Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Syllabus
Syllabus outline

Topic 1—Number and algebra 19 39

Topic 2—Functions 21 32

Topic 3— Geometry and 25 51

trigonometry

Topic 4—Statistics and 27 33

probability

Topic 5 —Calculus 28 55

The toolkit and the 30 30

mathematical exploration
Investigative, problem-
solving and modelling skills
development leading to
an individual exploration.
The exploration is a piece of
written work that involves
investigating an area of
mathematics.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

All topics are compulsory. Students must study all the sub-topics in each of the topics in the syllabus
as listed in this guide. Students are also required to be familiar with the topics listed as prior learning.

Prior learning topics

Prior to starting a DP mathematics course students have extensive previous mathematical
experiences, but these will vary. It is expected that mathematics students will be familiar with the
following topics before they take the examinations because questions assume knowledge of them.
Teachers must therefore ensure that any topics listed here that are unknown to their students at the
start of the course are included at an early stage. Teachers should also take into account the existing
mathematical knowledge of their students to design an appropriate course of study for mathematics.
This table lists the knowledge, together with the syllabus content, that is essential for successful
completion of the mathematics course.

Number and algebra

• Number systems: natural numbers ; integers, ; rationals, , and irrationals; real numbers,
• SI (Système International) units for mass, time, length and their derived units, eg. speed, area and
volume
• Rounding, decimal approximations and signi cant gures, including appreciation of errors
• De nition and elementary treatment of absolute value (modulus),
• Use of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division using integers, decimals and fractions,
including order of operations
• Prime numbers, factors (divisors) and multiples
• Greatest common factor (divisor) and least common multiples (HL only)
• Simple applications of ratio, percentage and proportion
• Manipulation of algebraic expressions, including factorization and expansion
• Rearranging formulae
• Calculating the numerical value of expressions by substitution
• Evaluating exponential expressions with simple positive exponents

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

• Evaluating exponential expressions with rational exponents (HL only)

• Use of inequalities, , intervals on the real number line
• Simpli cation of simple expressions involving roots (surds or radicals)
• Rationalising the denominator (HL only)
• Expression of numbers in the form , ,
• Familiarity with commonly accepted world currencies
• Solution of linear equations and inequalities
• Solution of quadratic equations and inequalities with rational coefficients (HL only)
• Solving systems of linear equations in two variables
• Concept and basic notation of sets. Operations on sets: union and intersection
• Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions (HL only).

Functions
• Graphing linear and quadratic functions using technology
• Mappings of the elements of one set to another. Illustration by means of sets of ordered pairs,
tables, diagrams and graphs.

Geometry and trigonometry

• Pythagoras’ theorem and its converse
• Mid-point of a line segment and the distance between two points in the Cartesian plane
• Geometric concepts: point, line, plane, angle
• Angle measurement in degrees, compass directions
• The triangle sum theorem
• Right-angle trigonometry, including simple applications for solving triangles
• Three- gure bearings
• Simple geometric transformations: translation, re ection, rotation, enlargement
• The circle, its centre and radius, area and circumference. The terms diameter, arc, sector, chord,
tangent and segment

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

• Perimeter and area of plane gures. Properties of triangles and quadrilaterals, including
parallelograms, rhombuses, rectangles, squares, kites and trapezoids; compound shapes
• Familiarity with three-dimensional shapes (prisms, pyramids, spheres, cylinders and cones)
• Volumes and surface areas of cuboids, prisms, cylinders, and compound three-dimensional shapes

Statistics and probability

• The collection of data and its representation in bar charts, pie charts, pictograms, and line graphs
• Obtaining simple statistics from discrete data, including mean, median, mode, range
• Calculating probabilities of simple events
• Venn diagrams for sorting data
• Tree diagrams

Calculus

Syllabus content
Topic 1: Number and algebra

Essential understandings:

Number and algebra allow us to represent patterns, show equivalencies and make generalizations
which enable us to model real-world situations. Algebra is an abstraction of numerical concepts and
employs variables which allow us to solve mathematical problems.  

Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:

Generalization, representation, modelling, equivalence, patterns, quantity

Validity, systems.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Content-speci c conceptual understandings:

• Modelling real-life situations with the structure of arithmetic and geometric sequences and series
allows for prediction, analysis and interpretation.
• Different representations of numbers enable equivalent quantities to be compared and used in
calculations with ease to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
• Numbers and formulae can appear in different, but equivalent, forms, or representations, which can
help us to establish identities.
• Formulae are a generalization made on the basis of speci c examples, which can then be extended
to new examples.
• Logarithm laws provide the means to nd inverses of exponential functions which model real-life
situations.
• Patterns in numbers inform the development of algebraic tools that can be applied to nd
unknowns.
• The binomial theorem is a generalization which provides an efficient method for expanding
binomial expressions.
AHL
• Proof serves to validate mathematical formulae and the equivalence of identities.
• Representing partial fractions and complex numbers in different forms allows us to easily carry out
seemingly difficult calculations.
• The solution for systems of equations can be carried out by a variety of equivalent algebraic and
graphical methods.

Recommended teaching hours: 19

The aim of the SL content of the number and algebra topic is to introduce students to numerical
concepts and techniques which, combined with an introduction to arithmetic and geometric
sequences and series, can be used for nancial and other applications. Students will also be
introduced to the formal concept of proof.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Sections SL1.1 to SL1.5 are content common to Mathematics: analysis and approaches and
Mathematics: applications and interpretation.

SL 1.1

Operations with numbers in the form Calculator or computer notation is

where and is an integer. acceptable. For example, 5.2E30 is
acceptable and should be written as .

Connections

: Very large and very small numbers, for example astronomical distances, sub-atomic
particles in physics, global nancial gures

: Chemistry (Avogadro’s number); physics (order of magnitude); biology

(microscopic measurements); sciences group subjects (uncertainty and precision of measurement)

The history of number from Sumerians and its development to the

present Arabic system

: Do the names that we give things impact how we understand them? For instance, what is the
impact of the fact that some large numbers are named, such as the googol and the googolplex, while
others are represented in this form?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 1.2

Arithmetic sequences and series. Spreadsheets, GDCs and graphing software may
be used to generate and display sequences in
Use of the formulae for the term and the
several ways.
sum of the rst terms of the sequence.
If technology is used in examinations, students
Use of sigma notation for sums of arithmetic
will be expected to identify the rst term and
sequences.
the common difference.

Applications. Examples include simple interest over a number

of years.

Analysis, interpretation and prediction where a Students will need to approximate common
model is not perfectly arithmetic in real life. differences.

Connections

: Aryabhatta is sometimes considered the “father of algebra”–compare

with alKhawarizmi; the use of several alphabets in mathematical notation (for example the use of
capital sigma for the sum).

: Is all knowledge concerned with identi cation and use of patterns? Consider Fibonacci numbers
and connections with the golden ratio.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 1.3

Geometric sequences and series. Spreadsheets, GDCs and graphing software may
Use of the formulae for the n th term and the be used to generate and display sequences in
sum of the rst n terms of the sequence. several ways.

Use of sigma notation for the sums of geometric If technology is used in examinations, students
sequences. will be expected to identify the rst term and
the ratio.
models/functions in topic 2 and
regression in topic 4.

Applications. Examples include the spread of disease, salary

increase and decrease and population growth.

Connections

Radioactive decay, nuclear physics, charging and discharging capacitors

(physics).

: The chess legend (Sissa ibn Dahir).

: How do mathematicians reconcile the fact that some conclusions seem to con ict with our
intuitions? Consider for instance that a nite area can be bounded by an in nite perimeter.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 1.4

Financial applications of geometric sequences Examination questions may require the use
and series: of technology, including built-in nancial
• compound interest packages.

• annual depreciation. The concept of simple interest may be used as

an introduction to compound interest.
Calculate the real value of an investment with an
interest rate and an in ation rate.
In examinations, questions that ask students to
derive the formula will not be set.
Compound interest can be calculated yearly,
half-yearly, quarterly or monthly.
: exponential models/functions in topic
2.

Connections

: Loans.

: Loans and repayments (economics and business management).

: Ethical perceptions of borrowing and lending money.

Do all societies view investment and interest in the same way?

How have technological advances affected the nature and practice of mathematics? Consider
the use of nancial packages for instance.

The concept of e can be introduced through continuous compounding, , as

, however this will not be examined.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

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SL 1.5

Laws of exponents with integer exponents.

, ,

, .

Introduction to logarithms with base 10 and e. Awareness that is equivalent to

Numerical evaluation of logarithms using , that , and .
technology.

Connections

Richter scale and decibel scale.

Calculation of pH and buffer solutions (chemistry)

: Is mathematics invented or discovered? For instance, consider the number e or logarithms–did

they already exist before man de ned them? (This topic is an opportunity for teachers to generate
re ection on “the nature of mathematics”).

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 1.6

Simple deductive proof, numerical and Show that . Show

algebraic; how to lay out a left-hand side to
that the algebraic generalisation of this is
right-hand side (LHS to RHS) proof.
The symbols and notation for equality and
identity. LHS to RHS proofs require students to begin
with the left-hand side expression and transform
this using known algebraic steps into the
expression on the right-hand side (or vice versa).

Show that .
Students will be expected to show how they can
check a result including a check of their own
results.

Connections

Is mathematical reasoning different from scienti c reasoning, or reasoning in other Areas of

Knowledge?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 1.7

Laws of exponents with rational exponents. , if is even this refers to the positive

root. For example: .

Laws of logarithms. ; , ,

introduction to logarithms (SL1.5)

for

logarithmic and exponential graphs

(SL2.9)

Change of base of a logarithm.

, for

Solving exponential equations, including using

, .
logarithms.
using logarithmic and exponential
graphs (SL2.9).

Connections

pH, buffer calculations and nding activation energy from experimental data
(chemistry).

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

How have seminal advances, such as the development of logarithms, changed the way in which
mathematicians understand the world and the nature of mathematics?

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SL 1.8

Sum of in nite convergent geometric Use of and modulus notation.

sequences.
: geometric sequences and series (SL1.3).

Connections

Is it possible to know about things of which we can have no experience, such as in nity?

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SL 1.9

The binomial theorem: Counting principles may be used in the

development of the theorem.
expansion of .

Use of Pascal’s triangle and . should be found using the formula

and technology.

Find when , using a table

of values generated with technology.

Connections

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Ethics in mathematics–Pascal’s triangle. Attributing the origin of a mathematical discovery to

the wrong mathematician.

The properties of “Pascal’s triangle” have been known in a number of

different cultures long before Pascal. (for example the Chinese mathematician Yang Hui).

How have notable individuals shaped the development of mathematics as an area of

knowledge? Consider Pascal and “his” triangle.

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Recommended teaching hours: 20

The aim of the AHL content in the number and algebra topic is to extend and build upon the aims,
concepts and skills from the SL content. It introduces students to some important techniques
for expansion, simpli cation and solution of equations. Complex numbers are introduced and
students will extend their knowledge of formal proof to proof by mathematical induction, proof by
contradiction and proof by counterexample.

AHL 1.10

Counting principles, including permutations and Permutations where some

combinations. objects are identical. Circular arrangements.

Extension of the binomial theorem to fractional

,
and negative indices, ie .
: power series expansions (AHL5.19)
Proof of binomial theorem.

Connections

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Finding approximations to

How many different tickets are possible in a lottery? What does this tell us about the ethics of
selling lottery tickets to those who do not understand the implications of these large numbers?

: The properties of “Pascal’s triangle” have been known in a number of

different cultures long before Pascal (for example the Chinese mathematician Yang Hui).

: What counts as understanding in mathematics? Is it more than just getting the right answer?

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AHL 1.11

Partial fractions. Maximum of two distinct linear terms in the

denominator, with degree of numerator less
than the degree of the denominator.

use of partial fractions to rearrange the

integrand (AHL5.15).

Connections

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 1.12

Complex numbers: the number , where

.
Cartesian form ; the terms real part,
imaginary part, conjugate, modulus and
argument.

The complex plane. The complex plane is also known as the Argand
diagram.
vectors (AHL3.12).

Connections

Concepts in electrical engineering impedance as a combination of resistance and

reactance, also apparent power as a combination of real and reactive powers. These combinations
take the form .

: How does language shape knowledge? For example, do the words “imaginary” and “complex”
make the concepts more difficult than if they had different names?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 1.13

Modulus–argument (polar) form: The ability to convert between Cartesian,

modulus-argument (polar) and Euler form is
.
expected.
Euler form:

Sums, products and quotients in Cartesian,

polar or Euler forms and their geometric
interpretation.

Connections

: Concepts in electrical engineering–phase angle/shift, power factor and apparent

power as a complex quantity in polar form.

: Why might it be said that is beautiful? What is the place of beauty and elegance in
mathematics? What about the place of creativity?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 1.14

Complex conjugate roots of quadratic and Complex roots occur in conjugate pairs.
polynomial equations with real coefficients.

De Moivre’s theorem and its extension to Includes proof by induction for the case where
rational exponents. .
Powers and roots of complex numbers. sum and product of roots of polynomial
equations (AHL 2.12), compound angle
identities (AHL 3.10).

Connections

Could we ever reach a point where everything important in a mathematical sense is known?
Re ect on the creation of complex numbers before their applications were known.

Can De Moivre’s theorem be extended to all ?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 1.15

Proof by mathematical induction. Proof should be incorporated throughout the

course where appropriate.
Mathematical induction links speci cally to a
wide variety of topics, for example complex
numbers, differentiation, sums of sequences and
divisibility.

Proof by contradiction. Irrationality of ; irrationality of

the cube root of 5; Euclid’s proof of an in nite
number of prime numbers; if is a rational
number and is an irrational number, then
is an irrational number.

Use of a counterexample to show that a Consider the set of numbers of the

statement is not always true. form , show that not all
elements of are prime.
Show that the following statement
is not always true: there are no positive integer
solutions to the equation .
It is not sufficient to state the counterexample
alone. Students must explain why their example
is a counterexample.

Connections

The Four-colour theorem

: How did the Pythagoreans nd out that is irrational?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

: What is the role of the mathematical community in determining the validity of a mathematical
proof? Do proofs provide us with completely certain knowledge? What is the difference between the
inductive method in science and proof by induction in mathematics?

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AHL 1.16

Solutions of systems of linear equations These systems should be solved using both
(a maximum of three equations in three algebraic and technological methods, for
unknowns), including cases where there is a example row reduction or matrices.
unique solution, an in nite number of solutions Systems which have no solution(s) are
or no solution. inconsistent.
Finding a general solution for a system with an
in nite number of solutions.
intersection of lines and planes (AHL
3.18).

Connections

Mathematics, Sense, Perception and Reason: If we can nd solutions in higher dimensions can
we reason that these spaces exist beyond our sense perception?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Topic 2: Functions

Essential understandings

Models are depictions of real-life events using expressions, equations or graphs while a function is
de ned as a relation or expression involving one or more variables. Creating different representations
of functions to model the relationships between variables, visually and symbolically as graphs,
equations and tables represents different ways to communicate mathematical ideas.

Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:

Representation, relationships, space, quantity, equivalence.

Systems, patterns.

Content-speci c conceptual understandings:

• Different representations of functions, symbolically and visually as graphs, equations and tables
provide different ways to communicate mathematical relationships.
• The parameters in a function or equation correspond to geometrical features of a graph and can
represent physical quantities in spatial dimensions.
• Moving between different forms to represent functions allows for deeper understanding and
provides different approaches to problem solving.
• Our spatial frame of reference affects the visible part of a function and by changing this “window”
can show more or less of the function to best suit our needs.
• Equivalent representations of quadratic functions can reveal different characteristics of the same
relationship.
• Functions represent mappings that assign to each value of the independent variable (input) one
and only one dependent variable (output).
AHL
• Extending results from a speci c case to a general form can allow us to apply them to a larger
system.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

• Patterns can be identi ed in behaviours which can give us insight into appropriate strategies to
model or solve them.
• The intersection of a system of equations may be represented graphically and algebraically and
represents the solution that satis es the equations.

Recommended teaching hours: 21

The aim of the SL content in the functions topic is to introduce students to the important unifying
theme of a function in mathematics and to apply functional methods to a variety of mathematical
situations.

Throughout this topic students should be given the opportunity to use technology, such as graphing
packages and graphing calculators to develop and apply their knowledge of functions, rather than
using elaborate analytic techniques.

On examination papers:

• questions may be set requiring the graphing of functions that do not explicitly appear on the
syllabus
• the domain will be the largest possible domain for which a function is de ned unless otherwise
stated; this will usually be the real numbers

Sections SL2.1 to SL2.4 are content common to both Mathematics: analysis and approaches and
Mathematics: applications and interpretation.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 2.1

Different forms of the equation of a straight line. (gradient-intercept form).

Gradient; intercepts. (general form).
Lines with gradients and
(point-gradient form).
Parallel lines .
Calculate gradients of inclines such as mountain
Perpendicular lines . roads, bridges, etc.

Connections

Gradients of mountain roads, gradients of access ramps.

Exchange rates and price and income elasticity, demand and supply curves
(economics); graphical analysis in experimental work (sciences group subjects).

: Descartes showed that geometric problems could be solved algebraically and vice versa. What
does this tell us about mathematical representation and mathematical knowledge?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 2.2

Concept of a function, domain, range and graph. , the domain is ,

Function notation, for example range is .
. A graph is helpful in visualizing the range.
The concept of a function as a mathematical
model.

Informal concept that an inverse function Solving is equivalent to

reverses or undoes the effect of a function. nding .
Inverse function as a re ection in the line , Students should be aware that inverse functions
and the notation . exist for one to one functions; the domain of
is equal to the range of .

Connections

Temperature and currency conversions

Currency conversions and cost functions (economics and business

management); projectile motion (physics).

What is the relationship between real-world problems and mathematical models?

: The development of functions by Rene Descartes (France), Gottfried

Wilhelm Leibnitz (Germany) and Leonhard Euler (Switzerland); the notation for functions was
developed by a number of different mathematicians in the 17th and 18th centuries–how did the
notation we use today become internationally accepted?

: Do you think mathematics or logic should be classi ed as a language?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

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SL 2.3

The graph of a function; its equation . Students should be aware of the difference

between the command terms “draw” and
“sketch”.

Creating a sketch from information given or a All axes and key features should be labelled.
context, including transferring a graph from This may include functions not speci cally
screen to paper. mentioned in topic 2.
Using technology to graph functions including
their sums and differences.

Connections

Sketching and interpreting graphs (sciences group subjects, geography,

economics).

: Does studying the graph of a function contain the same level of mathematical rigour as studying
the function algebraically? What are the advantages and disadvantages of having different forms and
symbolic language in mathematics?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 2.4

Determine key features of graphs. Maximum and minimum values; intercepts;

symmetry; vertex; zeros of functions or roots of
equations; vertical and horizontal asymptotes
using graphing technology.

Finding the points of intersection of two curves

or lines using technology.

Connections

Identi cation and interpretation of key features of graphs (sciences

group subjects, geography, economics); production possibilities curve model, market equilibrium
(economics).

: Bourbaki group analytical approach versus the Mandelbrot visual

approach.

Graphing technology with sliders to determine the effects of altering parameters

and variables.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 2.5

Composite functions.

Identity function. Finding the inverse function

. The existence of an inverse for one-to-one
functions.
: concept of inverse function as a
re ection in the line (SL 2.2).

Connections

: Do you think mathematics or logic should be classi ed as a language?

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SL 2.6

The quadratic function : its A quadratic graph is also called a parabola.

graph, -intercept . Axis of symmetry. : transformations (SL 2.11).
The form , Candidates are expected to be able to change
- intercepts   and . from one form to another.

The form , vertex .

Connections

Kinematics, projectile motion and simple harmonic motion (physics).

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

: Are there fundamental differences between mathematics and other areas of knowledge? If so,
are these differences more than just methodological differences?

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SL 2.7

Solution of quadratic equations and inequalities. Using factorization, completing the square
The quadratic formula. (vertex form), and the quadratic formula.
Solutions may be referred to as roots or zeros.

The discriminant and the nature : For the equation ,

of the roots, that is, two distinct real roots, two nd the possible values of , which will give two
equal real roots, no real roots. distinct real roots, two equal real roots or no real
roots.

Connections

Projectile motion and energy changes in simple harmonic motion (physics);

equilibrium equations (chemistry).

: The Babylonian method of multiplication: . Sulba

Sutras in ancient India and the Bakhshali Manuscript contained an algebraic formula for solving
quadratic equations.

: What are the key concepts that provide the building blocks for mathematical knowledge?

Dynamic graphing software with a slider.

Deriving the quadratic formula by completing the square.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

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SL 2.8

The reciprocal function : its

graph and self-inverse nature.

Sketches should include all horizontal and

Rational functions of the form and
vertical asymptotes and any intercepts with the
their graphs.
axes.
Equations of vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
transformations (SL2.11).

Vertical asymptote: ;

Horizontal asymptote: .

Connections

: The development of functions, Rene Descartes (France), Gottfried

Wilhelm Leibniz (Germany) and Leonhard Euler (Switzerland).

: What are the implications of accepting that mathematical knowledge changes over time?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 2.9

Exponential functions and their graphs: : nancial applications of geometric

sequences and series (SL 1.4).
, ,
Relationships between these functions:
Logarithmic functions and their graphs:
; ,
, , , .
Exponential and logarithmic functions as
inverses of each other.

Connections

Radioactive decay, charging and discharging capacitors (physics); rst order

reactions and activation energy (chemistry); growth curves (biology).

The phrase “exponential growth” is used popularly to describe a number of phenomena. Is ths
a misleading use of a mathematical term?

: What role do “models” play in mathematics? Do they play a different role in mathematics
compared to their role in other areas of knowledge?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 2.10

Solving equations, both graphically and .

analytically.
function graphing skills (SL 2.3).

Use of technology to solve a variety of

equations, including those where there is no
appropriate analytic approach.

Applications of graphing skills and solving exponential growth (SL 2.9)

equations that relate to real-life situations.

Connections

Radioactive decay and population growth and decay, compound interest, projectile
motion, braking distances.

Radioactive decay (physics); modelling (sciences group subjects); production

possibilities curve model (economics).

: What assumptions do mathematicians make when they apply mathematics to real-life

situations?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 2.11

Transformations of graphs. Students should be aware of the relevance

Translations: . of the order in which transformations are
performed.
Re ections (in both axes):
. Dynamic graphing packages could be used to
investigate these transformations.
Vertical stretch with scale factor : .

Horizontal stretch with scale factor : .

Composite transformations. Using to sketch

composite functions (SL2.5).
: transformations of the form
.

Connections

Shift in supply and demand curves (Economics); induced emf and simple
harmonic motion (physics).

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Recommended teaching hours: 11

The aim of the AHL functions topic is to extend and build upon the aims, concepts and skills from the
SL content. It introduces students to useful techniques for nding and using roots of polynomials,
graphing and interpreting rational functions, additional ways to classify functions, solving inequations
and solving equations involving modulus notation.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

HL students may be required to use technology to solve equations where there is no appropriate
analytic approach.

AHL 2.12

Polynomial functions, their graphs and

equations; zeros, roots and factors.
The factor and remainder theorems.

Sum and product of the roots of polynomial

For the polynomial equation: ,
equations.

the sum is

the product is

complex roots of quadratic and

polynomial equations (AHL 1.14).

Connections

Modelling (sciences group subjects)

Is it an oversimpli cation to say that some areas of knowledge give us facts whereas other areas
of knowledge give us interpretations?

Viete’s theorem in full, “The equation that couldn’t be solved” quadratic formula
reducing a quadratic to a linear, Cardano and Bombelli.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 2.13

Rational functions of the form The reciprocal function is a particular case.

Graphs should include all asymptotes
, and
(horizontal, vertical and oblique) and any
intercepts with axes.
Dynamic graphing packages could be used to
investigate these functions.
rational functions (SL 2.8).

Connections

: Bourbaki group analytical approach versus Mandelbrot visual approach.

: Does studying the graph of a function contain the same level of mathematical rigour as studying
the function algebraically? What are the advantages and disadvantages of having different forms and
symbolic language in mathematics?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 2.14

Odd and even functions. Even:

Odd:
Includes periodic functions.

Finding the inverse function, ,

including domain restriction.

Self-inverse functions.

Connections

: The notation for functions was developed by a number of different

mathematicians in the 17th and 18th centuries. How did the notation we use today become
internationally accepted?

: If systems of notation and measurement are culturally and historically situated, does this mean
mathematics cannot be seen as independent of culture?

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AHL 2.15

Solutions of , both graphically and Graphical or algebraic methods for simple

analytically. polynomials up to degree 3. Use of technology
for these and other functions.

Connections

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

: Are there differences in terms of value that different cultures ascribe to mathematics, or to the
relative value that they ascribe to different areas of knowledge?

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AHL 2.16

The graphs of the functions, Dynamic graphing packages could be used to

investigate these transformations.
and

Solution of modulus equations and inequalities.

Connections

: The Bourbaki group analytic approach versus Mandlebrot visual

approach.

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Topic 3: Geometry and trigonometry

Essential understandings:

Geometry and trigonometry allows us to quantify the physical world, enhancing our spatial awareness
in two and three dimensions. This topic provides us with the tools for analysis, measurement and
transformation of quantities, movements and relationships.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:

Generalization, space, relationships, equivalence, representation,

Quantity, Modelling.

Content-speci c conceptual understandings:

• The properties of shapes depend on the dimension they occupy in space.
• Volume and surface area of shapes are determined by formulae, or general mathematical
relationships or rules expressed using symbols or variables.
• The relationships between the length of the sides and the size of the angles in a triangle can be
used to solve many problems involving position, distance, angles and area.
• Equivalent measurement systems, such as degrees and radians, can be used for angles to facilitate
ease of calculation.
• Different representations of the values of trigonometric relationships, such as exact or approximate,
may not be equivalent to one another.
• The trigonometric functions of angles may be de ned on the unit circle, which can visually and
algebraically represent the periodic or symmetric nature of their values.
AHL
• Position and movement can be modelled in three-dimensional space using vectors.
• The relationships between algebraic, geometric and vector methods can help us to solve problems
and quantify those positions and movements.

Recommended teaching hours: 25

The aim of the SL content of the geometry and trigonometry topic is to introduce students to
geometry in three dimensions and to non right-angled trigonometry. Students will explore the circular
functions and use properties and identities to solve problems in abstract and real-life contexts.

Throughout this topic students should be given the opportunity to use technology such as graphing
packages, graphing calculators and dynamic geometry software to develop and apply their
knowledge of geometry and trigonometry.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

On examination papers, radian measure should be assumed unless otherwise indicated.

Sections SL3.1 to SL3.3 are content common to both Mathematics: analysis and approaches and
Mathematics: applications and interpretation.

SL 3.1

The distance between two points in three- In SL examinations, only right-angled

dimensional space, and their midpoint. trigonometry questions will be set in reference
Volume and surface area of three-dimensional to three-dimensional shapes.
solids including right-pyramid, right cone, In problems related to these topics, students
sphere, hemisphere and combinations of these should be able to identify relevant right-angled
solids. triangles in three-dimensional objects and use
The size of an angle between two intersecting them to nd unknown lengths and angles.
lines or between a line and a plane.

Connections

Architecture and design.

Design technology; volumes of stars and inverse square law (physics).

: What is an axiomatic system? Are axioms self evident to everybody?

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38
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 3.2

Use of sine, cosine and tangent ratios to nd the In all areas of this topic, students should be
sides and angles of right-angled triangles. encouraged to sketch well-labelled diagrams to
support their solutions.
inverse functions (SL2.2) when nding
angles.

This section does not include the ambiguous

The sine rule: .
case of the sine rule.
The cosine rule:

Area of a triangle as .

Connections

Triangulation, map-making.

Vectors (physics).

: Diagrams of Pythagoras’ theorem occur in early Chinese and Indian

manuscripts. The earliest references to trigonometry are in Indian mathematics; the use of
triangulation to nd the curvature of the Earth in order to settle a dispute between England and
France over Newton’s gravity.

: Is it ethical that Pythagoras gave his name to a theorem that may not have been his own
creation? What criteria might we use to make such a judgment?

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39
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 3.3

Applications of right and non-right angled Contexts may include use of bearings.
trigonometry, including Pythagoras’s theorem.
Angles of elevation and depression.
Construction of labelled diagrams from written
statements.

Connections

Triangulation, map-making, navigation and radio transmissions. Use of parallax for

navigation.

Vectors, scalars, forces and dynamics (physics); eld studies (sciences group
subjects)

Who really invented Pythagoras’s theorem?

In how many ways can you prove Pythagoras’s theorem?

: The use of triangulation to nd the curvature of the Earth in order to

settle a dispute between England and France over Newton’s gravity.

: If the angles of a triangle can add up to less than 180°, 180° or more than 180°, what does this tell
us about the nature of mathematical knowledge?

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40
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 3.4

The circle: radian measure of angles; length of Radian measure may be expressed as exact
an arc; area of a sector. multiples of , or decimals.

Connections

Diffraction patterns and circular motion (physics).

Seki Takakazu calculating to ten decimal places; Hipparchus, Menelaus

and Ptolemy; Why are there 360 degrees in a complete turn? Links to Babylonian mathematics.

Which is a better measure of angle: radian or degree? What criteria can/do/should

mathematicians use to make such decisions?

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41
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 3.5

De nition of , in terms of the unit Includes the relationship between angles in

circle. different quadrants.

The equation of a straight line through the

De nition of as .
origin is , where is the angle formed
between the line and positive -axis.

Exact values of trigonometric ratios of 0, , ,

, ,
, and their multiples.

Extension of the sine rule to the ambiguous

case.

Connections

The rst work to refer explicitly to the sine as a function of an angle is the
Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata (ca 510).

Trigonometry was developed by successive civilizations and cultures. To what extent is

mathematical knowledge embedded in particular traditions or bound to particular cultures? How
have key events in the history of mathematics shaped its current form and methods?

The proof of Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions

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42
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 3.6

The Pythagorean identity . Simple geometrical diagrams and dynamic

graphing packages may be used to illustrate the
Double angle identities for sine and cosine.
double angle identities (and other trigonometric
identities).

The relationship between trigonometric ratios.

Given , nd possible values of ,
(without nding ).

Given and is acute, nd ,

(without nding ).

Connections

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43
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 3.7

The circular functions , , and ; Trigonometric functions may have domains

amplitude, their periodic nature, and their given in degrees or radians.
graphs
,
Composite functions of the form
.
.

Transformations. used to obtain

by a stretch of scale factor 3 in the direction
and a stretch of scale factor  in the
direction.
transformations of graphs (SL2.11).

Real-life contexts. height of tide, motion of a Ferris

wheel.
Students should be aware that not all regression
technology produces trigonometric functions in
the form .

Connections

Simple harmonic motion (physics).

Music can be expressed using mathematics. What does this tell us about the relationship
between music and mathematics?

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44
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 3.8

Solving trigonometric equations in a nite

interval, both graphically and analytically.

Equations leading to quadratic equations in for

or . ,

The general solution of

trigonometric equations.

Connections
Download connections template

Recommended teaching hours: 26

The aim of the AHL content in the geometry and trigonometry topic is to extend and build upon the
aims, concepts and skills from the SL content. It further explores the circular functions, introduces
some important trigonometric identities, and introduces vectors in two and three dimensions. This
will facilitate problem-solving involving points, lines and planes.

On examination papers radian measure should be assumed unless otherwise indicated.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 3.9

De nition of the reciprocal trigonometric ratios

, and .

Pythagorean identities:

The inverse functions

; their domains
and ranges; their graphs.

Connections

The origin of degrees in the mathematics of Mesopotamia and why we

use minutes and seconds for time; the origin of the word sine.

What is the relationship between concepts and facts? To what extent do the concepts that we
use shape the conclusions that we reach?

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AHL 3.10

Compound angle identities. Derivation of double angle identities from

Double angle identity for tan. compound angle identities.
De Moivre’s theorem (AHL1.14).

Connections

Triangulation used by GPSs (global positioning systems); concepts in electrical

engineering including generation of sinusoidal voltage.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Download connections template

AHL 3.11

Relationships between trigonometric functions

and the symmetry properties of their graphs.
: the unit circle (SL3.5), odd and even
functions (AHL2.14), compound angles
(AHL3.10).

Connections

Simple harmonic motion graphs (physics)

: Mathematics and knowledge claims: how can there be an in nite number of discrete solutions to
an equation?

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47
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 3.12

Concept of a vector; position vectors;

displacement vectors.
Representation of vectors using directed line
segments.
Base vectors .
Components of a vector:

Algebraic and geometric approaches to the Distance between points and is the
following: magnitude of
• the sum and difference of two vectors
• the zero vector , the vector
• multiplication by a scalar, , parallel vectors
•
magnitude of a vector, ; unit vectors,

•
position vectors
•
displacement vector
Proofs of geometrical properties using vectors.

Connections

Vectors, scalars, forces and dynamics (physics).

Vectors are used to solve many problems in position location. This can be used to save a lost
sailor or destroy a building with a laser-guided bomb.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

: Vectors are used to solve many problems in position location. This can be used to save a lost
sailor or destroy a building with a laser-guided bomb. To what extent does possession of knowledge
carry with it an ethical obligation?

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AHL 3.13

The de nition of the scalar product of two Applications of the properties of the scalar
vectors. product
The angle between two vectors. ;
Perpendicular vectors; parallel vectors. ;

.
, where is the angle
between and .
For non-zero vectors is equivalent to
the vectors being perpendicular; for parallel
vectors .

Connections

Forces and dynamics (physics).

: The nature of mathematics: why this de nition of scalar product?

Proof of the cosine rule using the dot product.

49
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Download connections template

AHL 3.14

Vector equation of a line in two and three Relevance of (position) and (direction).
dimensions: Knowledge of the following forms for equations
. of lines:
Parametric form:
, , .

Cartesian form:

The angle between two lines. Using the scalar product of the two direction
vectors.

Simple applications to kinematics. Interpretation of as time and as velocity,

with representing speed.

Connections

Modelling linear motion in three dimensions; navigational devices, for example GPS.

: Why might it be argued that one form of representation is superior to another? What criteria
might a mathematician use in making such an argument?

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50
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 3.15

Coincident, parallel, intersecting and skew lines, Skew lines are non-parallel lines that do not
distinguishing between these cases. intersect in three-dimensional space.
Points of intersection.

Connections

: How can there be an in nite number of discrete solutions to an equation? What does this
suggest about the nature of mathematical knowledge and how it compares to knowledge in other
disciplines?

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51
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 3.16

The de nition of the vector product of two The vector product is also known as the “cross
vectors. product”.
, where
is the angle between and , and is the unit
normal vector whose direction is given by the
right-hand screw rule.

Properties of the vector product. ;

;
.
For non-zero vectors is equivalent to
the vectors being parallel.

Geometric interpretation of Use of to nd the area of a parallelogram

(and hence a triangle).

Connections

Magnetic forces and elds (physics).

: To what extent is certainty attainable in mathematics? Is certainty attainable, or desirable, in

other areas of knowledge?

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52
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 3.17

Vector equations of a plane:

, where and are non-parallel
vectors within the plane.
, where is a normal to the plane and
is the position vector of a point on the plane.
Cartesian equation of a plane .

Connections
Download connections template

AHL 3.18

Intersections of: a line with a plane; two planes; Finding intersections by solving equations;
three planes. geometrical interpretation of solutions.
Angle between: a line and a plane; two planes. : solutions of systems of linear equations
(AHL 1.16).

Connections

: Mathematics and the knower: are symbolic representations of three-dimensional objects easier
to deal with than visual representations? What does this tell us about our knowledge of mathematics
in other dimensions?

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53
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Topic 4: Statistics and probability

Essential understandings:

Statistics is concerned with the collection, analysis and interpretation of data and the theory of
probability can be used to estimate parameters, discover empirical laws, test hypotheses and predict
the occurrence of events. Statistical representations and measures allow us to represent data in many
different forms to aid interpretation.

Probability enables us to quantify the likelihood of events occurring and so evaluate risk. Both
statistics and probability provide important representations which enable us to make predictions,
valid comparisons and informed decisions. These elds have power and limitations and should be
applied with care and critically questioned to differentiate between the theoretical and the empirical/
observed. Probability theory allows us to make informed choices, to evaluate risk, and to make
predictions about seemingly random events.

Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:

Quantity, validity, approximation, generalization.

Change, systems.

Content-speci c conceptual understandings:

• Organizing, representing, analysing and interpreting data and utilizing different statistical tools
facilitates prediction and drawing of conclusions.
• Different statistical techniques require justi cation and the identi cation of their limitations and
validity.
• Approximation in data can approach the truth but may not always achieve it.
• Some techniques of statistical analysis, such as regression, standardization or formulae, can be
applied in a practical context to apply to general cases.
• Modelling through statistics can be reliable, but may have limitations.
AHL

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

• Properties of probability density functions can be used to identify measure of central tendency
such as mean, mode and median.
• Probability methods such as Bayes theorem can be applied to real-world systems, such as medical
studies or economics, to inform decisions and to better understand outcomes.

Recommended teaching hours: 27

The aim of the SL content in the statistics and probability topic is to introduce students to the
important concepts, techniques and representations used in statistics and probability. Students
should be given the opportunity to approach this topic in a practical way, to understand why
certain techniques are used and to interpret the results. The use of technology such as simulations,
spreadsheets, statistics software and statistics apps can greatly enhance this topic.

It is expected that most of the calculations required will be carried out using technology, but
explanations of calculations by hand may enhance understanding. The emphasis is on understanding
and interpreting the results obtained, in context.

In examinations students should be familiar with how to use the statistics functionality of allowed
technology.

At SL the data set will be considered to be the population unless otherwise stated.

Sections SL4.1 to SL4.9 are content common to both Mathematics: analysis and approaches and
Mathematics: applications and interpretation.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 4.1

Concepts of population, sample, random This is designed to cover the key questions that
sample, discrete and continuous data. students should ask when they see a data set/
analysis.

Reliability of data sources and bias in sampling. Dealing with missing data, errors in the
recording of data.

Interpretation of outliers. Outlier is de ned as a data item which is more

than 1.5 × interquartile range (IQR) from the
nearest quartile.
Awareness that, in context, some outliers are a
valid part of the sample but some outlying data
items may be an error in the sample.
: box and whisker diagrams (SL4.2) and
measures of dispersion (SL4.3).

Sampling techniques and their effectiveness. Simple random, convenience, systematic, quota
and strati ed sampling methods.

Connections

Descriptive statistics and random samples (biology, psychology, sports

exercise and health science, environmental systems and societies, geography, economics; business
management); research methodologies (psychology).

Misleading statistics; examples of problems caused by absence of representative samples,

for example Google u predictor, US presidential elections in 1936, Literary Digest v George Gallup,
Boston “pot-hole” app.

: The Kinsey report–famous sampling techniques.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

: Why have mathematics and statistics sometimes been treated as separate subjects? How easy is
it to be misled by statistics? Is it ever justi able to purposely use statistics to mislead others?

Download connections template

SL 4.2

Presentation of data (discrete and continuous): Class intervals will be given as inequalities,
frequency distributions (tables). without gaps.

Histograms. Frequency histograms with equal class intervals.

Cumulative frequency; cumulative frequency Frequency density histograms.
graphs; use to nd median, quartiles,
percentiles, range and interquartile range (IQR).

Production and understanding of box and Use of box and whisker diagrams to compare
whisker diagrams. two distributions, using symmetry, median,
interquartile range or range. Outliers should be
indicated with a cross.
Determining whether the data may be normally
distributed by consideration of the symmetry of
the box and whiskers.

Connections

Presentation of data (sciences, individuals and societies).

: Discussion of the different formulae for the same statistical measure (for
example, variance).

: What is the difference between information and data? Does “data” mean the same thing in
different areas of knowledge?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Download connections template

SL 4.3

Measures of central tendency (mean, median Calculation of mean using formula and
and mode). technology.
Estimation of mean from grouped data. Students should use mid-interval values to
estimate the mean of grouped data.

Modal class. For equal class intervals only.

Measures of dispersion (interquartile range, Calculation of standard deviation and variance

standard deviation and variance). of the sample using only technology, however
hand calculations may enhance understanding.
Variance is the square of the standard deviation.

Effect of constant changes on the original data. If three is subtracted from the data
items, then the mean is decreased by three, but
the standard deviation is unchanged.
If all the data items are doubled, the mean is
doubled and the standard deviation is also
doubled.

Quartiles of discrete data. Using technology. Awareness that different

methods for nding quartiles exist and therefore
the values obtained using technology and by
hand may differ.

Connections

Comparing variation and spread in populations, human or natural, for example

agricultural crop data, social indicators, reliability and maintenance.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Descriptive statistics (sciences and individuals and societies); consumer price

index (economics).

: The bene ts of sharing and analysing data from different countries;

discussion of the different formulae for variance.

: Could mathematics make alternative, equally true, formulae? What does this tell us about
mathematical truths? Does the use of statistics lead to an over-emphasis on attributes that can be
easily measured over those that cannot?

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59
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 4.4

Linear correlation of bivariate data. Technology should be used to calculate r.

Pearson’s product-moment correlation However, hand calculations of r may enhance
coefficient, r. understanding.
Critical values of r will be given where
appropriate.
Students should be aware that Pearson’s
product moment correlation coefficient (r) is
only meaningful for linear relationships.

Scatter diagrams; lines of best t, by eye, passing Positive, zero, negative; strong, weak, no
through the mean point. correlation.
Students should be able to make the distinction
between correlation and causation and know
that correlation does not imply causation.

Equation of the regression line of   on  . Technology should be used to nd the equation.
Use of the equation of the regression line for Students should be aware:
prediction purposes. • of the dangers of extrapolation
Interpret the meaning of the parameters, and • that they cannot always reliably make a
, in a linear regression . prediction of from a value of , when
using a on line.

Connections

Linear regressions where correlation exists between two variables. Exploring cause
and dependence for categorical variables, for example, on what factors might political persuasion
depend?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Curves of best t, correlation and causation (sciences group subjects); scatter

graphs (geography).

The correlation between smoking and lung cancer was “discovered” using mathematics.
Science had to justify the cause.

: Correlation and causation–can we have knowledge of cause and effect relationships given
that we can only observe correlation? What factors affect the reliability and validity of mathematical
models in describing real-life phenomena?

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SL 4.5

Concepts of trial, outcome, equally likely Sample spaces can be represented in many
outcomes, relative frequency, sample space ( ) ways, for example as a table or a list.
and event. Experiments using coins, dice, cards and so on,
can enhance understanding of the distinction
The probability of an event is .
between experimental (relative frequency) and
The complementary events and theoretical probability.

(not  ). Simulations may be used to enhance this topic.

Expected number of occurrences. If there are 128 students in a class

and the probability of being absent is 0.1, the
expected number of absent students is 12.8.

Connections

Actuarial studies and the link between probability of life spans and insurance
premiums, government planning based on likely projected gures, Monte Carlo methods.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Theoretical genetics and Punnett squares (biology); the position of a particle

(physics).

The ethics of gambling.

The St Petersburg paradox; Chebyshev and Pavlovsky (Russian).

To what extent are theoretical and experimental probabilities linked? What is the role of emotion
in our perception of risk, for example in business, medicine and travel safety?

Computer simulations may be useful to enhance this topic.

Download connections template

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 4.6

Use of Venn diagrams, tree diagrams, sample

space diagrams and tables of outcomes to
calculate probabilities.

Combined events: The non-exclusivity of “or”.

.

Mutually exclusive events: .

An alternate form of this is:

Conditional probability: .
.
Problems can be solved with the aid of a Venn
diagram, tree diagram, sample space diagram
or table of outcomes without explicit use of
formulae.
Probabilities with and without replacement.

Independent events: .

Connections

The gambling issue: use of probability in casinos. Could or should mathematics help increase
incomes in gambling?

: Can calculation of gambling probabilities be considered an ethical application of mathematics?

Should mathematicians be held responsible for unethical applications of their work?

Download connections template

63
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 4.7

Concept of discrete random variables and their Probability distributions will be given in the
probability distributions. following ways:
Expected value (mean), for discrete data.
Applications.
 for 

indicates a fair game where

represents the gain of a player.

Connections

Games of chance.

Why has it been argued that theories based on the calculable probabilities found in casinos are
pernicious when applied to everyday life (for example, economics)?

What do we mean by a “fair” game? Is it fair that casinos should make a pro t?

Download connections template

64
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 4.8

Binomial distribution. Situations where the binomial distribution is an

Mean and variance of the binomial distribution. appropriate model.
In examinations, binomial probabilities should
be found using available technology.
Formal proof of mean and
variance.
expected number of occurrences
(SL4.5).

Connections

Pascal’s triangle, attributing the origin of a mathematical discovery to the wrong

mathematician.

: The so-called “Pascal’s triangle” was known to the Chinese

mathematician Yang Hui much earlier than Pascal.

What criteria can we use to decide between different models?

Hypothesis testing using the binomial distribution.

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65
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 4.9

The normal distribution and curve. Awareness of the natural occurrence of the
Properties of the normal distribution. normal distribution.

Diagrammatic representation. Students should be aware that approximately

68% of the data lies between , 95% lies
between and 99.7% of the data lies
between .

Normal probability calculations. Probabilities and values of the variable must be

found using technology.

Inverse normal calculations For inverse normal calculations mean and

standard deviation will be given.
This does not involve transformation to the
standardized normal variable z.

Connections

Normally distributed real-life measurements and descriptive statistics

(sciences group subjects, psychology, environmental systems and societies)

Why might the misuse of the normal distribution lead to dangerous inferences and
conclusions?

De Moivre’s derivation of the normal distribution and Quetelet’s use of it

to describe l’homme moyen.

To what extent can we trust mathematical models such as the normal distribution? How can we
know what to include, and what to exclude, in a model?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Download connections template

SL 4.10

Equation of the regression line of on .

Use of the equation for prediction purposes. Students should be aware that they cannot
always reliably make a prediction of from a
value of , when using an on line.

Connections

Is it possible to have knowledge of the future?

Download connections template

SL 4.11

Formal de nition and use of the formulae: An alternate form of this is:
.
for conditional probabilities,
Testing for independence.
and

for independent events.

Connections

Use of probability methods in medical studies to assess risk factors for certain
diseases.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Given the interdisciplinary nature of many real-world applications of probability, is the division of
knowledge into discrete disciplines or areas of knowledge arti cial and/or useful?

Download connections template

SL 4.12

Standardization of normal variables ( - values). Probabilities and values of the variable must be
found using technology.
The standardized value ( ) gives the number of
standard deviations from the mean.

Inverse normal calculations where mean or Use of -values to calculate unknown means
standard deviation are unknown. and standard deviations.

Connections

The normal distribution (biology); descriptive statistics (psychology).

Download connections template

Recommended teaching hours: 6

The aim of the AHL content in the statistics and probability topic is to extend and build upon the aims,
concepts and skills from the SL content. Students are introduced to further conditional probability
theory in the form of Bayes Theorem and properties of discrete and continuous random variables are
further explored.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 4.13

Use of Bayes’ theorem for a maximum of three independent events (SL4.6).

events.

Connections

Use of probability methods in medical studies to assess risk factors for certain
diseases.

Does the applicability of knowledge vary across the different areas of knowledge? What would
the implications be if the value of all knowledge was measured solely in terms of its applicability?

Download connections template

69
Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 4.14

Variance of a discrete random variable. discrete random variables (SL 4.7)

Continuous random variables and their

including piecewise functions.
probability density functions.

Mode and median of continuous random For a continuous random variable, a value at
variables. which the probability density function has a
maximum value is called a mode and for the

median: .

Mean, variance and standard deviation of both Use of the notation ,

discrete and continuous random variables.
where
and related formulae.

Use of for “fair” games.

The effect of linear transformations of .

Connections

Other discrete distributions, for example Poisson, may be appropriate for IA/toolkit
and further investigation; expected value used in decision making in business, economics and life in
general; expected gain to insurance companies.

Is mathematics more or less useful than other areas of knowledge for solving problems?

Is there a relationship between the interquartile range and the standard deviation for a
normally distributed data set?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Download connections template

Topic 5: Calculus

Essential understandings:

Calculus describes rates of change between two variables and the accumulation of limiting areas.
Understanding these rates of change and accumulations allow us to model, interpret and analyze real-
world problems and situations. Calculus helps us to understand the behaviour of functions and allows
us to interpret the features of their graphs.

Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:

Change, patterns, relationships, approximation, generalization, space, modelling.

Systems, quantity.

Content-speci c conceptual understandings:

• The derivative may be represented physically as a rate of change and geometrically as the gradient
or slope function.
• Areas under curves can be can be approximated by the sum of the areas of rectangles which may
be calculated even more accurately using integration.
• Examining rates of change close to turning points helps to identify intervals where the function
increases/decreases, and identify the concavity of the function.
• Numerical integration can be used to approximate areas in the physical world.
• Mathematical modelling can provide effective solutions to real-life problems in optimization by
maximizing or minimizing a quantity, such as cost or pro t.
• Derivatives and integrals describe real-world kinematics problems in two and three-dimensional
space by examining displacement, velocity and acceleration.
AHL
• Some functions may be continuous everywhere but not differentiable everywhere.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

• A nite number of terms of an in nite series can be a general approximation of a function over a
limited domain.
• Limits describe the output of a function as the input approaches a certain value and can represent
convergence and divergence.
• Examining limits of functions at a point can help determine continuity and differentiability at a
point.

Recommended teaching hours: 28

The aim of the SL content in the calculus topic is to introduce students to the concepts and techniques
of differential and integral calculus and their applications.

Throughout this topic students should be given the opportunity to use technology such as graphing
packages and graphing calculators to develop and apply their knowledge of calculus.

Sections SL5.1 to SL5.5 are content common to both Mathematics: analysis and approaches and
Mathematics: applications and interpretation.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 5.1

Introduction to the concept of a limit. Estimation of the value of a limit from a table or
graph.
Formal analytic methods of
calculating limits.

Derivative interpreted as gradient function and

as rate of change. Forms of notation: , , or for the
rst derivative.
Informal understanding of the gradient of a
curve as a limit.

Connections

Marginal cost, marginal revenue, marginal pro t, market structures

(economics); kinematics, induced emf and simple harmonic motion (physics); interpreting the gradient
of a curve (chemistry)

The debate over whether Newton or Leibnitz discovered certain calculus concepts; how the
Greeks’ distrust of zero meant that Archimedes’ work did not lead to calculus.

Attempts by Indian mathematicians (500-1000 CE) to explain division by

zero.

What value does the knowledge of limits have? Is in nitesimal behaviour applicable to real life?
Is intuition a valid way of knowing in mathematics?

Spreadsheets, dynamic graphing software and GDC should be used to explore

ideas of limits, numerically and graphically. Hypotheses can be formed and then tested using
technology.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

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SL 5.2

Increasing and decreasing functions. Identifying intervals on which functions are

Graphical interpretation of increasing or decreasing .

Connections
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SL 5.3

Derivative of is ,
The derivative of functions of the form

where all exponents are integers.

Connections

The seemingly abstract concept of calculus allows us to create mathematical models that permit
human feats such as getting a man on the Moon. What does this tell us about the links between
mathematical models and reality?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 5.4

Tangents and normals at a given point, and their Use of both analytic approaches and
equations. technology.

Connections

Instantaneous velocity and optics, equipotential surfaces (physics); price

elasticity (economics).

In what ways has technology impacted how knowledge is produced and shared in mathematics?
Does technology simply allow us to arrange existing knowledge in new and different ways, or should
this arrangement itself be considered knowledge?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 5.5

Introduction to integration as anti- Students should be aware of the link between

differentiation of functions of the form anti-derivatives, de nite integrals and area.

where

Anti-differentiation with a boundary condition

to determine the constant term. If    and 

 when  , then .

De nite integrals using technology. Students are expected to rst write a correct
Area of a region enclosed by a curve expression before calculating the area, for

and the -axis, where . example .

The use of dynamic geometry or graphing

software is encouraged in the development of
this concept.

Connections

Velocity-time graphs

Velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs (physics and sports exercise and

health science)

Is it possible for an area of knowledge to describe the world without transforming it?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 5.6

Derivative of , , , and  .
Differentiation of a sum and a multiple of these
functions.

The chain rule for composite functions.

The product and quotient rules. composite functions (SL2.5).

Connections

Uniform circular motion and induced emf (physics).

: What is the role of convention in mathematics? Is this similar or different to the role of
convention in other areas of knowledge?

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SL 5.7

The second derivative.

Use of both forms of notation, and  .
Graphical behaviour of functions, including the
relationship between the graphs of  and . Technology can be used to explore graphs and
calculate the derivatives of functions.
function graphing skills (SL2.3).

Connections

Simple harmonic motion (physics).

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

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SL 5.8

Local maximum and minimum points. Using change of sign of the rst derivative
Testing for maximum and minimum. or using sign of the second derivative where
implies a minimum and 
implies a maximum.

Optimization. Examples of optimization may include pro t,

area and volume.

Points of in exion with zero and non-zero At a point of in exion, changes

gradients. sign (concavity change), for example is
not a sufficient condition for a point of in exion
for  at  .

Use of the terms “concave-up” for  , and

“concave-down” for  .

Connections

Pro t, area, volume.

Velocity-time graphs, simple harmonic motion graphs and kinematics

(physics); allocative efficiency (economics).

When mathematicians and historians say that they have explained something, are they using the
word “explain” in the same way?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

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SL 5.9

Kinematic problems involving displacement  ,

velocity  , acceleration  and total distance
travelled.
Displacement from to is given by .

Distance between to is given by .

Speed is the magnitude of velocity.

Connections

Kinematics (physics).

Does the inclusion of kinematics as core mathematics re ect a particular

cultural heritage? Who decides what is mathematics?

Is mathematics independent of culture? To what extent are we people aware of the impact of
culture on what we they believe or know?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 5.10

Inde nite integral of

and .

The composites of any of these with the linear

function .

Integration by inspection (reverse chain rule) or

by substitution for expressions of the form:
, , .
.

Connections
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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

SL 5.11

De nite integrals, including analytical approach.

.

The value of some de nite integrals can only be

found using technology.
: de nite integrals using technology
(SL5.5).

Areas of a region enclosed by a curve Students are expected to rst write a correct
and the -axis, where can be positive or expression before calculating the area.
negative, without the use of technology. Technology may be used to enhance
Areas between curves. understanding of the relationship between
integrals and areas.

Connections

Accurate calculation of the volume of a cylinder by Chinese

mathematician Liu Hui; Ibn Al Haytham: rst mathematician to calculate the integral of a function, in
order to nd the volume of a paraboloid.

Consider . An in nite area sweeps out a nite volume. Can this be reconciled with
our intuition? Do emotion and intuition have a role in mathematics?

Exploring numerical integration techniques such as Simpson’s rule or the trapezoidal

rule.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Recommended teaching hours: 27

The aim of the AHL content in the calculus topic is to extend and build upon the aims, concepts and
skills from the SL content. Further powerful techniques and useful applications of differential and
integral calculus are introduced.

AHL 5.12

Informal understanding of continuity and In examinations, students will not be asked to

differentiability of a function at a point. test for continuity and differentiability.

Understanding of limits (convergence and in nite geometric sequences (SL1.8).

divergence). Use of this de nition for polynomials only.
De nition of derivative from rst principles

Higher derivatives.
Familiarity with the notations .

: proof by mathematical induction (AHL

1.15).

Connections

Theory of the rm (economics).

How the Greeks’ distrust of zero meant that Archimedes’ work did not
lead to the Calculus; investigate attempts by Indian mathematicians (500-1000AD) to explain division
by zero.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Does the fact that Leibniz and Newton came across the Calculus at similar times support the
argument of Platonists over Constructivists?

Fundamental theorem of calculus.

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AHL 5.13

The evaluation of limits of the form and The indeterminate forms and .

For example: .
using l’Hôpital’s rule or the Maclaurin
series. horizontal asymptotes (SL2.8) .

Repeated use of l’Hôpital’s rule.

Connections
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AHL 5.14

Implicit differentiation. Appropriate use of the chain rule or implicit

Related rates of change. differentiation, including cases where the
optimum solution is at the end point.
Optimisation problems.

Connections

Links between mathematical and physical models.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Euler was able to make important advances in mathematical analysis before calculus had been
put on a solid theoretical foundation by Cauchy and others. However, some work was not possible
until after Cauchy’s work. What does this suggest about the nature of progress and development in
mathematics? How might this be similar/different to the nature of progress and development in other
areas of knowledge?

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AHL 5.15

Derivatives of

Inde nite integrals of the derivatives of any of Inde nite integral interpreted as a family of
the above functions. curves.
The composites of any of these with a linear
function.

Use of partial fractions to rearrange the

integrand.
partial fractions (AHL1.11)

Connections

Can a mathematical statement be true before it has been proven?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 5.16

Integration by substitution. On examination papers, substitutions will

be provided if the integral is not of the form
.

integration by substitution (SL5.10).

Integration by parts.

Repeated integration by parts. and .

Connections
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AHL 5.17

Area of the region enclosed by a curve and the

-axis in a given interval.
Volumes of revolution about the -axis or -axis.

Connections

Industrial design.

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 5.18

First order differential equations. , where is a constant.

Numerical solution of

using Euler’s method.

Variables separable. the logistic equation

: partial fractions (AHL1.11) and use of

partial fractions to rearrange the integrand
(AHL5.15).

Homogeneous differential equation

using the substitution .

Solution of , using the

integrating factor.

Connections

Newton’s law of cooling, population growth, carbon dating.

Decay curves (physics); rst order reactions (chemistry)

Does personal experience play a role in the formation of knowledge claims in mathematics?
Does it play a different role in mathematics compared to other areas of knowledge?

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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

AHL 5.19

Maclaurin series to obtain expansions for

Use of simple substitution, products, integration : for substitution: replace with to

and differentiation to obtain other series. de ne the Maclaurin series for .
: the expansion of .

Maclaurin series developed from differential

equations.

Connections

: Comparison of the Bourbaki to the Kerala School.

: Is there always a trade-off between accuracy and simplicity?

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