching circuits). These types of capacitors are stable over a wide
range of temperatures.
• X5R or X7R capacitors are suitable for decoupling.
• Capacitors with low ESR values are chosen.
• Quality factor (Q) of the capacitors should be high. It is the ratio
between the reactance and resistance of the capacitor at a given
frequency.
• The recommended package sizes are miniature ones like 0402, 0201,
etc.
• Inductors with high Q values are used for matching networks.
• The SRF for matching circuit inductors should be above the operating
frequency.
• Choose wire-wound ceramic inductors.
• The component bandwidth should be such that it matches the
required gain, power output, and expected power consumption.

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 5.2. Design checks for RF component
placement
The first rule of component placement for any PCB is to try and follow the
signal flow path. This remains the same for an RF circuit board as well.
The path for both the transmission and reception sides is illustrated in the
figure below.

Notes

Signal flow path for an RF communication circuit

Other than this, the following are the checks to carry out before placing RF
components on a high-frequency board.
• Never place the inductors on the radio-frequency circuit parallel to each
other with very little distance in between. This is to avoid cross-talk
caused by the mutual inductance between them. It is best to place them
orthogonal to each other.
• The antenna requires a keep-out area around it. This is the area
within which no other metallic objects should be placed. The keep-out
area avoids the placement of components in the near field around
the antenna that might affect its performance. It is not specific to
components alone, other board parts such as mounting screws also
shouldn’t be there in this specific region.
• Use a low-noise amplifier (LNA) at the reception side to reduce noises to
a minimum.
• Give enough clearance between the transmission and reception
channels.

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

 Notes

6. Testing requirements
Conventional circuit boards are tested by placing test points on
the circuit. But for an RF board, placing test points will increase the
impedance and stub lengths of the PCB. Therefore, tests such as in-
circuit, flying probe test, etc., cannot be carried out on a radio-frequency
printed circuit board.
• All the tests involving the radiation around the circuit board are done
in a controlled environment. This can be a sterile room or a faraday
cage.
• Connectors are provided for testing purposes alone. These are
removable after testing and may not be part of the final product.
These connectors verify the matching circuitry.
• Bluetooth low energy (BLE) testers are used to check the functionality
of RF paths and to record the parameters.

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 7. Isolation requirements to
avoid interference

Isolation is an extremely important factor to consider for high-frequency

PCBs. Since the frequencies are always in the radio-frequency or
microwave range, there are fields created around the conducting traces
and components. The interaction of any sort leads to losses of the signal.
Hence isolation requirements are properly studied during the design of RF
Notes boards. The three types of isolation are discussed below.

7.1. Spatial isolation

Spatial isolation helps to provide the required physical separation between
components or traces. Antennas are the elements in an RF circuit for which
spatial isolation is critical. In most modern-day high-frequency boards,
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth antennas are present. Both these antennas need
maximum possible separation from each other. At the same time, the total
available space is also limited. Therefore, different techniques are used to
provide the isolation. Some of these techniques to obtain spatial isolation
are discussed below:

7.1.1. Via fencing

One of the most popular techniques for isolation is called via fencing. This
method is generally used for the following:
• Shield microstrip and stripline transmission lines
• Provide fencing around circuit board edges
• Separate different functional units on the same board

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

 Notes
This is a cost-effective and simple method to provide spatial isolation. It
is used in contemporary circuit boards for BLE and Wi-Fi unit isolation.
This technique also prevents parasitic coupling between traces laid out in
close proximity to each other.

A via fence is formed by implementing a row of vias through the

substrate. In stripline transmission lines, via fences are employed on
both substrates above and below the RF trace. Thus grounding of these
vias is done using the respective top and bottom ground planes. But in
the case of microstrip lines, the top side does not have a ground plane.
Hence, the via fencing in the top layer is connected together with a metal
track as shown in the figure below.

Via-fencing in microstrip lines

7.1.2. X-Y axis isolation

Most of the RF circuit boards come with a mixed-signal design.
Therefore, different circuit types on the boards need maximum isolation
from each other. X-Y axis isolation is an easy way to achieve this. The
major demerit of using this type of isolation is that it requires a slot in
the stack-up. This slot will thus interrupt the continuity of the ground
plane, which is not desired. To avoid this, a bridge area is provided to
route the circuitry over from one part of the board to another. This

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 ensures the continuity of the planes and circuits.
The floorplan of such isolation is shown below:

Notes

Floorplan for X-Y isolation

Some of the important design aspects for X-Y isolation are mentioned next:
1. The slot may be a physical cut-out or a copper layer slot
2. RF layer and digital layer grounds are connected through the bridge
3. The bridge is formed on a ground plane at a specific location
4. The slot is designed to be a no-go zone with an exception only for the
ground layers since they need to be continuous
5. This method of spatial isolation is effective when the digital signals do
not penetrate much into the RF zones of the PCB
6. It helps to divide the digital and analog routing into two separate zones

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

 Notes

7.2. Frequency isolation

Isolation in frequency is achieved using either of the two methods listed
below:

7.2.1. RF shields
RF shields are conductive or magnetic material barriers to block
unwanted radio-frequency electromagnetic signals. These prevent
frequency interference between nearby components and traces. It
becomes crucial in the case of high-frequency components.

RF shields for isolation

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 7.2.2. Frequency hopping
Frequency hopping is a technique used to prevent signals from
interfering with each other. The RF signal transmitters change the
frequency of the carrier wave rapidly to occupy a wide spectral band. A
code is employed for this purpose that is known to both the transmitting
and receiving devices. This process is called frequency-hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS).

Notes

A plot representing frequency hopping

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

 Notes

The frequency band is further divided into many sub-bands and the
carrier wave frequency is switched between these sub-bands. Usually,
the Bluetooth and Wi-Fi modules are located closer to each other. Both of
these technologies are prone to failure due to interference. Therefore, it
is important to provide isolation between these modules, since both are
operating in identical frequency spectrums.
Wi-Fi uses a direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) and the carrier wave
does not change the frequency. In comparison, Bluetooth uses FHSS and
hops between 79 channels that are 1MHz wide. Thus frequency isolation is
attained between components in close proximity by frequency hopping.

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 8. RF board applications

RF boards are required in a wide range of modern-day devices that

include smartphones, tablets, laptops, wireless technology, sensors,
actuators, robotics, and many more. It is not possible to list out all
the applications that require the involvement of these circuit boards.
The materials that are used for the fabrication of radio-frequency and
microwave PCBs are application-specific. The chart below shows the type
of materials recommended for different areas of application.

Notes Application RF material

Space and military

RT/duroid RO4000

Medical
RO4350B

Consumer electronics
RO3006
RO3010
RO4835

Automotive
RO3003
RO4000
RO4350B

High power applications

6035HTC
XT/Duroid

Industrial
RO4835
RO4350B
XT/duroid

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

 Notes

The key takeaways from this design

guide are:

1. RF and microwave PCBs form the basic building blocks of the

wireless connectivity designs widely in use today.
2. The RF traces are equivalent to transmission lines carrying
high-frequency signals.
3. These radio-frequency transmission lines are impedance
matched to retain a 50Ω characteristic impedance
throughout.
4. Other critical design aspects of these circuit boards include
trace parameters, layout, power supply decoupling, ground
layer continuity, and stack-up.
5. Proper isolation is given to the RF traces and components to
prevent interference.
6. The type of substrate material decides the application of the
board.

All of the aspects discussed throughout this guide are in one

way or another important in the process of a radio-frequency
or microwave PCB design. We have tried to include all the
solutions to the problems one might face during this process.
Please get in touch with us to solve your queries or to place an
order at protoexpress.com.

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Sierra Circuits, Inc. We provide our customers with unprecedented quality, reliability,
1108 West Evelyn Avenue and a single point of support. No more miscommunication
Sunnyvale, CA 94086 between multiple vendors and no more delays.

We are ISO-9001:2008, ISO 13485:2016 and

MilSpec MIL-P-55110 certified.