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 Research on World Agricultural Economy
International Standard Serial Number
ISSN:2737-4777(Print)/2737-4785(Online)

Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Editorial Team
Editor-in-Chief
Cheng Sun
Executive Chairman, World Confederation of Productivity Science China Center
Chief Scientist, International Development Information Organization, UN ECOSOC

Editorial Consultants
Yulong Yin
Academician, Chinese Academy of Engineering
Tingyun Kuang
Academician, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Editorial Board
Zhengbin Zhang
Agricultural Resources Research Center, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Zhiguo Wang
China Association for Science and Technology
Lijian Zhang
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Xiaoyong Huang
Research Center for International Energy Security, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
Ruhong Mei
China Agricultural University
Zhizhong Huang
Shandong High-end Technology Engineering Research Institute,China
Yunbiao Li
Researcher, Jilin Province Science and Technology Information Research Institute,China
Professor of Jilin University,China
Mingzao Liang
Institute of Agricultural Resources and Agricultural Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Lin Shen
China Agricultural University
Jianping Zhang
Institute of International Trade and Economic Cooperation, Ministry of Commerce,China
Xiuju Zhang
Institute of Agricultural Environmental Ecology, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences,China
Alamgir Ahmad Dar
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology-Kashmir, Shalimar, Srinagar 190025,India
Juan Sebastián Castillo Valero
University of Castilla-La Mancha,Spain
Shuxiang Zhang
Institute of Agricultural Resources and Agricultural Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Chunlei Zhang
Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science
 Volume 2 | Issue 3 | September 2021 | Page1-56

Research on World Agricultural Economy

CONTENTS
1 Technical Efficiency and Technology Gap Ratio in Cocoa Production in Nigeria: A Stochastic Metafron-
tier-Tobit (Sm-Tobit) Approach
Aminu, F. O. Ayinde, I. A.
12 Research Achievements in Relation to Maize (Zea mays L) Crop Production and Productivity in Ethio-
pia: A Systematic Review
Dessalegn Ayana
17 Carcass Traits, Organ Proportion and Bio-Economic Cost Benefits Analysis of Broiler Chickens Fed Dif-
ferent Dietary Plant Protein Sources in Sorghum-Based Diet
Agida, C. A. Onunkwo, D. N. Ezenyilimba, B. N. Afam-Ibezim, E. M. Ukonu, A. B. John, U. E. Adje, C. I.
23 Exploring How Human Activities Disturb the Balance of Biogeochemical Cycles: Evidence from the Car-
bon, Nitrogen and Hydrologic Cycles
Olalekan Morufu Raimi Abiola Ilesanmi Ogah Alima Dodeye E. Omini
45 Discussion on High-yield Cultivation and Assembling and Supporting Technology of Selenium-rich Rice
and Rapeseed Rotation in Taoyuan County
Bangxing Ye Keping Jiang Haijun Hou Jiaqing Wang
49 Practice and Thinking of Traditional Chinese Medicine Agriculture Helping Rural Revitalization
Lijian Zhang

Copyright
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the user must indicate the author and source, and mark the changes made in articles. Copyright NanYang Academy of
Sciences Pte. Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Research on World Agricultural Economy

http://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae

Technical Efficiency and Technology Gap Ratio in Cocoa Production

in Nigeria: A Stochastic Metafrontier-Tobit (Sm-Tobit) Approach
Aminu, F. O.1* Ayinde, I. A.2
1. Department of Agricultural Technology, School of Technology, Yaba College of Technology, Epe Campus, Yaba,
Lagos State, Nigeria
2. Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta,
Nigeria

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history The study analysed the technical efficiency and technology gap ratio in
Received: 15 May 2021 cocoa production in Nigeria. A multistage sampling technique was used to
select 390 cocoa farmers from three zones where cocoa is commercially
Accepted: 1 June 2021 grown in Nigeria. Separate stochastic frontier models were estimated for
Published Online: 31 July 2021 farmers in Kwara, Edo and Ondo States, along with a metafrontier model to
obtain alternative estimates for the technical efficiencies of farmers in the
Keywords: different states. Subsequently, a Tobit model was used to access the factors
Cocoa farmers influencing cocoa production in the study area. Results revealed that, the
average technical efficiency level was 0.685 for the pooled sample, 0.506,
Metafrontier 0.837 and 0.713 for Kwara, Edo and Ondo States respectively, suggesting
Technical efficiency that there is substantial scope to improve cocoa production in Nigeria. The
Technology gap mean MTR values of 0.506, 0.837 and 0.712 for Kwara, Edo and Ondo
States respectively, implied that Edo State was more technically efficient
Nigeria
than other states in the study area. The mean technology gap ratio (TGR)
value of 84.3% indicated that, on the average, the cocoa farmers in the
study areas would have to close a gap of about 15.7% in order for them
to be technically efficient. The study recommended that cocoa farmers in
Edo and Ondo States could improve their technical efficiency through a
better management using the available technologies and resources while
intervention to raise technology that will help close the gap between the
regional frontier curve and the global frontier curve through raising and
distributing disease resistant and high yielding cocoa seedlings to the
farmers should be adopted in Kwara State.

1. Introduction second largest producer in the world (Adegeye, 1998).

Cocoa was the main agricultural stake of Nigeria econ-
The contribution of cocoa to Nigeria economy in the omy until 1970’s when the crude oil was discovered in
past cannot be easily overlooked. Cocoa was first culti- the country in commercial quantity and Nigeria is now
vated in the western region of Nigeria in 1890. It was the the world’s fourth largest producer of Cocoa, after Ivory
most important agricultural export crop in Nigeria during Coast, Indonesia and Ghana, and the third largest export-
the 1950s and 1960s. Its cultivation gained prominence er, after Ivory Coast and Ghana (Becvarova and Verter,
rapidly in Nigeria such that by 1965, Nigeria became the 2014). Cocoa is the single agricultural export commodity

*Corresponding Author:
Aminu, F. O.
Department of Agricultural Technology, School of Technology, Yaba College of Technology, Epe Campus, Yaba, Lagos State, Nigeria;
Email: [email protected]

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

that has earned foreign exchange more than other crops, country but there is a paucity of empirical application of
offers employment to many people, both directly and indi- stochastic metafrontier-Tobit function on cocoa produc-
rectly, and serves as an important source of raw materials, tion in Nigeria.
and source of revenue to governments of cocoa producing The meta-frontier approach developed by Battese and
states (Folayan et al., 2006). In 2007 and 2008, agricul- Rao (2002), Battese et al., (2004) and O’Donnell et al.,
tural production contributed 41.9% and 37.8% to non-oil (2008) is a useful concept when the aim of the analysis is
export out of which cocoa contributed 12.5% and 13.9% to compare the efficiency of different groups (e.g., region,
respectively (CBN, 2009). Cocoa is a high value cash crop states, countries, plant varieties) when there is the suspi-
among farmers in the major producing areas in Nigeria. cion that each group operate under different technologies
In total, more than 20 million people depend directly on and therefore their productive frontiers are different. If
cocoa for their livelihood. Approximately, 90% of the pro- the production units under analysis make choices from
ductions are exported in the form of beans or semi-manu- different production possibilities sets then the common
factured cocoa products (Taphee et al., 2015). approach of estimating a single technology frontier will
In spite of the significance of cocoa to Nigerian econ- yield efficiency and productivity estimates that do not
omy, its production in Nigeria has witnessed a downward accurately measure the capacity of production units to
trend after 1971 season, when its export declined to transform inputs into outputs (O’Donnell et al., 2008).
216,000 metric tons in 1976, and 150,000 metric tons in The usual methods of dealing with these technology dif-
1986, therefore reducing the country’s market share to ferences risk attributing “technology gaps” between farms
about 6% and to fourth largest producer to date. In 2010, to technical inefficiency. This framework has been used
Cocoa production accounted for only 0.3% of agricultural extensively in the literature to evaluate the efficiency
GDP. The decline in production according to Oluyole and in agricultural production (e.g., Chen and Song (2008),
Usman (2006) Folayan et al., (2006) and Cadoni (2013) O’Donnell et al., (2008), Villano et al., (2010), Otieno
could be attributed to the following causes; advent of the et al., (2014), Henningsen et al., (2015), Chebil et al.,
petroleum sector which led to the neglect of agriculture; (2016)). The study will therefore adopt the SM-Tobit ap-
policies and activities of the Nigerian Cocoa Marketing proach to estimate the technical efficiency and technology
Board (NCMB) of 1978-1986; non-availability and high gap ratio in cocoa production in Nigeria.
cost of cocoa production input; activities of middlemen;
over- aged and low yielding trees, non-remunerative pric- 2. Methodology
es; non-availability of farm labour; old agronomic practic- 2.1 Study area
es, poor fertility status of cultivated land; and lack of cred-
it to cocoa farmers. Other factors are incidence of pests The study was carried out in three geopolitical zones in
and diseases, use of fake and substandard agrochemicals, Nigeria. Nigeria is made up of six geopolitical zones out
use of poor planting materials, poor handling of post-har- of which cocoa is produced in exportable quantities in five
vest processes and inefficient agricultural extension ser- geopolitical zones: South West, South South, South East,
vices which have resulted in inefficiencies that repress the North Central and North East. Three zones (South West,
development of cocoa production in the country. South South and North Central) representing 60percent of
One of the major objectives of the cocoa farmers is the cocoa producing zones in Nigeria were selected for the
to increase production on a sustainable basis at the farm study. These three zones were purposively chosen to give
level. Management practices such as pruning, weeding the study a nation-wide focus. However, the study was
and fertilizer and pesticide application is considered to carried out in three States: Ondo State (South West zone),
be the most effective way to increase production. This is Edo State (South South zone) and Kwara State (North
because a greater part of cocoa production is lost through Central zone).
weeds, pests and diseases on the farm (Binam et al., 2008;
2.2 Sampling procedure
Dzene, 2010). For these reasons, efficiency has remained
a significant topic of research especially in less developed The respondents were selected through a multi-stage
countries where a larger proportion of the farmers are re- sampling technique. The first stage involved purposive se-
source-poor (Amos, 2007; Binam et al., 2008; Nkamleu et lection of five out of six geo-political zones where cocoa
al., 2010). Several studies (Ogundari et al., 2006; Amos, is commercially grown in Nigeria. In the second stage,
2007 and Popoola et al., 2015) have used the single step stratified sampling technique was used to group the five
estimation of stochastic frontier production function to cocoa producing geopolitical zones into high, medium and
analyse the technical efficiency of cocoa production in the low zones. Following NBS, (2012); National Survey on

2 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i3.420

 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Agricultural Exportable Commodities (NSAEC), (2013), The parameters of the stochastic frontiers for the three re-
the zones are classified as high (South West), medium gions were estimated using the Cobb-Douglas (CD) spec-
(South South) and low (South East, North Central and ification where all the descriptive variables were included
North East). The third stage involved purposive selec- in the Z-vector as possible determinants of inefficiency.
tion of one state from each of the high, medium and low Thus, the model is specified as:
zones. These are Ondo (high), Edo (medium) and Kwara
(low). In the fourth stage, two agricultural zones were
selected from each state through random sampling tech- (1)
nique. The fifth stage involved the use of simple random Where Qn(k) is the yield of cocoa in kg/ha; Xni rep-
sampling technique to select one Local Government Area resents a vector of inputs where Xn1 is area cultivated
(LGA) from each agricultural zone using the list of LGAs to cocoa in hectares, Xn2 is hired labour use (workdays/
available in the agricultural zone as sampling frame. In ha), Xn3 is family labour use (workdays/ha), Xn4 is age of
the sixth stage, five villages were randomly selected from farm (years), while Xn5 is fertilizer (kg/ha) and Xn6 is pes-
each of the LGAs giving a total of 30 villages. The basis ticide use (gramme a.i/ha)); v represents statistical noise,
of selection was the dominance of cocoa production in and u denotes technical inefficiency. Z denotes the vector
these villages. Finally, in the seventh stage, a simple ran- of socio-demographic and other independent variables
dom sampling procedure was used in choosing 13 cocoa assumed to influence efficiency where Z1 is sex of farmer
farmers from each of the 30 villages giving a total of 390 (1-male, 0- female), Z2 is age (years), Z3 is educational
farmers for interview using the list of cocoa farmers from level (years), Z4 is household size (No of people), Z5 is
the agricultural zones as the sample frame. However, a extension visit (dummy), Z6 is cocoa variety (dummy) and
total of 350 questionnaires (110 for Kwara state; 118 for Z7 is health hazard; is a vector of inefficiency parameters
Edo state and 122 for Ondo state) were used for analyses to be estimated; v represents statistical noise, and u de-
as others were discarded due to incomplete information. notes technical inefficiency.
The study was based on primary data collected by per- The next stage involved the estimation of a pooled
sonal administration of questionnaire/interview schedule stochastic frontier and the possible determinants of ineffi-
on individuals that are involved in cocoa production in the ciency and the metafrontier-Tobit model specified as
study areas. The respondents were asked questions ger-
 (2)
mane to the achievement of the research objectives.
(3)
2.3 Analytical framework k
where and θ are the latent and observed values of the
The stochastic metafrontier-Tobit (SM-Tobit) method metafrontier TE scores, respectively; Z denotes the vector
was used to assess the technical efficiency and its deter- of socio-demographic and other independent variables
minants by states in the study area. The use of a stochastic assumed to influence efficiency where Z1 is sex of farmer
metafrontier-Tobit function is a methodological im- (1-male, 0- female), Z2 is age (years), Z3 is educational
provement over the one-step stochastic frontier approach level (years), Z4 is household size (No of people), Z5 is
(SFA) because the metafrontier framework accounts for extension visit (dummy), Z6 is cocoa variety (dummy) and
technology gaps and allows comparison of TEs across Z7 is health hazardand e is the random term.
heterogeneous groups such as production systems (Battese The parameters of the stochastic frontiers were ob-
and Rao, 2002; Villano et al., 2010). Despite the wide tained by using FRONTIER 4.1 software (Coelli, 1996).
number of empirical studies on technical efficiency, and The linear programming, to estimate metafrontier and
the proliferation of methodological frontier studies, there bootstrapping of standard errors were undertaken in
is dearth of application of empirical study using stochastic SHAZAM version 10 (Whistler et al., 2007), while STA-
metafrontier-Tobit function on cocoa production in Ni- TA version 11 (StataCorp, 2009) was used for the Tobit
geria. Estimation of the SM-Tobit involves three stages. analysis.
First, the SFA (Aigner et al, 1977; Meeusen and van den
Broeck, 1977) was used to investigate TEs across the pro- 3. Results and Discussion
duction systems. In the second stage, a metafrontier (Bat- 3.1 Summary statistics of variables included in
tese and Rao, 2002) was estimated to adjust the TE scores
the SFA and MF Model
from SFA, taking into account any technology differences.
Finally, a Tobit model was applied to assess variations in The summary statistics in Table 1 display the mean val-
the TE scores obtained from the metafrontier estimation. ues of the explanatory variables in the model. Edo State

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

had the highest mean amount of cocoa output and pesti- mum attainable output) for each state (Table 2) and for the
cide usage over the specified period. Between the other pooled data (Table 5). The study reveals that the gamma
two states, Ondo State earned more in terms of their co- estimate which measures the deviation of the observed
coa output and pesticide usage when compared to Kwara output from the frontier output is estimated to be 0.97,
State. Ondo State had the highest farm size, employed the 0.89, 0.92 and 0.60 for Kwara, Edo, Ondo States and the
highest number of labour and had the oldest farms while pooled data, respectively. This implies that in all the mod-
Edo State had the youngest farms among the study areas. els, most of the deviations in the total output are largely
Kwara State had the least farm size but had the highest as a result of the inefficiency in input use and other farm
usage of fertilizer inputs when compared with Edo and practices, whilst the random factors which may include
Ondo States. unfavourable weather conditions, pest and disease infesta-
From the pooled data, an average cocoa farmer has tion, statistical errors in data measurement and the model
6.82 hectares’ land area cultivated to cocoa employs 5 specification contribute 3%, 11%, 8% and 40%, in Kwara,
agricultural labour that works for 205 mandays and 3 Edo, Ondo and the pooled data respectively to the devia-
family labour that works for 81 mandays, applies 1,016kg tions of the actual output from the frontier output.
of chemical fertilizer and 8776 gram active ingredients of
pesticide. This generates 1,219kg of cocoa output in the Kwara State
specified period. This reflects that cocoa production is be- Estimate of the parameters of the stochastic frontier
ing practiced on a medium scale in the study area. model in Table 2 reveals that the coefficients of farm size
(p<0.01) and fertilizer (p<0.01) were positive and signif-
3.2 Production function estimates by states and
icant. This implies that an increase in the area cultivated
determinants of technical efficiency of cocoa
to cocoa production and fertilizer usage would increase
production across the states
cocoa output in the state. Family labour (p<0.05) and age
The null hypothesis that there are no technical efficien- of trees (p<0.05) had negative significant relationship
cy effects in the models was tested using a likelihood ratio with cocoa output in Kwara State. This implies that a per-
(LR) test of one-sided error. The result from the hypoth- centage increase in number of family labour used and age
esis suggests that the inefficiency effects were present in of trees will reduce cocoa output by 0.080kg and 0.130kg
all the models and so the decision to preclude them was respectively. The negative effect of the tree age implies
rejected as the LR test statistics of 78.22, 72.03, 85.60 and that as most of the cocoa trees increase in age, their output
56.19 for Kwara, Edo, Ondo States and the pooled data falls. The result supports the findings of Gray (2001) and
respectively, are all greater than the critical LR chi-square Onumah et al., (2013) that the negative influence of cocoa
value 30.60. tree age is a signal for producers to replace old trees with
The single-stage maximum likelihood procedure of new ones.
the FRONTIER 4.1 program (Coelli 1996) was used to The result of the inefficiency model reveals that ineffi-
estimate the parameters of the stochastic frontiers (maxi- ciency in cocoa production in the state decreases with sex

Table 1. Summary Statistics of Variables Included in the SFA and MF Model

Family Age of
Cocoa Farm size Hired labour Fertilizer Pesticide
States labour Trees
output (ha) (md.) (kg) (gm./ai./ha)
(md.) (years)

Mean 1112.00 3.62 108.6 75.9 35.42 1234.0 5212.8

Kwara
Std. Deviation 393.03 0.33 52.03 22.13 7.10 389.80 833.62

Mean 1294.30 6.17 185.1 92.6 23.70 734.9 10130.8

Edo
Std. Deviation 1508.99 1.30 48.31 35.75 8.16 202.86 754.62

Mean 1250.82 10.13 303.9 54.6 37.19 987.4 8884.8.

Ondo
Std. Deviation 1255.73 8.78 94.88 13.48 12.04 257.38 798.27

Mean 1219.04 6.82 204.6 81.84 32.79 1016.2 8775.9

Pooled
Std. Deviation 1154.66 5.21 73.52 18.72 10.10 475.25 935.98

Source: Authors’ compilation

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Table 2. Production Function Estimates and Determinants of Technical Efficiency of Cocoa Production across the States
Variable Coefficient Kwara State Edo State Ondo State

Constant β0 7.191*** (11.93) 4.761***(5.63) 5.810*** (16.7)

ln Farm size β1 1.143***(9.281) 0.327***(3.075) 0.012***(10.29)

ln Hired Labour β2 0.094(1.486) 1.156(0.983) -0.04***(-2.74)

ln Family Labour β3 -0.080**(-2.303) -0.141(-1.541) 0.670(1.497)

ln Tree Age β4 -0.130**(-2.044) 0.171***(3.041) -0.052**(-2.06)

ln Fertilizer β5 0.013***(3.372) 0.032***(2.957) 0.139***(4.852)

ln Pesticide β6 -0.067(-1.048) 0.134**(2.257) 0.014***(4.041)

Inefficiency Effects

Constant δ0 -0.293(-0.401) 0.668(0.839) 2.799(7.510)

Sex δ1 -0.292**(-2.021) -0.218(-1.098) 0.061(0.105)

Age δ2 0.020***(3.355) 0.004**(2.497) -0.11***(-2.59)

Education δ3 -0.003(-0.538) -0.024(-0.738) 0.106**(2.162)

Household Size δ4 0.021(0.115) -0.315(-1.197) -0.244(-0.504)

Extension Visits δ5 0.015(0.221) -0.006**(-2.253) -0.87***(-7.79)

Variety δ6 0.131(0.432) -0.071**(-2.251) 0.057(0.620)

2
Sigma-squared σ 0.072***(4.025) 0.311***(5.913) 0.622***(2.560)

Gamma 0.97(20.592) 0.89(9.150) 0.92(13.558)

*** = significant at 1% (∝ 0.01) ** =significant at 5% (∝0.05)Figures in parenthesis are t- values

of the farmers as it was negative and significant at 5% al- fluence of age of trees in the state implies that the cocoa
pha level. This implies that male farmers were more tech- trees in the state were still young and within their produc-
nically efficient that their female counterpart in the state. tive years.
This result confirms the findings of Onumah et al., (2013) The result of the inefficiency model for the state re-
who submitted that female farmers were unlikely to be veals that age of the cocoa farmers increases technical in-
chanced to attend the agricultural extension meetings be- efficiency at 5% alpha level. This implies that the younger
cause of the household chores. farmers were more technically efficient than the older
Age of the cocoa farmers was positive and significant ones. Ajayi and Adeyemi (2016) reported that older farm-
at 1% alpha level. This implies that inefficiency increases ers are generally risks averse and attached to traditional
with the age of the farmers implying that younger farmers ways of farming leading to inefficiency in their farm op-
were more technically efficient than the older ones. The erations. Extension visits (p<0.05) reduce inefficiency of
reason for this is that the younger farmers are more active cocoa farmers in the state. This implies that cocoa farmers
and receptive of innovation than the older ones. Similar who were visited frequently by the extension agents were
result was reported by Mariano et al., (2010). The esti- more technically efficient than those visited few times.
mate of the sigma-square is significantly different from This finding agrees with the findings of Balogun et al.,
zero at one percent level, attesting to the goodness of fit of (2011) who reported that extension work is a prerequisite
the model. for dissemination and adoption of agricultural innovations
for improved efficiency. Variety of cocoa planted (p<0.05)
Edo State
was also found to reduce inefficiency of cocoa production
The study reveals that farm size (p<0.01), age of trees as it was negative and significant at 5% alpha level. This
(p<0.01), fertilizer (p<0.01) and pesticide (p<0.05) had implies that the cocoa farmers that planted more of hybrid
a positive influence on cocoa output in Edo state. This variety were more technically efficient than the farmers
indicates that a 1% increase in the usage of these inputs that planted the local variety alone. The estimate of the
will increase cocoa output by 0.33 kg, 0.17 kg, 0.03 kg sigma-square for Edo state is also significantly different
and 0.13 kg respectively. The positive and significant in- from zero at one percent level, attesting to the goodness of

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

fit of the model. increases in the level of all inputs used in production re-
sults in a more than the proportionate increase in output.
Ondo State This is an indication that there is more room for the states
Farm size (p<0.01), fertilizer (p<0.01) and pesticide to expand their scale to increase production in the long
(p<0.01) had positive significant influence on cocoa out- run, subject to good quality input usage. Kwara State and
put in Ondo State. This implies than an increase in the us- Ondo State cocoa production, on the contrary, exhibits a
age of these inputs will increase cocoa output in the state. decreasing return to scale of 0.973 and 0.719 which imply
Conversely hired labour (p<0.01) and age of trees (p<0.05) that a 1% increase in all inputs used in production will re-
had negative significant influence on cocoa production in sult to a less than proportionate increase in output.
Ondo State. The negative influence of hired labour implies Table 3. Production Elasticities and Return to Scale in the
that a percentage increase in number of people employed Study Areas
to work on cocoa farms in the state would reduce cocoa
Variable Kwara State Edo State Ondo State Pooled
output by 0.06kg. This result disagrees with Binam et al.,
(2008); Nkamleu et al., (2010) and Onumah et al., (2013) Farm Size 1.143 0.327 0.012 0.688
that labour increases cocoa output. The negative influence Hired Labour 0.094 1.156 -0.064 -0.025
of age of cocoa trees is a pointer to the fact that majority
Family Labour -0.080 -0.141 0.670 0.064
of cocoa trees in the state were old and beyond their pro-
ductive age leading to reduced efficiency. Age of farm -0.130 0.171 -0.052 0.411

The results of the inefficiency model reveal that age of Fertilizer 0.013 0.032 0.139 0.047
the farmers was negative and significant at 1% level. This Pesticide -0.067 0.134 0.014 0.055
implies that older cocoa farmers were more technically ef-
RTS 0.973 1.679 0.719 1.24
ficient compared to the younger ones. The reason for this
according to Onumah et al., (2013) could be that cocoa
production is the only occupation engaged in by the older 3.3 Production function estimates and determinants of
farmers, to which they devote more time and attention technical efficiency of the pooled and metafrontier data
compared to the younger farmers who may have other en- Results from the pooled stochastic and metafrontier
gagements such as trading, artisan activities etc. Extension data are presented in Table 4.
visits (p<0.01) was also found to decrease inefficiency in
cocoa production in the state. This is an indication that Pooled data
farmers were attentive at the training sessions organised
by the extension agents. Onumah et al., (2013) posited Results from the pooled data reveal that farm size
that cocoa farmers’ production efficiency improves with (p<0.01), fertilizer (p<0.01) and pesticide (p<0.01) had
effective extension visits and supervision. positive significant influence on cocoa output in all the
Contrary to the a priori expectation, educational level study areas. This implies that a percentage increase in the
(p<0.05) of the farmers had a positive significant rela- use of these inputs would increase cocoa output by 9.17kg,
tionship with inefficiency in the state. This suggests that 6.75kg and 2.99kg respectively. Age of trees (p<0.05)
highly educated cocoa farmers were less efficient than however, had negative significant influence on cocoa out-
those with lower level of education. The level of educa- put in the study areas. This implies that a year increase in
tion could denote engagement in cocoa production as sec- the age of cocoa trees will reduce cocoa output by 2.11kg
ondary education; thereby influencing farmers’ technical in all the study areas. This result is in consonance with
efficiency. This result is in line with Nyagaka et al., (2010) Onumah et al., (2013) that technical efficiency of cocoa
and Onumah et al., (2013) that formal education may not production reduces with age of the cocoa trees.
necessarily improve one’s technical efficiency but the The results of the inefficiency model for the pooled
level of one’s knowledge and education pertaining to the data reveal that sex (p<0.01), age (p<0.05) and household
practices of cocoa production matters. size (p<0.05) reduce inefficiency of cocoa farmers in the
Table 3 demonstrates that cocoa production in Edo study areas. The inverse relationship of sex with ineffi-
State and the pooled data exhibit increasing returns to ciency of cocoa farmers implies that the female cocoa
scale of 1.679 and 1.24 indicating that a percentage in- farmers were more technically inefficient when compared
crease in all inputs will result in a 1.68% and 1.24% in- to their male counterparts’ in the study areas. This result
crease in the level of output. This implies that these study is in consonance with Binam et al., (2008) and Onumah
areas were in stage one of the production process where et al., (2013). The negative influence of age implies that

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

younger farmers were more technically inefficient than (i.e., no significant difference between the single region
older farmers in the study area. This result disagrees with frontiers), then there would be no reason for estimating
Mariano et al., (2010) who reported that older farmers the pooled MF production model. This can be done with a
produce with more inefficiencies compared to younger likelihood ratio test (LR). The LR statistic is given by
farmers. Household size of the cocoa farmers also had (4)
an indirect relationship with inefficiency. This indicates
that cocoa farmers with large household size were more where L(H0) is the value of the log likelihood func-
technically efficient than the small household sized cocoa tion for a stochastic frontier estimated by pooling the
farmers in the study area. This could be attributed to pos- data for all states and L(HA) is the sum of the values of
sibility of availability of household/family labour input. the log-likelihood functions from the individual SPF’s.
The estimate of the sigma-square is significantly different The analysis showed that the value of the LR statistic is
157.62 which is highly significant and implies that the
from zero at one percent level, attesting to the goodness of
null hypothesis was rejected. The result suggests that the
fit of the model. This also implies that the frontier model
three regional stochastic frontiers for cocoa production
is stochastic (rather than deterministic).
in the study areas were not the same, implying that pro-
Moreover, the estimated value of gamma is significant-
duction structure and technology adoption were different
ly different from zero at 1%, implying that 60 percent of
among the three states. Hence, the meta-frontier technique
the discrepancies between the observed value of cocoa
is the appropriate estimation approach for this study and
output and the frontier output can be attributed to factors
that any efficiency comparison among these states should
within the cocoa farmers’ control.
be undertaken with respect to the meta-frontier instead of
Metafrontier model the pooled stochastic frontier. Similar results have been
obtained by Battese et al., (2004); Binam et al., (2008);
After the estimation of the individual SPF’s, it is nec- Mariano et al., (2010); Moreira and Bravo-Ureta (2010);
essary to verify if the three states share the same technol- Onumah et al., (2013) among others.
ogy. If the three states share the same production frontier The metafrontier result indicates that an increase in the

Table 4. Production Function Estimates and Determinants of Technical Efficiency of the Pooled and metafrontier Data
Variable Coefficient Pooled (SFA) Metafrontier-Tobit

Constant β0 5.789*** (20.207 ) 1.038***(3.963)

Farm size β1 0.688***(9.171) 0.085**(2.180)

Hired Labour β2 -0.025(-1.597) -0.142(-1.413)

Family Labour β3 0.064(1.167) -0.421***(-5.034)

Age of Trees β4 -0.411**(-2.110) -0.330***(-2.931)

Fertilizer Β5 0.047***(6.749) 0.606***(3.956)

Pesticide Β6 0.055***(2.992) 0.333***(5.590)

Inefficiency Effects

Constant δ0 0.050**(-2.298) 1.038***(5.963)

Sex δ1 -0.065***(-3.251) -0.285(-0.662)

Age δ2 -0.115**(-2.279) -0.004***(-2.555)

Education δ3 -0.155(-0.624) -0.003(-0.222)

Household Size δ4 -0.941**(-2.122) 0.843***(3.671)

Extension Contact δ5 0.018(0.785) 0.045***(3.423)

Variety δ6 0.192(1.489) -1.014**(-2.306)

2
Sigma-squared σ 0.511***(3.554)

Gamma 0.602***(4.900)

*** =significant at 1% (∝ ) ** = significant at 5% (∝ 0.05) * = significant at 10% (∝ 0.10) Figures in parenthesis are t-values
0.01

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

area of land cultivated to cocoa (p<0.05), increase in the ano et al., (2010) that older farmers produce with more
use of fertilizer (p<0.01) and Pesticide (p<0.01) would inefficiencies compared to younger farmers.
lead to significant improvement in cocoa output while the Variety (p<0.05) of the cocoa planted also had negative
use of more family labour (p<0.01) and increase in the significant relationship with inefficiency of cocoa farm-
age of cocoa trees would reduce cocoa output by 5.03kg ers in the study area. These means that these variables
and 2.93kg respectively. These results except the result increase inefficiency of cocoa farmers in the study areas.
on family labour agree with the findings of Binam et al., Variety of cocoa implies that farmers who planted the
(2008), Nkamleu et al., (2010) and Onumah et al., (2013). local variety were less technically efficient than farmers
It should be noted that in stochastic frontier estima- who planted the hybrid variety.
tion, the parameter for inefficiency level usually enters Conversely, household size (p<0.01) and extension
the model as the dependent variable in the inefficiency contact (p<0.01) had a direct relationship with inefficien-
effects component of the model. This, therefore, means cy under the metafrontier-Tobit model. These imply large
that a negative sign of the coefficient of a variable in the household size and frequents visits from extension agents
Z-vector implies that the corresponding variable would increase efficiency of cocoa farmers in the study areas.
reduce inefficiency (or increase efficiency). On the con- Technical Efficiency and Technology Gap Ratio (TGR)
trary, a positive sign of the coefficient of a Z-variable is The values of the TGR, TE measures for the SPF and
interpreted as potentially having a negative influence on with respect to the MF are summarized in Table 5. The
efficiency (Brummer and Loy, 2000; Coelli et al., 2005; TGR values represent the distance between the meta
Otieno et al., 2014; Bahta et al., 2015). As indicated in frontier and the regional efficiency frontier for a given
Chen and Song (2008), a straightforward interpretation vector of inputs. A higher (lower) TGR value implies a
of regression parameters is available from the two-stage smaller (larger) technology gap between the individual
Tobit estimation since the dependent variable used in the frontier and the MF. A TGR value of 100% is equivalent
subsequent Tobit model is the technical efficiency score to a point where a regional frontier coincides with the
obtained from optimization in the metafrontier estimation. MF. The study reveals that the mean technical efficiencies
Therefore, a positive value on a coefficient in the meta- from the stochastic frontier models were estimated to be
frontier-Tobit model infers that increases in the associated 0.646, 0.95 and 0.828 for Kwara, Edo and Ondo States
variable would increase efficiency (Wooldridge, 2002). respectively. These imply that cocoa production in Kwara,
The observed statistical differences in cocoa production Edo and Ondo States were 35.4%, 5% and 17.2% below
among the study areas suggests, as indicated by Battese et their group frontier. Technical efficiency scores from the
al., (2004), Otieno et al., (2014), and Bahta et al., (2015) pooled data ranges from 0.3602 to 1.000 with a mean
that the pooled stochastic frontier is inappropriate for pol- of 0.8079 indicating that cocoa production in the study
icy application and are only presented for completeness of areas produces about 81 percent of the potential output
the analysis. Therefore, subsequent discussion focuses on given the technology available in the country. This result
the variables that are significant in the metafrontier-Tobit demonstrates that improving the managerial skills and
model. technical capacity of farmers without adding any input
Variety of cocoa planted and frequency of extension can help increase cocoa output by up to 19 percent. Edo
visits were found to be significant in the metafrontier-To- State is relatively the most technically efficient state while
bit model, but not in the pooled stochastic frontier, while Kwara State is the least efficient. Weather conditions, pest
sex was significant in the pooled stochastic frontier but and diseases, imperfect competition, financial constraints,
not significant in the metafrontier-Tobit model. lack of improved crop varieties, etc., may cause a farmer
The result of the metafrontier-Tobit shows that age of not to be operating at optimal level (Nkamleu et al., 2010;
the cocoa farmers increases inefficiency as the coefficient Onumah et al., 2013).
of age (p<0.01) of the cocoa farmers was negative and Estimates of the technology gap ratios (TGR) reveals
statistically significant. This implies that younger cocoa that the study areas had a mean potential ratio of 0.795,
farmers were more efficient than older farmers in the 0.880 and 0.854 in Kwara, Edo and Ondo States respec-
study areas. The reason for this is that younger farmers tively. The values of the TGRs indicate that if cocoa
are more educated, exposed, knowledgeable, receptive of producers in the three states were technically efficient,
innovations and willing to take risks more than the aged they could have increased the output by closing a gap of
farmers. Aminu and Hassan (2016) reported that older 20.5%, 12% and 14.6% respectively. The TGR gap for the
farmers are more risk averse and are therefore, reluctant to mean producer was much smaller in Edo and Ondo States,
adopting innovation. This result is consistent with Mari- ranging from 12% to 14.6%, indicating that the extant

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Table 5. Technical Efficiency Scores and Technology Gap Ratios (TGR)

States SFA-TE MF-TE TGR
Mean 0.6461 0.5064 0.7947
Std. Deviation 0.1141 0.0859 0.1304
Kwara
Minimum 0.3602 0.2964 0.4593
Maximum 0.9993 0.6963 1.0000
Mean 0.9495 0.8369 0.8804
Std. Deviation 0.7448 0.1086 0.0838
Edo
Minimum 0.6891 0.5261 0.6461
Maximum 1.000 1.0000 0.9970
Mean 0.8281 0.7125 0.8541
Std. Deviation 0.0889 0.1742 0.1762
Ondo
Minimum 0.5501 0.1078 0.1787
Maximum 1.000 0.9258 1.0000
Mean 0.8079 0.6852 0.8431
Std. Deviation 0.1561 0.1872 0.1397
Pooled
Minimum 0.3602 0.1078 0.1787
Maximum 1.000 1.0000 1.0000

technologies in these states were near the possibilities’ technically efficient than other states in the study areas.
frontier of the meta-technology. Estimate of the pooled An interesting point to note is the difference between the
TGR ranges from 0.179 to 1.000 with a mean of 0.843. average technical efficiency scores from the national and
This implies that, on the average, the cocoa farmers in the the meta frontier models. For example, the average tech-
study areas would have to close a gap of about 15.7% in nical efficiency for Kwara relative to the meta technology
order for them to be technically efficient. Kwara State had is 50.6%, while its mean efficiency is quite large with re-
the lowest productivity potential ratio. This suggests that spect to its own national frontier (64.6%). The differences
even if all cocoa producers from Kwara State achieved between the two efficiency scores confirm the inappro-
best practice with respect to the technology observed in priateness of the technical efficiencies obtained by using
their state, they will still be lagging behind because the the SFA, relative to the technology available for cocoa
technology in Kwara State lags behind regional technol- production in the study areas.
ogy with a TGR of 0.795. This implies that even if the
mean cocoa producer in kwara State were fully techni- 4. Conclusions and Recommendations
cally efficient (i.e., producing on the national efficiency The cocoa farmers exhibited above average efficiency
frontier), he/she would still need to increase output by in cocoa production implying that farmers were knowl-
about 21 percent if he/she adopted the most efficient me- edgeable about cocoa production techniques. However,
ta-technology in the state. Nkamleu et al., (2010) obtained the technology gap ratio of Kwara State (which is the low-
a similar result for Cameroon in their study on technology est) confirms the need for the cocoa farmers in the state
gap and efficiency in cocoa production. to step up technology drive for increased cocoa technical
Edo State had the highest technology gap ratios (0.880) efficiency. Based on the findings from the stochastic and
when compared with other states, indicating that the tech- metafrontier analysis, the study recommends that:
nologies in Edo State were closer to the possibilities’ fron- 1) The intervention to raise technology (to close the
tier of the meta-technology than Kwara and Ondo States. gap between the regional frontier curve and the
This further implies that if all factors were held constant, global frontier curve) should be adopted in Kwara
the producers in Edo State would reach the maximum State. This could be done by raising and distributing
potential output for cocoa production in the study areas disease resistant and high yielding cocoa seedlings
faster than the other States. to the farmers. Edo and Ondo States could improve
The mean technical efficiency scores for cocoa pro- their performance through better management using
duction in the study areas relative to the meta-frontier the available technologies and resources.
are 0.506, 0.837 and 0.712 for Kwara, Edo and Ondo 2) Since the cocoa farmers in the study areas are not re-
States respectively. This indicates that Edo State is more alizing their full production potential, there is a need

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

for sustained improvements on performance through [10] Bečvářová, V. and Verter, N. (2014). Analysis of
enhanced roles by the government in educating Some Drivers of Cocoa Export in Nigeria in the Era
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efficiency. [11] Binam J.N., Gockowski J. and Nkamleu G.B. (2008):
Technical efficiency and productivity potential of co-
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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Research on World Agricultural Economy

http://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae

Research Achievements in Relation to Maize (Zea mays L) Crop Pro-

duction and Productivity in Ethiopia: A Systematic Review
Dessalegn Ayana*
Department of Plant Science, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Assosa University, Assosa, Ethiopia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Despite the conducting much number of maize researches in different
Received: 17 June 2021 centers a little change on production and productivity in Ethiopia. Hence
this review aimed to indicate how a maize production and productivity
Accepted: 15 July 2021 have been developed and used to inform that food security concern body
Published Online: 31 July 2021 of the country. I researched for different papers reporting maize production
achievements, databases of peer review journal articles, scholar Google and
Keywords: other web sites. A total of 70 papers were reviewed from which 20 papers
Research achievements are included and from this 51.2% describe about maize production, 34.6%
describe about productivity of a crop per area and 14.2% describe about
Maize deficiency of agricultural input utilization by local farmers. The use of new
Production and productivity crop variety and artificial fertilizers is relatively a wide spread throughout
the country. However, practical application on small holder’s field has less
technical support and comparatively traditional way of crop managements
have been involved. Most of the research findings, particularly those
from agronomic practices, indicated that Maize has wide flexibility that is
suitable for production.

1. Introduction situation has been further aggravated by the long history

of cultivation without any P and N replenishment, which
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important cere- led to low soil fertility and result in low crop yield.
al crops in the world. It ranks third position among other Weed infestation is the other constraints of maize pro-
cereals after wheat and rice [1]. According to FAOSTAT [2], duction in Ethiopia that are responsible for low maize grain
690.7million tons of maize was produced on 135.4 million yield. Worldwide maize production is hampered up to 40 %
hectares world widely, with a yield of over 5.1 tons per by competition from weeds which are the most important
hectare in the year 2012/2013. Maize is also important ce- pest group of this crop [4]. Generally, weeds reduce crop yield
real crop in eastern and southern Africa that accounts for by competing for light, nutrient, water, and carbon dioxides
over 29 % of the total harvested area of annual food crops as well as interfering with harvesting and increasing the cost
and 25 % of total caloric consumption. involved in production. Overall weeds impose the highest
Maize is the second most widely cultivated crop in loss potential (37 %) which is higher than the loss potential
Ethiopia [3]. In most of the regions of Ethiopia, soils are due to animal pest (18 %) [5]. A review was carried out on
deficient in phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N). In some maize crop production and productivity. Moreover, agro-
place of Western Ethiopia, adverse soil acid prevails, and nomic research such as fertilizer rate and time of application,
frequently combination of the limit crop production. The plant population density and weed management of maize

*Corresponding Author:
Dessalegn Ayana,
Department of Plant Science, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Assosa University, Assosa, Ethiopia;
Email: [email protected]

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

production comprises the major components of the agro- expansion Figure 1.

nomic research undertaken by different research centers to
improve production and productivity of maize in the country.
The objective of this paper is to review research findings and
to identify the gaps, and putting future research direction
in relation to improving cultural practices for production of
maize in Ethiopia.

2. Methods
This review followed Reporting of Central Statistical
Agency (CSA), and FAOSTAT data bases are taken as
bench mark. The papers were extracted into a data extrac-
Figure 1. the lines Y1 axis) represent area and whereas
tion system. This include information about author, publi-
the yield represent (Y2-axis) is represent by the bar
cation date, the type of intervention and out comes in re-
lation to research achievements of maize crop, and the use According to Figure 1 the increase in population
of research design, implementation and evaluation of the growth supports the competitiveness of maize crop and
intervention and the influence of context of the research area of production in Ethiopia also increases during in-
study in Ethiopia. Following the search of databases of crease in time. This increase in area come mainly from
peer-reviewed journal articles, the title, and abstract of the two sources. First, the traditionally sorghum growing
search result from peer-reviewed papers and relevant por- smallholder farmers in the rift valley of Ethiopia shifted
tions were reviewed. The peer-reviewed journal articles, to maize, and the second maize area increase was the
titles, and abstracts are screened for the inclusion or ex- adoption of maize by the traditionally tef growing farmers
clusion purposes. The papers were compared, evaluated, in northern central area of Ethiopia particularly in West
and summarized narratively in relation to review. Due to Gojjam, North Gondar, and others.
the heterogeneity of the study design, implementations,
and outcomes detail analysis was not conducted in this 3.2 Tillage and fertilizer management
review. According to Asresie report for reduced tillage practices,
the soil should be distributed only to place the seed and fer-
3. Results and Discussions
tilizer in the soil at the time of sowing the seed by using row
A total of 70 papers were reviewed from which 20 method of planting [7]. Thus, land preparation to suppress
papers are included and from this 51.2% describe about weed infestation is not a concern rather it is disturbed only
maize production, 34.6% describe about productivity of a to place the seed and fertilizer. According to the variability
crop per area and 14.2% describe about deficiency of agri- of the size and the farming system of the different regions
cultural input utilization by local farmers. of Ethiopia, different regions have different consumption
trends. Of all the region four administration regions (Oromia,
3.1 Research achievements in Ethiopia Amhara, SNNP, and Tigray) consumed on average more than
Maize research in Ethiopia has gone through a num- 94.80 % of fertilizer in Ethiopia. From the four regions again,
ber of changes over the last several years, which marked consumption is in the order of Oromia >Amhara > SNNP >
critical period in terms of driving the current changes in Tigray and the percentage share of these regions is 36.6%,
production and productivity. Some of the key events that 35.8%, 15.5% and 6.9 % respectively.
warrant specific methods include the 1984 major drought Based on CSA data for 2004 to 2013 it was estimat-
and famine that helped to increase the profile of maize ed that about fertilizer in Ethiopia are marketed as DAP
in attaining national food security. The introduction of (Di-ammonium-Phosphate) and urea. Potassium fertilizers
national developed hybrids adapted the local production are not considered to be important in Ethiopian agricul-
condition in the late 1980s and early 1990s and the intro- ture, as there is apperception that Ethiopian soils are not
duction of an integrated system approached for research deficient in potassium element.
and development by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural The following figure shows that, on average DAP ac-
research in the early 2000s [6]. It is interesting to see that counts for about 64 % of the total volume of fertilizer used
the gradual increases in maize production in Ethiopia re- with urea accounting for about remaining 36 %. They
sulted more from increases in productivity rather than area converted the two products into N and P equivalent and

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

report here the total N and P consumptions, the area ferti- barrenness, and ultimately decreases the number of ears
lized and application rates. Therefore, the ratio of DAP to produced per plant and kernels set per ear [13]. The spac-
Urea is not the recommendable ratio 2:1 for increasing of ing between stands per hectare, in turn, determines the
maize production. numbers of plants per stands per hectare [14]. The number
of stands per hectare, and the number of plants per stand
together determine the number of plants per hectare, or
the plant density. A number of factors also influence plant
density: fertility status of the soil, moisture supply, growth
pattern of the crop and cultural practices [15].
Anoma [16] reported that there was significant (P<0.05)
main effect of varieties and Plant density, the maize gave
the highest grain yield (9.9 t ha-1) at plant density of
61,538 plants per hectare Table 1.
Table 1. Main effect of variety and plant density on above
ground dry biomass, grain yield and harvest index of
maize
Treatment BM (kgha-1) GY(Kgha-1) HI (%)
Figure 2. the overall Nitrogen and Phosphate fertilizer con- Maize varieties
sumption by maize in Ethiopia between 2004 and 2013 BH-540 24331.1b 8993.7a 37.33a
Source: [8] BH-140 24324.8 b
8736.7 a
37.33a
BH QPY -545 27166.9a 8052.2b 30b
The above data shows that DAP are being gradually
LSD(0.05) 1957.1 584.94 2.86
substituted by NPS in the recent years to meet the sulfur
Plant density (ha-1)
demand of most of Ethiopian soils.
72727 (55cmx25cm) 28238a 8596.8bc 30.69d
a a
61538 (65cmx25cm) 28495 9921.8 35.52ab
60606 (55cmx30cm) 26313ab 9192.2ab 36.18a
bc c
53333 (75cmx25cm) 24272 8674b 35.49ab
51282 (65cmx30cm) 23138dc 7882.8cd 34.33cd
d d
44444 (75cmx30cm) 21190 7297.7 34.79cd
LSD(0.05) 2767.7 827.23 NS
CV (%) 11.4 10.05 12.25
Figure 3. Fertilizer use in Ethivopia recent time [9]. Means in column within a parameter followed by the same
letters are not significantly different at 5 % level of significance,
3.3 Plant population and spacing BM= biomass, GY =grain yield,HI= harvest index LDS (0.05)
= Least significant difference at 5 % level; CV=coefficient of
Plant density is one of the most important cultural prac-
variation and NS= non- significant.
tices determining grain yield, as well as other important
agronomic contributes of the crop. Plant density affects plant
3.4 Maize achievement in cropping systems with
architecture, alters growth and developmental patterns and
other crops
influences carbohydrate production and partitioning [10].
Maize is more sensitive to variation in plant density The achievements of maize grain yield in 1999 and
than other members of the grass family [11]. At low densi- continuous maize and rotational crops in 2000 and 2002
ties, many modern maize hybrids do not tillers effectively cropping season are shown in Table 2 [17]. Therefore,
and quite often produce only one ear per plant. Therefore, Maize following Niger seed produced mean grain yield
maize does not share the traits of most tiller grasses of advantage of 971 and 1527 kg ha-1compared to haricot
compensating for low leaf area and small number of pro- bean and tef. All crop rotations produced greater yield
ductive unit by branching [12]. On the other hand, the use advantage of maize compared to continuous maize. The
of high population heightens interplant competition for finding was indicated that maize grain yield in 1999 and
light, water, and nutrients. This may be detrimental for fi- continuous maize with rotational crops in 2000 and 2002
nal yield, because it stimulates apical dominance, induces cropping season shown variation in yield of maize.

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Maize leaf removal below the ear improved tef grain yield 3.5 Weed management in maize
without reducing the maize grain yield significantly [18]. It
was realized that in maize-tef association, maize has a According to the finding of [20] the maximum hundred
deeper root system than tef which allows for exploitation seed weight was recorded on combination of hand weed-
of soil nutrients and moisture at different soil layer. It was ing and hoeing and the minimum was recorded on weedy
realized that in maize-tef association, maize has a deeper check both at Gudar and Ambo sites. Moreover, the
root system than tef which allows for exploitation of soil highest grain yield was obtained from hand weeding plus
nutrient and moisture at different soil layers [19]. In this hoeing and followed by plot treated with Nicosulfuron at
study it was observed that the optional level of compatible both study sites. While the lowest grain yield was scored
crops depend on different factors such as variety, location, on weedy check. However, the data were similar approach
and weed population. in both sites on grain yield.

Table 2. Mean grain yield of maize in 1999 and rotational crops (2000 and 2002) and continuous maize from 2000 to
2002 of grain yield across cropping seasons.
Yield (kg ha-1)
maize 1999 (kg ha-1) Rotation crops 2000 2001 2002
4870 Niger seed 742 734
4708 Niger seed 749 664
6070 Haricot bean 1436 1810
5738 Haricot bean 1422 1897
4697 Tef 356 396
4515 Tef 392 464
5567 Continuous maize 8270 5544 2957

Table 3. Average land equivalent ratio (LER) for maize-tef relay intercropping with planting pattern and leaf removals
at Hawasa, Ethiopia.
Leaf removal
planting Pattern L1 (No of leaf removal) L2 (No of leaf removal Below ear) L3(No of leaf removal near to the ear Mean
Broadcast 1.23 1.3 1.33 1.29
60x37.5cm 1.2 1.3 1.35 1.28
75x30cm 1.32 1.48 1.51 1.44
100x22cm 1.34 1.5 1.5 1.45
Mean 1.26 14 1.42 1.36

Table 4. Effect of various herbicides on 100 seed weight (g) grain yield (kgha-1) and relative yield loss %
Gudar Ambo
-1
treatments HSW(g) GY(kgha ) RYL (%) HSW(g) GY(kgha-1) RYL (%)

Nicosulfuron 41.53a 6883.3a 4.74cd 44.67b 6883.3ab 6.31d

S-metolachlor 42.633a 5026.4b 30.15b 41.17c 5026.4c 29.37b

Primagram 42.833a 6259.2a 14.52c 41.30c 6129.2b 11.80c

Hand weeding +hoeing 45.33a 6989.8a 0.00cd 49.67a 7223.1a 0.00d

c
weed check 33.80b 2312.4 63.65a 29.80d 2612.4d 75.71a

LSD(0.05) 5.19 921.28 9.79 3.29 812.36 5.32

CV (%) 6.68 8.84 23.01 4.24 7.73 11.47

HSW=hundred seed weight, GY= grain yield, RYL= relative yield loss, LSD= least significant difference, CV= coefficient of
variance, means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 0.05 probability level using Fisher’s
protected LDS test.

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

4. Conclusions Desallegn Molla and Alemu Worku .2015. Best fit

practice on reduced tillage for maize production
As it has been already discussed agronomic practices, BDU-CASCAPE Technical working paper no 9.
such as plant density are known to affect crop environ- [8] Central Statistical Agency (CSA). 2013. Area and
ment, which directly influence grain yield. Optimum pop- production of major crops. Agricultural sample sur-
ulation level should be maintained to exploit maximum vey2012/13, private, peasant holdings, Meher season,
natural resources including soil nutrients, sunlight, and Statistical Bulletin 532, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
soil moistures to ensure satisfactory yield. To overcome [9] Central Statistics Agency (CSA). 2014.Agricultural sample
this resource using different intercropping systems were survey report onprivate peasant holdings, meher season
found to be more economically advantageous than sole 2013/20014 VOLUME I, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.
cropping as the maize grower could get additional yield. [10] Casal, J.J., Deregibus, V.A.and Sánchez, R.A., 1985.
It was also reviewed that, fertilizer supplement on maize Variations in tiller dynamics and morphology in Lo-
specially Nitrogen and Phosphorus is significantly affect lium multiflorum Lam. vegetative and reproductive
grain yield. Not only fertilizer use impose maize grain plants as affected by differences in red/far-red irradi-
yield but also weeds management in the fields of maize is ation. Annals of Botany, 56:533-559.
very essential for obtaining tangible yield. [11] Vega, C. R. C., Andrade, F. H. and Sadras, V. O.
2001. Reproductive partitioning and seed set effi-
5. Future Line of Work ciency in soybean, sunflower and maize. Field Crop
Research, 72: 165-173.
The future direction of maize production is based on [12] Gardner, F.P., Pearce, R.B. and Mitchell, R.L., 1985.
soil fertility status and crop responses. In addition to Physiology of crop plants. Ames Iowa State University.
this, concerned body has given more emphasis on the [13] Sangoi, L. and Salvador, R.J. 1998. Influence of plant
development of maize production to reduce poverty. The height and leaf number on maize production at high
production of maize is mainly handled by small-scale plant densities. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira,
farmers. Consequently, its farming techniques, agronomi- 33:3, pp.297-306.
cal practices, harvesting and processing technologies have [14] Onwueme, I. C. and Sinha, T. D. 1991. Field crops
followed local and traditional knowledge. In this regard, it production in tropical Africa. Technical Center for
has still required effort, time, and resources in disseminat- Agricultural and Rural Co-operation (CTA), the
ing the appropriate skill, technologies, and knowledge, for Netherlands. pp.159-170.
better maize production and productivity. [15] Gonzalo M., T.J. Vyn, J.B. Holland and L.M. Mcin-
tre. 2006. Mapping Density Response in Maize : A
References Direct Approach for Testing Genotype and Treatment
Interactions. Genetics, 173 (1):331-348.
[1] FAOSTAT, 2010. Food and Agriculture Organization [16] Amona Tolka 2014 Effect of Varieties and Plant Density
Statistical Database: http// faostat.fao.org. Accessed on Yield and Yield Components of Maize (Zea mays L.)
on September 10/2017. in Ofa District, Gesuba, Southern Ethiopia, Msc. Thesis
[2] FAOSTAT, 2013. Food and Agriculture Organization Haramaya Universsity, Haramaya Ethiopia.
Statistical Database: http// faostat.fao.org. [17] Tolera Abera1, Daba Feyisa, and D. K. Friesen (2009)
[3] MOA. (2005). New agro-ecological zones of Ethio- Effects of Crop Rotation and N-P Fertilizer Rate on
pia. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture. Grain Yield and Related Characteristics of Maize
[4] Chikoye D, Schulz S, Ekeleme F (2004) Evaluation and Soil Fertility at Bako, Western Oromia, Ethiopia,
of integrated weed management practices for maize East African Journal of Sciences 3 (1) PP 70-79.
in the northern Guinea savanna of Nigeria. Crop Pro- [18] Walelign Worku. 2004. Maize-tef relay intercropping
tection 23: 895-900. as affected by maize planting pattern and leaf remov-
[5] Chikoye D, Udensi UE, Fontem A, Lum (2005) Eval- al in southern Ethiopia. African Crop Science Jour-
uation of a new formulation of atrazine and meto- nal. 12(4):358 367.
lachlor mixture for weed control in maize in Nigeria. [19] Wondimu Bayu, Molla Addisu, Besufekad Tadesse
Crop Protection 24:1016-1020. and Legesse Admassu, 2007. Intercropping tef and
[6] Abate, T. (2007). Focusing agricultural research to sunflower in semi-arid areas of Wello, Ethiopia. Trop.
address development needs: Direction for agricultur- Sci., 47(1): 16-21.
al research in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: EIAR. [20] Tesfay A, Amin M, Mulugeta N (2014) Management of
[7] Asresie Hassen, Molla Tafere, Mekonen Tolla, Abel Weeds in Maize (Zea maysL.) through Various Pre and
Ahmed, Seferew Dagnew, Yihenew G.Selassie, Post Emergency Herbicides. Adv Crop Sci Tech 2: 151.

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Research on World Agricultural Economy

http://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae

Carcass Traits, Organ Proportion and Bio-Economic Cost Benefits

Analysis of Broiler Chickens Fed Different Dietary Plant Protein
Sources in Sorghum-Based Diet
Agida, C. A.1* Onunkwo, D. N.1 Ezenyilimba, B. N.2 Afam-Ibezim, E. M.1 Ukonu, A. B.1
John, U. E.1 Adje, C. I.3
1. College of Animal Science and Animal Production, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State,
Nigeria
2. Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria
3. Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history A 56-day study was carried out to evaluate the carcass characteristics and
Received: 21 June 2021 organ proportions of broiler chickens fed sorghum-based diets with varying
plant protein. A total of 120 day-old broiler chickens from a reputable and
Accepted: 20 July 2021 disease free farm were used for this study. There were four treatments,
Published Online: 31 July 2021 each having thirty broiler birds replicated thrice with ten broiler birds per
replicate using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). The broiler
Keywords: birds were offered feed and water ad libitum. The growth parameters were
Carcass characteristics taken on weekly basis. Carcass evaluation was carried out at the end of
the trial. One bird per replicate was randomly selected, fasted over-night
Organ proportions and slaughtered by severing the jugular vein. After scalding in warm water
Cashew nut cake for about a minute, the feathers were manually plucked. Each bird was
Groundnut cake cut into parts for carcass evaluation. The relative weights of the cut parts
were as a percentage of dressed weight. The internal organs, such as heart,
Soyabean
kidney, gizzard/proventriculus were all weighed separately and recorded
Sorghum using electric micrometer (3000g weighing gauge). The findings from this
Broiler birds study showed that all the carcass parameters considered showed significant
differences (p<0.05). Birds fed diet 3 gave the best live weight, slaughtered
weight, defeathered weight, dressed weight and commensurate cut-parts.
Soybean (whether cake or full-fat) demonstrate superiority over groundnut
cake and cashew nut cake. Birds fed diet 3 gave the highest value of thigh,
breast -cut, drumstick and wings, while birds fed diets 2, 1 and 4 gave
less. The organ proportions of broiler chickens fed different dietary plant
sources have all the parameters significantly difference (p<0.05), except the
lungs though without any definite pattern. Average weight gain and feed
conversion ratio were better (p<0.05) among birds fed diet 2, and 3. Cost
benefits analysis per kilogram in naira terms for birds fed different plant
protein sources in a sorghum-based diets were significant (p<0.05) among
treatment levels. Least cost per kg feed was obtained in diet 1 (p<0.05).
Cost of weight gained was (p<0.05) low in T1. Cost of feed consumed
was low for diet T1 and T3. Revenue, gross margin and cost benefit
ratio estimated were found to high (p<0.05) among T2 and T3. Broiler
chickens fed diet 3 gave the best parameters. The actual contributions of
the experiment, is to alternatively replace corn with sorghum completely at
least cost with optimum performance.

*Corresponding Author:
Agida, C. A.,
College of Animal Science and Animal Production, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria;
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

1. Introduction to March) with a relative humidity of about 50-90% and

monthly temperature range of 17 oC – 36 oC (NRCRI,
The rising cost of poultry feeds have continued to be 2019).
a major problem in developing countries as feed cost is A total of 120day-old Ross strained unsexed chicks
about 65 to 70% of the total cost of production (Onunkwo were weighed and randomly allotted to four equal treat-
et al., 2019) and poultry industry has suffered more than ment groups (T1, T2, T3 and T4) each having 30 chicks.
any other livestock industry as a result of this. Cereal Each treatment was replicated three times of 10 chicks
grains constitute the major source of energy in poultry per replicate. The birds were offered feed and water ad
feeds in the tropics (Oluyemi and Robert 2000). Cere- libitum in a deep litter pen. Carcass evaluation was carried
al grains, especially maize form the bulk of energy in out at the end of the feeding trial. One bird per replicate
poultry feeds are in short supply as a result of industrial was randomly selected, fasted overnight and slaughtered
and human competition. This has resulted in competition by severing the jugular vein. After scalding in warm water
between human and animals for available feed resources, for about a minute, the feathers were manually plucked.
and hence high cost of animal production. Pressure on Each bird was cut into parts for carcass evaluation accord-
maize has been on the increase worldwide (Onunkwo et ing to (Ojewola et al., 2001). The relative weights of the
al., 2018) and this trend requires serious diversification of cut parts are as a percentage of dressed weight. The inter-
energy feed stuff for poultry. Sorghum (Sorghumi bicolor) nal organs, such as heart, kidney, gizzard/proventriculus
is a crop which is similar in composition to maize and can were all weighed separately and recorded using electric
be successfully cultivated in the semi-arid regions of Asia micrometer 3000g weighing gauge.
and Africa and it is cheaper and more readily available Performance cost benefits analysis was computed by
than maize (Douglas et al., 1993). A comparative incre- assessment of each of the feed cost per ingredient pur-
ment in demand for essential ingredients such as maize, chased in Naira value per kg. Cost of kg feed equal total
soybeans meal, sorghum grains, groundnut cake and fish cost of 1 kg of feed stuff. Cost of a kg weight gain equal
meal by man and animals has further exacerbated the high feed conversion ratio multiply total feed consumed. Cost
cost of compounded conventional feeds for poultry in Ni- of production equal cost per kg weight gain multiply
geria and the world over (Jaji, et al., 2011). mean weight gain. Revenue estimate is equal price of 1 kg
The sourcing least cost alternative feed stuff, which of table sized broiler chicken multiply mean weight gain.
are mostly waste not consume by humans and are readily Gross margin estimate is equal revenue estimated minus
available and affordable as against expensive conventional cost of production estimated. Average daily feed intake in
ones in the animal agriculture has been suggested (Agida, grams is total feed intake divide by the number of birds
et al., 2019a). This will be a higher percentage alleviate per total number of experimental days. Average daily
global food crisis and ameliorate food security (Anigbogu weight gain in grams is the aggregate sum of the weight
et al., 2020; Agida, et al., 2019b). Demand for maize gain in a treatment replicate divide by the total numbers
grains between man, industries and livestocks has been on of experimental birds per days of experimental trials.
the increase (Agida, et al., 2019b; Olomu, 2011). These All data generated were subjected to Analysis of Var-
have further been exacerbated during the 2020 Covid-19 iance (ANOVA) and treatment means that were signifi-
pandemic year, where agricultural activities were at an al- cantly different were separated using Duncan’s Multiple
most completely lock down. Range Test (Duncan, 1955).
Hence it is necessary to evaluate of the carcass char-
acteristics of birds fed different plant protein sources 3. Results and Discussion
(Groundnut cake, Cashew nut cake, Soyabean meal and The results of the Carcass characteristics of birds fed
Soyabean cake) in a Sorghum-based diet. different plant protein sources in a Sorghum-based diet are
presented in Table 2. The result showed that all the carcass
2. Materials and Method
parameters considered showed a significant difference
This study was carried out in the Poultry unit of the (p<0.05). The poorer values exhibited by birds fed diets
Teaching and Research farm, Michael Okpara university 4 and 1 could be attributed to the different abilities of the
of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State. Umudike is located test diets to support tissue deposition. Nonetheless, birds
on latitude 05o 21’ N and longitude 07o 33’E, with an el- fed diet 3 gave the best live weight, slaughtered weight,
evation of about 112m above sea level. The location has defeathered weight, dressed weight and commensurate
an annual rainfall of 177 - 2,000mm per annum, (April cut-parts. This is closely followed by the birds fed diet 2.
to October) and a short period of dry season (November The implication of this is that soybean (whether cake or

18 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i3.425

 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

full-fat) demonstrate superiority over groundnut cake and findings of (Ojewola and Ewa, 2005), who confirmed that
cashew nut cake. The differences obtained in the cut-parts heavier birds produced a greater eviscerated yield. This is
values may be attributed to similar reasons considering a further confirmation of the fact that plump appearance
the highest (significant values) of thigh, wing, breast-cut in broiler was associated with high percentage of edible
and back-cut for birds fed diet 3 when compared to diets meat. Birds fed diet 3 gave the highest value of thigh,
2, 1 and 4; diet 3 is simply a diet of choice. The result breast-cut, drumstick and wings. However, birds fed diet
further showed that cut-parts (drumstick, thigh and wing) 2, 1 and 4 gave less. This shows the ability of test diet (T3)
bore a relationship with carcass weight-supporting the to support tissue deposition more than the others. The
view of (Ojewola and longe, 2000) that weights, volumes back-cut of birds fed diet 3 also gave the highest value
and dimensions of broiler parts were directly related to when compared to others.
the carcass weight. This is also in agreement with the The results of organ proportions of broiler chickens fed

Table 1. Gross Percent composition of experimental diet

Ingredients T1 T2 T3 T4
Sorghum 63.30 63.30 63.30 63.30
Groundnut cake 30 - - -
Soyabean meal (full fat) - 30 - -
Soyabean cake - - 30 -
Cashew nut cake - - - 30
Fish meal (local) 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Bone meal 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Vitamin Premix 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Methionine 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Lysine 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Calculated analysis
Percent crude protein 22.26 21.36 21.36 22.26
ME (Kcal/kg) 3030 3168 3048 3198
Calorie protein ratio 1.136 1.148 1.143 1.144

*premix supply per kg broiler diet: Vitamin A 1500IU, Vitamin D3 13000IU, Thiamin 2mg, Riboflavin 6mg, Pyridoxine 4mg, Niacin
40mg, Cobalamine 0.05g, Biotin 0.08mg, Chlorine chloride 0.05g, Manganese 0.096g, Zinc 0.06g, Iron 0.024g, Copper 40mg, Iodine
0.014g, Selenium 0.24mg, Cobalt 0.024mg and antioxidant 0.125g.

Table 2. Carcass characteristics of birds fed different plant protein sources in a Sorghum-based diets
Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 SEM
Live weight 1000.00b 1892.67a 2016.67a 900.00b 153.67
Slaughtered weight 955.00bc 1866.67a 1983.33ab 850.00c 147.29
b a a
Defeathered weight 908.33 1750.00 1818.33 778.33b 144.69
b a a b
Dressed weight 751.67 1610.00 1663.33 681.67 140.69
Shank 56.00b 73.67 87.67a 42.33b 5.52
Thigh 195.00b 228.67a 236.33a 115.33c 39.46
Breast-cut 212.33c 354.67b 478.67a 152.33c 39.46
c a ab
Back-cut 139.00 311.33 281.33 214.33b 21.87
b a a b
Drumstick 102.67 179.00 193.33 77.67 15.27
Wings 88.00b 170.67a 181.33a 74.67b 14.73
b a a c
Head 41.67 50.33 55.67 32.00 2.85
Neck 66.33ab 82.33a 89.00a 47.67c 5.77

a,b,c,d values with different superscripts on same row are significantly different (p<0.05)

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

different dietary plant protein sources in sorghum-based significant (P<0.05) across treatment levels. Birds fed diet
diet are shown in Table 3. All the parameters showed T1 showed significantly (P<0.05) lower cost/kilogram of
significant differences (p<0.05), except the lungs though feed. The decline in cost, was as a result of cheaper cost
without any definite pattern. The lowest value of kidney of 1 kilogram groundnut cake to other plant protein source
weight in birds fed diet 4 is understandable knowing that used in the experiment. Cost of a kilogram weight gained
cashew nut meal has known to be high in toxic substanc- was found to be cheaper (P<0.05) among birds fed diet 3,
es like some other oil seed (Odunsi, 1999). Thus, the and a higher (P<0.05) cost was obtained for birds fed diet
kidney-based enzymes may exhibit reduced activities. 4. The high cost was due to high cost of cashew nut cake
Average feed intake was not significant (P>0.05) across which is relatively very expensive as the demand for cash-
treatments in Table 4. It shows that energy and protein ew nut is very high. Contrary to previous findings by (Jaji
requirements were made as obtained from the formulated et al., 2011; Taiwo et al., 2015), cashew reject meal (CRM)
diets. Average daily weight gain and feed conversion ra- fed to broilers and layers chicken, showed low econom-
tion were found to be better (P<0.05) for birds fed diets ic cost. As maize and soyabean are the major sources of
T3 and T2 respectively, this is attributed to efficiency of energy and protein in the poultry and livestock industry,
utilization of its dietary protein, better amino acids profile ways of having 100% replacement for corn and soya-
and a balance dietary composition as regards protein-ener- bean as energy and protein sources with alternative feed
gy ratio and other unexplainable factors, although particle source are been sorted for, which form the basis for its
size on sorghum-based diets fed broiler chickens did not comparative studies. As the quest for a cheaper alternative
affect the performance of the birds as observed by (Fer- feed sources are high, the cost of broiler production per
nandes et al., 2013). kilogram of weight produced differ significantly (P<0.05)
Cost benefits analysis as presented in Table 4, where across treatments. A higher cost was obtained in birds fed

Table 3. Organ proportions of broiler chicken feed different dietary plant protein sources in sorghum-based diets
Response criteria T1 T2 T3 T4 SEM
Lungs 14.00 15.00 15.00 15.67 0.66
b b a b
Heart 8.73 9.33 11.00 8.50 0.33
Liver 22.00c 37.00a 47.00a 18.00c 3.56
c b a d
Gizzard 23.00 34.67 40.00 19.00 2.59
Crop 23.00c 11.00ab 11.33a 7.00ab 0.91
Intestine 63.67b 117.33a 108.67a 56.33ab 8.50
b a a ab
Proventriculus 4.00 7.00 7.67 5.33 0.56
Spleen 0.33b 2.33a 1.67a 0.00b 0.32
b a a b
Kidney 5.33 11.33 14.00 5.67 1.22

a,b,c,d values with different superscripts on same row are significantly different (p<0.05)

Table 4. Performance/cost benefits analysis of broiler chicken feed different dietary plant protein sources in sor-
ghum-based diets
Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 SEM
Average feed weight gain 85.04 82.19 83.32 83.05 0.60
Average daily weight gain 17.86b 33.80a 36.01a 16.07c 5.21
b a a b
Feed conversion ratio 4.80 2.43 2.31 5.17 0.76
Cost/kg of feed (₦) 121.07a 186.17b 134.57c 319.07d 4.63
c b a d
Cost of a kg weight gain (₦) 0.58 0.45 0.31 1.65 0.305
Cost of production/kg (₦) 10.38b 6.29a 11.19b 26.51d 8.875
a c a d
Cost/kg feed consumed (₦) 10.38 15.29 11.19 26.51 3.715
Gross margin (₦) 4.80c 13.44b 19.41a -12.85d 7.02
c b a d
Cost benefit ratio/kg (₦) 1.46 1.88 2.74 0.52 0.46

a,b,c,d values with different superscripts on same row are significantly different (p<0.05), The revenue estimates was computed at
(₦)850/kg table sized broiler chicken.

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

diet 4 when compare with other treatments. References

Cost of feed consumed per kilogram was better (P<0.05)
among birds fed diets T1 and T2 respectively. Diet T4 was [1] Agida, C. A., Ukoha, O. A., Ukachukwu, S. N. and
found to be higher (P<0.05) and relatively very expensive. Amaefule, K. U. (2019). Proximate, mineral analysis
This was relative to the cost of a kilogram cashew nut and growth performance of broiler chickens fed diets
and poor dietary utilization as a result of poor efficiency containing palm oil mill effluent. Nigerian Agricul-
of feed conversion. Revenue in naira per kilogram had tural Journal, 50(2): pp 81-86.
higher (P<0.05) amount obtained when birds were fed [2] Agida, C. A., W., Nathaniel, J. Ukoha, O. A. and
diet T3 and T2, with lower (P<0.05) revenue estimated for Ukachukwu, S. N. (2019). Haematological and sero-
birds fed diets T1 and T4. It is common among birds that logical indices of broiler finisher chickens fed diets
the feed conversion efficiency clearly defines their over- with palm oil mill effluent as replacement for maize.
all performance and has a direct reflection on their cost Nigerian Agricultural Journal, 50(2): pp 38-44.
benefits in relation to weight gain for every gram of feed [3] Douglas, J.H., Sullivan, T.W., Gonalez, N.J and
consumed. Beck, M.M. (1993). Differential age response of tur-
Gross margin as indication of estimated profit was keys to protein and sorghum tannin levels. Poultry
found to be highest (P<0.05) among birds fed diet T3. The Science, 72:1944 -1951.
gross margin showed (P<0.05) negative amount in naira [4] Duncan, D.B. (1955). Multiple range and multiple F
for birds on T4. It indicates loss of investment for birds tests. Biometrics, 11:1-42.
fed experimental diets T4. This further, disclose a high [5] Freitas E.R, Fuentes M.F.F, Santos Júnior A.S,
cost of test plant protein source that reflected a compar- Guerreiro M.E.F, Espíndola G.B. (2006). Farelo da
ative demand between man and animal creating a direct castanha de caju em rações para frangos de corte.
cost effect on using such plant protein source as replace- Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, 41(6):1001-1006.
ment for soyabean. Taiwo et al., (2015) and Jaji et al., [6] Gomes, T. R., Freitas, E. R., Watanabe, P. H., Sou-
(2006) ascertain the use of cashew reject meal (CRM) as sa, A. R and Ferreira, A. C. S. (2020). Cashew nut
a better alternative for economic gain in feeding poultry meal (Anacardium occidentale L.) in the feeding of
than the accepted kernel, due the high demand between growing rabbits. Zootecnica. Ciênc. anim. bras. 21.
man than an animal on the side of accepted kernel. Freitas https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-6891v21e-61927.
et al., (2006) reported increasing economic efficiency ra- [7] International Journal of Poultry Science 4(10) 765 -
tio and a reduction in cost when cashew nut meal (CNM) 771.
was fed to broilers at 25% inclusion levels. Gomes et al., [8] Jaji, M. F. O., Onigemo, M. A. and Adeyemo, M. A.
(2020) on feeding growing rabbits, also obtained low (2011). Economics of substituting cashew nut waste
cost and economic gained in feeding 5% cashew nut meal for maize in the growth performance of broiler chick-
replacement levels on soybean base diets. Cost benefit en. Proceedings of International Journal of Agricul-
ration showed (P<0.05) quick return and attractive invest- tural Economics and Extension, Vol. 5
ment figure for birds fed diet T3 followed by T2, with a [9] NRCRI (2019). Agro-meterological unit, National
discouraging investment figure for T4. The values buttress Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, Umuahia,
the facts that cost benefit ratio served as an indicator for Nigeria.
investment finders. It shows that, to every 1 digit of mon- [10] Odunsi A.A (1999). Feeding values of cashew kernel
ey spent on a commodity, a certain value to profit gain meal in the diet of the finishing broiler chickens. Ar-
or expected must be obtained, which must not be less or chivos de. Zootechnia 51. 423 - 429.
equal to 1. [11] Ojewola G.S and Longe O.G (2000) Evaluation of
the productive and economic efficiencies of cowpea
4. Conclusions hall and maize offal inclusion in layers ration. Nige-
Broiler chickens fed diet 3 which is the diet containing rian Journal of Animal Production 27 (1) 35 - 39.
30% soybean meal gave the best performance both in [12] Ojewola G.S and Ewa U. E (2005) Response of
carcass quality, organ proportion and bio-economics cost growing Broiler to varying dietary plant protein. In-
benefit analysis, while diet 4 containing 30% cashew nut ternational Journal of Poultry Science 4(10) 765 -
meal has poor performance. High cost of cashew kernel 771.
in Nigeria discourage its uses as alternative plant protein [13] Ojewola, G.S. Abasiekong S.F. and Nwachukwu,
source, hence its high demand by man and scarcity made C. S. (2001). Methionine supplementation in diets:
it very expensive. productive efficiency, carcass characteristics and

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

economics of growing indigenous turkey. Tropical [16] Onunkwo, D. N., Anyaegbu, B. C., Ezike, J. C and
Journal of Animal Science; 4:161 - 170. Daniel-Igwe, G (2019). Dietary substitution of soya
[14] Oluyemi, J.A and Roberts F.A. (2000). Poultry pro- bean meal with processed African yam bean meal as
duction in warm wet climates Macmillan Publishers. protein source in the diets of finisher broilers. Nigeri-
London. Pp 132. an Journal of Animal Production, 46(2):118-127.
[15] Onunkwo, D. N, Amaduruonye, W and Daniel-Igwe, [17] Taiwo, O. A., Akinyinka, O. A and Taye, O. A. (2015).
G (2018). Assessment of abattoir wastes (bovine Cashew reject meal in diets of laying chickens: nu-
blood and rumen content) on carcass characteristics, tritional and economic suitability. Journal of Animal
internal organs and organoleptic properties of broiler Science and Technology, 57:17.
birds. Nigerian Agricultural Journal. 49(1): 201-209. DOI: 10.1186/s40781.015.0051-7.

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Research on World Agricultural Economy

http://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae

Exploring How Human Activities Disturb the Balance of Biogeochemical

Cycles: Evidence from the Carbon, Nitrogen and Hydrologic Cycles
Olalekan Morufu Raimi1* Abiola Ilesanmi2 Ogah Alima3 Dodeye E. Omini4
1. Department of Community Medicine, Environmental Health Unit, Faculty of Clinical Sciences, Niger Delta
University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria
2. Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, College of Pure and Applied Sciences, Kwara State University,
Kwara State, Nigeria
3. School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
4. Faculty of Environment and Technology, University of the West of England, United Kingdom

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history All around us today there is a clear evidence proof suggesting an
Received: 24 June 2021 observable influence by human on biogeochemical cycles which are likely
to cause serious consequences for humanity. Activities of human affect
Accepted: 21 July 2021 the biogeochemical cycles, both directly as well as indirectly. If scholars
Published Online: 31 July 2021 were able to make clear the degree of how specific human actions are
affecting the biogeochemical cycles, they (researchers) would be able to
Keywords: come up with ideas on how to better position toward suggesting strategies
Biogeochemical cycles aimed at mitigating against disturbances that are worst. This paper aims
at exploring how human activities affect the balance of biogeochemical
Human activities cycles in relation to the Carbon, Nitrogen and Hydrologic Cycles. A
Worst disturbances literature analysis attempts to use a diversity of search engines such as
Ameliorative measures Scopus, Researchgate, PubMed, Google Scholar, Summon, Hinari, CAB
Abstract, OARE Abstract, Academia, Dimension, Mendeley, SSRN search
strategy toward retrieving research publications, “grey literature” as well as
expert reports from working group. This paper reviews some of the work
done on this topic as well as locate the converging results of interest in
all the studies as well as proffered solutions toward this menace with the
purpose of forestalling future occurrence. Due to the actions of numerous
human activities, the characteristics/features of several components of
biogeochemical cycles are experiencing changes which are most likely led
to long-term changes. It is essential to forecast the magnitude as well as
degree of these changes so that the needed ameliorative actions could be
originated well in time.

1. Introduction nature has transformed drastically. Currently, the term

“human- dominated ecosystems” was associated agricul-
Entirely organisms tend to amend their milieu, as well tural fields with elicited images, pastures, or urban land-
as human beings remain no exemption. As the population scapes; it can now be applied to all the earth with greater
of human continues to grow as well as technology power or lesser force [1,2]. Directly, humanity dominated several
continue to increase, the scope as well as the modification ecosystems, as well as no earth’s surface ecosystem is free

*Corresponding Author:
Olalekan Morufu Raimi,
Department of Community Medicine, Environmental Health Unit, Faculty of Clinical Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce
Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria;
Email: [email protected]

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

of pervasive human influence [3,4]. Interestingly, we don’t fauna over a large surface area of the world [1-4,8]. Human
just live on the Earth, but we change it. The Earth is a establishments and agriculture are fast expanding as well
different place because of humans. We have changed the as infringing on natural systems. Hill tops levelled, grass-
atmosphere, the seas and the surface of the land in many lands invaded, forests are cleared, marshes drained and
places through the activity of humans that have started to even land under water is reclaimed to provide space for
have a remarkable impact on the planet’s climate and eco- human establishments and his agriculture [1-4]. The soil is
systems and is characterized by massive global changes, bared, natural ecosystems remain destroyed, flora as well
including climate change, biodiversity loss, poverty, as as fauna exterminated and are replaced by such artificial
well as food insecurity [5]. The challenge for society is to systems as agriculture, horticulture, animal farms etc or
adapt to and mitigate these changes while transforming else a jungle of steel and concrete structures comes up in
our systems, making them more efficient, inclusive, resil- place of high green vegetation. The two most important
ient and sustainable, for a better environment, and a better consequences of human activity are:
life, leaving no one behind. Thanks to us, some animals
are much less common and others much more so. One of i. Reduction in ecosystem complexity and diversity
the things we have changed is the way that carbon is cy- Humans remained over simplifying the structural com-
cled. If we were to do something fairly common, such as plexities and diversity, which occur in undisturbed natural
go to the garage, fill our car up with fuel and use it to go ecosystems. Agriculture, for example, is just an applied
for a day out, we have affected the carbon cycle. The fuel management of trophic chain. The complicated several
that we put in the car was made using oil, a fossil fuel. By tiered trophic natural system structures is been reduced to
using this we have reduced the amount of oil left. Driving two links viz: Primary producer as well as human. Man
the car involved burning the fuel. It used the process of sets an artificial agricultural system, protects the biomass
combustion. This added to the amount of carbon dioxide [10-16]
, which develops in his fields from pathogens insects,
in the atmosphere. In fact, simply by eating and breathing, birds and other herbivores. All this increases the efficien-
we have moved carbon around its cycle. We have eaten cy of production as the energy needed for maintenance
food (which grew, or which are something that grew). of a simple structure is much lower than the complicated
This decreased the number of plants and we breathed out ones. However, simple trophic structures are more vul-
carbon dioxide [6,7]. The carbon cycle existed long before nerable to catastrophic changes. An unforeseen pathogen
humans did of course, and there have been animals (and could reduce or eliminate the single species, which hap-
plants) respiring for millions of years before humans pens to constitute the entire population of producers. In a
first walked on the surface of the Earth. In fact, for many complicated ecosystem with each trophic level composed
years, people didn’t affect the movement of carbon much. of a number of species, several alternatives are available
All that has changed in the last few hundred years. We for energy to flow, for materials to circulate in the system,
have used up a huge amount of the available fossil fuels which is thus maintained in operative state [17]. Man, also
through burning them and this has released large volumes tends to oversimplify microbial community present in
of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere [8]. These fuels have soils or water bodies. Use of chemical fertilizers and in-
been used to provide transport, generate electricity and tensive agriculture lead to depletion of organic material on
power factories to make things [9]. We have also changed which microbial populations depend for nutrition which
the way that we use land. Large areas have been cleared insecticides washed down into water and the soil kill sus-
of natural vegetation. The dense growth that has been re- ceptible organism directly [10-16]. Sewage, wastewater from
moved stored much more carbon than the crops planted in industries and surface run-offs from agricultural fields pol-
their place. Not only have we added to the processes that lute the aquatic systems in which susceptible organisms
produce carbon dioxide, but also, we have reduced the are suppressed [4,18,19]. Our soils not only provide food for
ways that it is removed. Looking at the carbon cycle, the the humanity but also regulate the operations of important
way that carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere biogeochemical cycles such as those of nitrogen, sulphur
is by photosynthesis. Plants use carbon dioxide in the and carbon. Changes in microbial community within the
process of releasing energy from sunlight. If we grow, or soil on large scale affect its capacity to perform operations
allow to grow, fewer plants or smaller plants, their need of these cycles effectively [17].
for carbon dioxide is less. The diversity of animal communities is also adversely
Interestingly, man has become a powerful force now. affected by human activity. Man has taken a few species
He has tremendous power at his command. His actions domesticated and protected them to form huge popu-
have a global impact and has altered natural flora and lations. Those species, which are left out, are finding it

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

increasingly difficult to cope up with the stresses imposed 2. Global Carbon Cycle
by human activity around them. The overall effect of this
is the replacement of diverse community with a commu- 2.1 Main features
nity consisting of few species only which man chose to The carbon budget of the earth is closely linked to the
domesticate. This has led to a severely damaging effect atmosphere, land and oceans and to the mass movements
on grasslands forests and has caused outbreak of animal of air around the planet. The earth contains about 1023 g of
diseases which have often acquired dimensions of an ep- carbon. All but a small fraction is buried in sedimentary
idemic. The process of reduction in genetic diversity has rocks and is not actively involved in the global carbon cy-
also been taking place along with over simplification of cle. The carbon pool involved in the global carbon cycle
natural ecosystems. A number of plants and animals have (Figure 1a, b & c) amounts to an estimated 55 x 1018 g or
become extinct or are on verge of extinction. Evolution of 55, 000 Gt (Gt is a gigaton, equal to 1 billion [109] metric
new texa and extinction of ill adopted ones have been tak- tons or 1015g). Fossil fuels, created by the burial of partial-
ing place in a balanced way ever since life came into ex- ly decomposed organic matter, account for an estimated
istence. However, the strain placed by human activity has 10,000 Gt. The oceans contain the vast majority of the ac-
speeded up the process of elimination of weaker species. tive carbon pool, about 38,000 Gt, mostly as bicarbonate
This is a sad state of affairs. Each extinct species takes ions (HCO3-) and carbonate ions (CO3-) [32]. Dead organic
away with it a combination of traits or gene pool, which matter in the ocean’s accounts for 1650 Gt of carbon, and
took millions of years to evolve. The loss is irreparable living matter, mostly phytoplankton, 3 Gt.
[4,17]
. To date about 150 species of plants are cultivated on In addition, the study of nature-based solutions fre-
large scale. Of these 150 species, only 29% provide the quently places emphases on the amount of carbon they
total food stock available to the humanity. Man has slowly could take away from the atmosphere. A novel study ex-
and consciously been reducing the number of plants and amines how these solutions adaptation strategies affect
animals, which he breeds. Selection of varieties for better global temperatures, an important measure as humanity
output, resistance to the environmental conditions, better tries to control global warming. It was suggested that an
tastes and flavours etc has led to a drastic reduction in ge- eco-nature-based strategy may perhaps decrease peak
netic diversity of plants and animals. The varieties or spe- warming through an additional 0.3°C beneath a scenario
cies in which he is no longer interested are vanishing one in agreements with a 2°C general temperature rise come
after the other. The decreased genetic diversity of plants 2085. Cécile Girardin, a climate-change policy analyst
cultivated on large-scale places restrictions on the pos- as well as seven other contemporaries clarify in what
sibilities of creating new varieties through breeding pro- way environmental related projects that is managed, pro-
grams. Growing genetically uniform plants or livestock tected as well as restore ecosystems may perhaps offer
is their increased vulnerability to unkind environment or climate, biodiversity as well as socio-economic benefits,
unforeseen pathogens. if done correctly, and rapidly. Hence, the terrestrial bio-
sphere contains an estimated 1500 Gt of carbon as dead
ii. Changes in biogeochemical cycles
organic matter and 500 Gt as living matter (biomass).
Ruthless exploitation and pollution of the environment The atmosphere, the major coupling mechanism in the
has disturbed the operation of all-important biogeochem- cycling of CO2, holds about 750 Gt of carbon [21,22]. In the
ical cycles. The magnitude of waste materials has been ocean, the surface water acts as the site of main exchange
growing persistently. Those waste or their decomposition of carbon between atmosphere and ocean. The ability of
products are regularly added to the various components of the surface waters to take up CO2 is governed largely by
the environment in significant quantities to disturb even the reaction of CO2 with the carbonate ion to form bicar-
the global cycles. Man has been extracting substantial bonates. In the surface water, carbon circulates physically
quantities of material which represent biological output by means of currents and biologically through assimila-
of pass ages, at a rate much faster than the rate of their tion by phytoplankton and movement through the food
formation. So are the deposits of various minerals ele- chain. The next exchange of CO2 between the oceans and
ments and metal formed by persistent biogeochemical atmosphere due to both physical and biological processes
activity of millions of years, which are being depleted at a result in a net uptake of 2Gt per year by the oceans, while
very fast rate. These resources belong to our children and burial in sediments accounts for a net loss of 0.1 Gt of
grandchildren as much as they do to us [3]. The policy of carbon per year. The uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere
reckless exploitation of natural resources is one which our by terrestrial ecosystems is governed by gross production
future generation will rightly deplore. (photosynthesis). Losses are a function of autotrophic

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Figure 1a, b & c. Overview of the global carbon cycle. The stocks and fluxes of C (Gt) between various components
and the atmosphere. Modified from Bhatti et al. [20]
Source: https://mail.google.com/mail/u/0/#inbox/FMfcgxwLttCBqCxzgtBhJLZNHRRHvMhQ.

and heterotrophic respiration; the latter being dominated The lower soil layers of tropical forests and both tropi-
by microbial decomposers. Until recently, exchanges of cal and temperate grasslands contain a large percentage
CO2 between the land mass and the atmosphere (uptake of soil carbon, whereas soil carbon in temperate forests
in photosynthesis and release by respiration/decomposi- and Arctic regions is confined largely to the surface soil
tion) were believed to be nearly in equilibrium. However, layers. The average amount of carbon per unit of soil
more recent research suggests that the terrestrial surface is profile increases from the tropical regions poleward to
acting as a carbon sink, with a net uptake of CO2 from the the boreal forest and tundra (Table 1). Low values for the
atmosphere [22]. tropical forest reflect high rates of decomposition, which
Of considerable importance in the terrestrial carbon compensate for high productivity and litterfall. Frozen
cycle is the relative proportions of carbon stored in soils tundra soil and waterlogged soils of swamps and marshes
and in living vegetation (biomass). Carbon stored in soils have the greatest accumulation of dead organic matter,
includes dead organic matter on the soil surface and in because moisture, low temperature, or both inhibit decay.
the underlying mineral soil. Estimates place the amount Soil carbon greatly exceeds biomass in boreal forests and
of soil carbon at 1500 Gt, compared with 560 Gt for the tundra. Soil carbon likewise exceeds biomass in temperate
total world terrestrial biomass. Much of this carbon stored grasslands, but in tropical savannas the reverse situation
as dead organic matter is in the lower soil profile, where exists, probably because of recurring fires. World output
it exceeds carbon in the surface soil by a factor of 25. of carbon from respiration resulting from the decompo-

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

sition of soil carbon in terrestrial ecosystems amounts to dra and industrial gases released to the atmosphere [24-27].
approximately 60 Gt per year. Over time (resident time of 3.2 years) methane oxidizes to
The global cycle of atmospheric carbon dioxide, like H2O, especially in the stratosphere. Atmospheric methane
local cycles, exhibits a marked annual variation, particu- has approximately doubled over the past 200 years. This
larly in the land-dominated Northern Hemisphere. North increase is linked to human population growth and to in-
of the 30oN latitude, carbon dioxide content of the atmos- creased cattle ranching and rice paddy production. The ris-
phere up to the lower stratosphere begins to decline mark- ing atmospheric concentrations to CO2 and methane have
edly during early spring, when photosynthetic activity the potential to alter the global energy balance and sub-
and carbon storage in plant growth withdraw more carbon sequently the global climate system. The implication of
dioxide from the atmosphere than is replaced by respira- rising atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and possible cli-
tion. The concentration of carbon dioxide reaches a low mate change [6,7,27]. Human activity has led to an enhanced
in August. By October the level increases again as photo- rate of output of carbon into the atmosphere which has
synthesis declines and respiration dominates the exchange caused a measurable rise in the concentration of atmos-
between the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems. The pheric CO2. This is due to increased use of organic matter,
difference in the magnitude of the seasonal oscillation of coal, petroleum and natural gas as fuel and the combustion
CO2 between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres of carbonate rocks for the manufacture of cement and lime
reflects the difference in the land mass of the two hemi- [28]
. Rapidly growing human population is also modifying
spheres. the natural ecosystems over an increasingly larger area of
earth’s surface by extensive deforestation, faulty agricul-
2.2 Human impact on the carbon cycle
tural practices, intensive grazing etc [1-3,8]. The universally
The CO 2 flux among land, sea and atmosphere has distributed poisons like lead and DDT tend to depress the
been disturbed by a rapid injection of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis efficiency of green plants on global scale.
the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels and from So, while there are more inputs of CO2 in the atmosphere
the clearing of forests [1-3]. Clearing increases the input of its output is somewhat reduced. We have a little more than
CO2 from burning trees and decomposing organic matter 5500 x 109 metric tons of carbon locked in fossil fuels,
[3,8]
. Adding to the problem of increasing carbon diox- which represent photosynthesis of past ages. Today about
ide are increases in other atmospheric gases, especially 835 x 109 metric tons of carbon is locked in the biosphere
methane (CH4). Its major sources are ruminant animals, and the atmosphere contains about 725 x 109 metric tons
microbial decomposition in swamps, marshes and tun- of carbon as CO2. No wonder between the years 1880 AD

Table 1. Distribution of Detritus and Biomass by Ecosystem Types

Mean Total Profile Total World Detritus (109 Total World Biomass
Ecosystem Type CV (%) World Area (109 ha)
Detritus (kg C/m2) mtn C) (109 mtn C)

Woodland and shrubland 6.9 59 8.5 59 22.0

Tropical savanna 3.7 87 15.0 56 27.0

Tropical forest 10.4 44 24.5 255 460.0

Temperate forest 11.8 35 12.0 142 175.0

Boreal forest 14.9 53 12.0 179 108.0

Temperate grassland 19.2 25 9.0 173 6.3

Tundra and alpine 21.6 68 8.0 173 2.4

Desert scrub 5.6 38 18.0 101 5.4

Extreme desert 0.1 - 24.0 3 0.2

Cultivated land 12.7 - 14.0 178 7.0

Swamp and march 68.6 63 2.0 137 13.6

Total 147.0 1456 826.9

CV = coefficient of variation = standard deviation/mean x 100

Source: Adapted from Schlesinger [23]

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

to 1960 AD the total mass of carbon in earth’s atmosphere be taken up directly by plants, immobilized by microbes,
rose by 12.14% of which about 150 x 109 metric tons has stored in decomposing humus, or leached into streams,
been introduced as a result of burning of fossil fuel alone. lakes, and eventually seas. The uptake of inorganic nitro-
gen by plants is so rapid that at any given time, the pool of
3. Global Nitrogen Cycle inorganic nitrogen (NH4+ and NO3-) in soils is very small.
3.1 Main features Most of the nitrogen stored in terrestrial ecosystems is
tied up in organic matter, both living and dead [31]. Global
The global nitrogen cycle follows the pathway of the estimates of denitrification in terrestrial ecosystems vary
local nitrogen cycle, only on a grander scale. The global widely but are on the order of < 200 x 1012 g yr-1, of which
cycle is diagrammed in Figure 2. The atmosphere is the over half occurs in wetland ecosystems [29]. The major
largest pool, containing 3.9 x 1021 g. Comparatively small sources of nitrogen to the world’s oceans are dissolved
amounts of nitrogen are found in the biomass (3.5-1015 g) forms in the freshwater drainage from rivers (36 x 1012 g
of terrestrial ecosystems [29,30]. The major sources of fixed yr-1) and inputs in precipitation (30 x 1012 g yr-1) [33]. Bio-
nitrogen are biological (140 x 1012 g yr-1) and high-energy logical fixation accounts for another 15 x 1012 g yr-1 [31]. In
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by lightning > 3 x 1012 g aquatic ecosystems, nitrogen is cycled internally in a simi-
yr-1) [31,20]. Additional sources of nitrogen include inorganic lar manner to that discussed for terrestrial ecosystems, ex-
nitrogen in rain, from such sources as fixed juvenile nitro- cept that the large reserves, such as those contained in soil
gen from volcanic activity; absorption of ammonia from humus, are lacking. Life in the water contributes organic
the atmosphere by plants and soil; and nitrogen accretion matter and dead organisms that undergo decomposition
from windblown aerosols, which contain both organic and subsequent release of ammonia and nitrates.
and inorganic forms of nitrogen. In terrestrial ecosystems, Tracer studies with 15N, a stable, nonradioactive iso-
ammonia and nitrates are taken up by plants and convert- tope, show that in marine ecosystems, ammonia is recy-
ed to organic nitrogen (amino acids) and moved through cled rapidly by phytoplankton [31]. As a result, little ammo-
the food chain [31,20]. Dead organic matter is broken down nia exists in natural waters, and nitrates is used only in the
into ammonia, then into nitrates and nitrites. Nitrates may virtual absence of ammonia. There are small but steady

Figure 2. Overview of the global Nitrogen cycle.

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

losses from the biosphere to the deep sediments of the with a number of reactive hydrocarbons to form radicals.
ocean and to sedimentary rocks. In return there is a small These radicals then take part in a series of reactions to
addition of new nitrogen from the weathering of igneous form still more radicals that combine with oxygen, hydro-
rocks and juvenile nitrogen from volcanic activity. Deni- carbons, and nitrogen dioxide. As a result, nitrogen diox-
trification accounts for an estimated flux of 110 x 1012 g N ide is regenerated, nitrogen monoxide disappears, ozone
yr-1 from the world’s oceans to the atmosphere. accumulates and a number of secondary pollutants form,
including formaldehydes, aldehydes, and peroxyacylni-
3.2 Human impact on the nitrogen cycle trates, known as PAN. All of these pollutants especially
Under different circumstances, human intrusions into PAN, and ozone are very toxic and injury many forms of
the nitrogen cycle result in either a reduction on an in- plant life exposed to them. One outcome of nitrogenous
crease in nitrogen availability. Conversion of forests and atmospheric pollution is an increased deposition of nitro-
grasslands to cropland results in a steady decline in nitro- gen, which benefits ecosystems that are traditionally nitro-
gen content of the soil. Mixing and breaking up the soil gen-limited, especially northern and high-altitude forests.
exposes more organic matter to rapid decomposition and Such ecosystems, however, can suffer from too much of
leaching from the soil. Removal of nitrogen through har- a good thing. Because under natural conditions nitrogen
vested crops and grazing causes additional losses. On the is limiting, these forests are efficient at retaining and re-
other hand, excessive amounts of nitrogen may be added cycling nitrogen from precipitation and organic matter.
to the system, creating a variety of problems. Heavy ap- Significant export of nitrates to stream is seldom seen.
plications of commercial fertilizer disturb the natural bal- However, many of these forests are receiving more nitro-
ance between fixation and denitrification by reducing the gen in the form of ammonium and nitrates than the trees
former and increasing the latter. A considerable portion of and their associated microbial populations can handle and
the added nitrogen may be leached to the groundwater as accumulated, a condition referred to as nitrogen satura-
nitrates [18,34-36]. Animal wastes, especially from livestock tion. Under these conditions, excess nitrogen, particularly
concentrated in large feedlots, are another source of ni- in the form of nitrate, leached into surface waters.
trates in groundwater. Excessive quantities of nitrates in The first response to increased availability of nitrogen
groundwater become health endangering pollutants [18,34-36]. in a nitrogen-limited ecosystem is increased growth of
A third source of nitrate pollution is human waste, both canopy and stems. Evidence suggests, however, that
particularly sewage, treated or otherwise, released into increased levels of nitrogen can lead to the decline and
rivers, lakes and estuaries [37]. In spite of the magnitude of dieback of coniferous forests at high elevations [20]. If
water pollution from agricultural sources, human effluents the increased growth in foliage continues into late sum-
contribute even heavier loads, especially from municipal mer, the late new growth may not have time to become
sewage treatment. Automobiles and power plants are the frost-hardened and is killed during the winter. Over-
major sources of nitrogenous pollutants in the atmosphere, stimulated by nitrogen, tree growth exceeds the availa-
particularly nitrogen oxides [9,38]. Current estimates place bility of other necessary nutrient in the soil, particularly
nitrogen emissions due to automobiles, factories, power phosphorus, and the tree begins to experience nutrients
plants and other combustion processes at 20 x 1012 g N yr -1. deficiencies. Experimental evidence suggests that the pro-
The primary nitrogenous air pollutant is nitrogen dioxide duction of fine roots and ectomycorrhiza, which take up
(NO2), a pungent gas that produces a brownish haze. In nutrient deficiencies. Experimental evidence suggests that
the atmosphere, nitrogen dioxide is reduced by ultraviolet the production of fine roots and ectomycorrhiza, which
light to nitrogen monoxide and atomic oxygen: take up nutrients from the soil, is lower on sites rich in
NO2     NO + O    nutrients, especially nitrogen, than in nutrient-poor soils,
Atomic oxygen reacts with molecular oxygen to form and root turnover is higher. Trees on nutrient -poor soil
ozone: have a longer-lived and higher density root system and a
lower turnover of root biomass. These conditions help the
O2 + O     O3    
trees to scavenge nutrients from poor soils. As nitrogen
Ozone, in a never-ending cycle, reacts with nitrogen levels increase, root biomass decreases because sufficient
monoxide to form nitrogen dioxide and oxygen: nitrogen is nearby. A smaller root biomass then inhibits
NO2 + O3 NO2 + O2   the uptake of nutrients other than nitrogen and impairs the
This cycle illustrates only a few of the reactions that ability of tress to pull water from then soil during periods
nitrogen oxides undergo or trigger. In the presence of of drought. As nitrogen deposition increases, ammonium
sunlight, atomic oxygen from nitrogen dioxide also reacts levels in the soil increase. Excess ammonium in the soil

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

stimulates nitrification, denitrification, and mobility of water residence time differs repeatedly dramatically be-
nitrates in the soil, even at a low pH. As excess nitrates tween diverse cycle of portions. For instance, water is un-
are leached from the soil, they increase anion movement interruptedly evaporated from the surface of water bodies
through the soil, releasing aluminium (AI3+). As has been (e.g., oceans, lakes, as well as rivers). Likewise, rainfall
observed in the spruce stands of the Great Smoky Moun- that is interrupted through plants as well as other surfaces
tains. This aluminium finds its way to aquatic ecosystems, is frequently evaporated within hours. After evaporation,
increasing their acidification. an average of 10 days is taken for a water molecule to go
round the atmosphere, but if it infiltrates to the water ta-
4. Hydrological Cycle ble, or if the precipitation occurs in a polar region, it can
take decade of years before transferring to another phase
4.1 Main features
next in the water hydrologic cycle. Besides the variable
Figure 3a & b represents a conceptual model of the residence periods, the processes related to the hydrologic
hydrologic cycle and shows Earth’s water movement be- cycle are not distributed evenly over the earth; they differ
tween the ocean, land, and atmosphere. As with all cycles, in climatic region [33]. For instance, rapid evapotranspi-
it is ongoing and continuous, and there is no specific start ration can occur in semi-arid and arid areas. Nonetheless
or end point. Precipitation is water released from the at- successive rainfall might not happen within the same
mosphere in the form of rain, snow, sleet or hail. During region or basin. The dramatic changes in how the cycle
precipitation, some of the moisture is evaporated back into operates are particularly evident as soon as the hydrologic
the atmosphere before ever reaching the ground. Some cycle is evaluated at the level of catchment scale.
precipitation is intercepted by plants, a portion infiltrates
the ground, and the remainder flows off the land into 4.2 Human impact on the hydrological cycle
lakes, rivers, or oceans. An important difference between The past human activity interaction, including hydro-
the roles of snow and rain is that runoff occurs relatively logical balance, has led to the exploitation of irrigation
quickly following the rain event, whereas snow usually systems, as well as in the contemporary urbanization
melts much more slowly over days, weeks, or months. period. Irrigation systems of this kind, using water from
The subsequent surge of snowmelt runoff can provide stream network as well as larger canals systems have be-
seasonal recharge to groundwater resources but can also come characteristic of India great hydraulic societies [33].
trigger flood conditions if the snowmelt occurs too rapidly But then again, the population pressures as well as indus-
and in excessive amounts [39]. In addition, the solid snow try on urbanization over the past three years has led to the
or ice may change directly into a gas, skipping the liquid irrigation demand extension as well as water services in
state, in the process called sublimation. When precipita- novel areas. This often seems to lead toward integration
tion is intercepted by plants, it is eventually evaporated of isolated system in the drainage basin. Activity of hu-
back to the atmosphere. When it infiltrates the ground, it mans has disrupted all parts of the water cycle; runoff is
can be taken up by roots and transpired by plants, it can deposited in huge reservoirs behind dams, transpiration
be evaporated from the soil, or it may recharge an aquifer. losses reduced through deforestation, groundwater is filled
The water in an aquifer is called groundwater, and its rate with water spreading as well as pumping. Human activity
of flow in the subsurface is such that water can reside in aqui- impact in Table 1 shows diverse major basins drainage
fers for days to centuries before discharging to a surface body in South India as well as their hydrogeological and hy-
of water (e.g., river, lake, and ocean). Once groundwater has drological features. The unplanned pattern of irrigation
been discharged into a river, lake, or ocean, the surface of the as well as past agricultural methods in South India have
water body is exposed for evaporation, causing moisture to made effective management of water very difficult. Large
collect and concentrate in the atmosphere, eventually return- shallow tanks previously built remain at the moment be-
ing to the earth as precipitation as the cycle begins again. In ing silted up rendering irrigation useless. Canals losses
addition to natural discharge, groundwater can more rapidly through seepage as well as drains remain heavy. Most
discharge when an aquifer is pumped. With the advent of South India wells, dug in the hard rock zones, are mostly
motorized pumps, the rapid removal of groundwater from shallow (There are tube wells in soft alluvium in riverine
aquifers is a relatively recent phenomenon that has greatly areas). The depth, diameter as well as large wells spacing
affected the depletion of the aquifers and the water balance have not yet been methodically studied for optimum uti-
of many catchments [33]. lization. The South India irrigation wells collapsed due to
Despite the fact, the hydrological cycle is a continuous a rising depression cone in water table. Because of these
process. It is by no means universal all over the globe: the water management shortcomings through human agency,

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Figure 3a & b. Schematic representation of the hydrologic cycle. (USGS)

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

various parts of the interior of South India are frequently the oceans (around 20,000 cubic kilometers). The rest
drought as well as famine stricken. There are various rural reevaporates as well as returned to the ground. On aver-
areas where individuals have to travel several miles for age, transported water from the oceans is recycled as well
water. A systematic future development plan for water as precipitated 2.7 times ashore before returning back to
resources in South India is instantly obligatory toward en- oceans.
suring adequate supplies.
4.4 Human influence on the terrestrial hydrological
4.3. Global hydrological cycle cycle
Earth’s majority water (approximately 1.4 billion cubic Activities of human alter the river basins land cover
meters or 96.5% of all resources) is found in oceans. Con- as well as remain intended at regulating fluxes of water
tinental water accounts for approximately 3.5% of world’s in nature, which can significantly transform the water
water supply; nevertheless, approximately three-quarters cycle of a separate river basins, as well as large regions.
of that percentage (29 million cubic kilometers) exists as An outstanding instance of this modification is the current
polar ice caps as well as glaciers, and deep groundwater is circumstances in Aral Sea basin, where thorough irriga-
approximately 5.3 million cubic kilometers. Hence, only tion has occasioned in virtually complete water inflow
other fractions can enter the water exchange amongst the cessation that cross the Syr-Darya River as well as the
atmosphere, oceans, as well as the continents. This residue Amu-Darya River, along with drastic drop in sea level
part comprises deep groundwater as well as soil moisture from the Aral. Other well-documented illustrations con-
(approximately 4.3 million cubic kilometers); water from sist of risks of increased drought in the Mediterranean as
reservoirs, lakes, as well as swamps (0.125 million cubic well as the Sahel, following vegetation removal through
kilometers); storage of water in river channels (2.1 thou- deforestation as well as corresponding over exploitation.
sand cubic kilometers); water from biosphere (approxi- There is likewise indications that significant scale of
mately 0.6 thousand cubic kilometers). The atmospheric change as well as flooding frequency in the Ganges basin
amount is only 0.013 million cubic kilometers (0.001%). might remain described through forest clearing in the ru-
The main global mechanisms as well as terrestrial water ral mountainous area. Due to the activities of human, the
cycles remain the water exchange amongst the atmosphere natural river basins water cycle is becoming increasingly
as well as the oceans, the earth’s surface and amongst con- transformed as well as regimented. The major regulation
tinents. The most important sources of energy exchange methods of stream flow are dams, barrages, levees, as well
today are solar radiation as well as gravitational force. as dikes construction, which offer accumulation of water,
Yearly, the earth’s surface disperses water, approximately increasing low flow, as well as flood flow decrease. The
580,000 cubic kilometers. The required energy toward main impact on the construction reservoir on water cycle
converting this sum of water into steam vapor matches up (except runoff control) is to increase evaporation as well
to 36% of solar energy absorbed through the entire earth. as groundwater table rise. In arid areas, losses resulting
Approximately 85% of the total world-wide evaporation from evaporation of reservoir water surface might remain
comes from the surface of the ocean as well as the rest so huge that they extremely compromise somewhat pos-
comes from the evaporation of the land surface. The aver- sible gains. Equally, in moderate climate conditions, the
age yearly moisture content on the surface ocean unit area losses from evaporation reservoir remain comparatively
is 1400 mm; moreover, this land surface value is only 485 small. For example, reservoirs evaporation from Volga
mm (roughly three times lower). Averagely, evaporating River basin (where approximately 300 reservoirs of stor-
water stays in the atmosphere for approximately 8 - 10 age capacity which can reach over 1,000,000 cubic me-
days, due to air moisture condensation, majority of the ters) found a reduction of 3 - 5% of the Volga River run-
dispersed water falls back to the earth’s surface as snow or off. Level of groundwater rise in the reservoir periphery
rain. The total yearly rainfall on the surface of the earth’s as well as along the changes nearby the runoff mechanism
is roughly proportional to the whole global evaporation. generation in these areas. Steady river flow regime chang-
Nevertheless, the total yearly ocean surface evaporation is es may happen due to a decreasing consequence of river’s
greater than the amount of rainfall. The evaporated water carrying capacity toward transporting sediments, particu-
surplus (approximately 47,000 cubic kilometers) is car- larly from above as well as in reservoirs. Sediment input
ried through air currents resulting from oceans to conti- reduction at the site of the dam decreases the channel of
nents [33]. Approximately 40% of the continent’s rainfall river slope as well as the bed sheer pressure, leading to
returned to the oceans as river runoff (roughly 450,000 falling flow velocities as well as river meandering devel-
cubic kilometers), or groundwater that flows directly into opment. The irrigation impact on water cycle is particu-

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

larly revealing in dry areas, nevertheless it is likewise sig- iology and feeding behaviours. Changes in the activity of
nificant in areas with favorable climatic conditions where soil organisms can also occur, resulting in the alteration of
irrigation activities is of supplementary character. Water biogeochemical cycles. Additionally, polluted soils in turn
diversion of irrigation purposes resulting from ground or become a source of pollution for groundwater, through
surface water resources alters the processes of natural hy- leaching of contaminants, and for fresh water and the ma-
drological. Common runoff as well as evaporation result- rine environment, since contaminants can be transported
ing from areas irrigated upsurge significantly. River basins off-site through wind and water erosion. All those changes
irrigation where there is no additional method of supply can be gradual or remain inert until an inflexion point is
frequently leading toward reduction of runoff in the out- reached and a severe degradation occurs. This triggers a
let site. In several arid regions, a substantial increase in chain of degradation processes in terrestrial and aquatic
groundwater table could happen due to filtration of water ecosystems that ultimately leads to the loss of ecosystem
from reservoirs, water distributing systems leakages, as services (Figure 8).
well as defective irrigation technology. Such an increase In addition, in some river basins, the groundwater table
can lead to plants waterlogging as well as soil develop- frequently drops steeply, as well as this might decrease
ment salinization. surface runoff as well as lower the level of small rivers. In
Removal of surplus water from soils that is water- several riverine regions, the groundwater extraction leads
logged, drainage systems are used in several world re- toward seawater disruption. With the water regime direct
gions. The prime drainage effect remains the groundwater change of river basins through the control stream chan-
table lowering as well as extend the layer through soil that nel means, irrigation, drainage, as well as abstractions of
are unsaturated. As a consequence, evapotranspiration groundwater, land use river basins changes can exert re-
can be significantly reduced (by over 50% in some cases). markable impact on the water cycle. The significances of
The enhancement of hydraulic conditions from increase the changes in land use might remain gradually exposed,
drainage flow velocities. After construction in the first as well as remain masked via climate variations. None-
years of a drainage system, the yearly increase runoff is theless a vital hydrological transformation regime could
20 to 30%. Particularly huge increase in runoff could be happen. The utmost remarkable hydrological cycle dis-
detected all through the months of low runoff in winter as tortions remain observed in urban areas, through natural
well as summer. Flow acceleration likewise leads toward land cover replacement with urban impermeable surface
a remarkable flood peaks increase. After roughly 10 to resulting in great decrease in infiltration as well as evap-
15 years, the drainage impact on runoff declines. Due to otranspiration. The precipitation runoff resulting from
groundwater quality, which is generally higher than sur- urban areas is usually produced as overland flow as well
face water, as well as its relative constant temperature, as quickly reaching into river drainage system. As a result,
huge groundwater volumes remain extracted in some parts the amount of precipitation flood can increase many times,
of the world for domestic, industrial as well as agricultural as well as the peaks of the hydrographs can be multiplied
use (see Figure 4, 5, 6 & 7 below) [1,5,18,27,34-36,40-44]. by 10 to 15 [20,31,33]. Equally, transporting snow can result
When groundwater is taken from a confined aquifer in a snowmelt runoff decrease. Because of infiltration
beneath impermeable layers, groundwater table remains reduction as well as groundwater abstractions for water
only somewhat impacted, as most contaminants originate supply in urban area [40,41], groundwater table falls remain
from human activities such as industrial processes and likewise observed in neighbourhood’s urban areas. The
mining, poor waste management, unsustainable farming agricultural effects as well as forestry practices on water
practices, accidents ranging from small chemical spills to cycle remain less apparent, as well as depend, to a re-
accidents at nuclear power plants, and the many effects markable extent, on the physiographic as well as climatic
of armed conflicts. Pollution knows no borders: contam- situations. It is clear that ploughing, particularly contour
inants are spread throughout terrestrial and aquatic eco- ploughing, often breaks up with overland flow as well as
systems and many are distributed globally by atmospheric improves infiltration. Some distinct ploughing types can
transport. Indeed, pollution tends to affects above and be- stretch the depression as well as storage detention on mild
low ground biodiversity, both by reducing the number of gradients from approximately 8 to 10mm (under natural
organisms due to the toxicity caused by the contaminants, conditions) up to 30 to 40mm. Tillage as well as the action
as well as by producing changes in communities, due to of plant root systems altering the upper soil layer structure
the replacement of more sensitive species by more pollu- as well as vertical permeability changes, nonetheless the
tion-tolerant ones. Low concentrations of contaminants water holding capacity. The vegetation cover extension
often lead to adaptive strategies through changes in phys- as well as leaves area increases precipitation interception

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Figure 4. Geochemical cycle of surface water and groundwater (Adapted from David [45])

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Figure 5. Domestic uses of water and their effects on water quality (Adapted from David, [45])

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Figure 6. Industrial uses of water and their effects on water quality (Adapted from David [45])

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Figure 7. Agricultural uses of water and their effects on water quality (Adapted from David [45]).

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Figure 8. Soil pollution causes a cycle of degradation processes that leads to the reduction and ultimately to the loss of
ecosystem services
Sources: Adapted from FAO and UNEP [46]

as well as evapotranspiration. Overland flow control of the agricultural practices impact on runoff can be ignored.
impenetrable permanent grasses on steeper gradients may The results clearly show deforestation effects on water
decrease storm runoff resulting from small watersheds cycle of a river basin or increased transpiration as well
via 20 to 25%. Of course, the relative impact of all these as precipitation interception, which sequentially reduces
changes yearly as well as flood runoff remains determined total runoff volume. Deforestation decreases infiltration as
through river basin as well as climate features. In arid well as improves overland flow conditions in the country.
regions (for instance, steppe zone), the 15 to 20% yearly Accordingly, flooding as well as peak discharges might
runoff changes triggered through agricultural practice remarkably increase. Equally, forest soils with higher
have remained fixed, as well as over different years such infiltration increases opportunity aimed at groundwater re-
changes reached 30 to 40%. Equally, in wet regions, par- charge, as well as small rivers flow tends to be especially
ticularly in forest as well as steppe zone in northern forest, more sustained, particularly to produce snowmelt runoff

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

such as when forests sustain continuous flow through i. Reduced groundwater recharge due to
snowmelt delaying. Rising groundwater table as well as paved surface areas and storm servers.
ground runoff increase might increase the low flow of ii. Increased groundwater discharge by pump-
medium as well as large-sized rivers. This effect frequent- ing wells.
ly led to the deduction that forests upsurge runoff [3,6,7]. iii. Decreased groundwater recharge due to ex-
Though, thorough research observations on the represent- port of water collected by sanitary servers.
ative as well as experimental basins don’t regularly agree Here the above conditions have all been present
with such inferences. For instance, the outcomes of (15) leaching not only to a decline in water tables but also to
fifteen individual watershed-scale experiments, including groundwater pollution, seawater intrusion and reduced
several forest cutting rates, conducted by the Coweeta Hy- streamflow.
drologic Laboratory in Southern Appalachia throughout
50 years, show deforestation increased while afforestation 6. Conclusions
decreased yearly as well as monthly runoff, nonetheless The COVID-19 crisis has reiterated the importance
responses magnitude remained extremely variable. It rec- of biogeochemical cycles by highlighting the linkages
ognised that the actual response from streamflow toward between biogeochemical cycles and human health [47-
cutting of forest remained inversely proportional toward 49,53,54]
. Human activity has degraded ecosystems as well
input of solar energy (according to the evapotranspiration as ecological barriers which would normally limit disease
index). The monthly alteration runoff is in line with the transfer [18,41-44]. As countries seek to build back better
evapotranspiration changes. By the lowest flow, the reg- from the pandemic, biogeochemical cycles, biodiversity
ular monthly runoff was approximately 100% larger in conservation and nature-based investment solutions is
clear-cut forest than without uncut forest. Clear cutting essential [50-52]. Thus, the carbon budget of the Earth is
is less effective at the moment on flow during winter as meticulously connected to the atmosphere, oceans as well
well as early spring. Long-term research observations as land and to the mass air movements round the plan-
have likewise revealed the strong evidence of the volume et. In the oceans, the surface water acts as the main site
of runoff on vegetal cover type. Hardwood conversion of exchange of carbon amongst atmosphere and ocean.
to pine decreased yearly runoff via 25cm as well as pro- The surface water’s ability to absorb CO 2 is overseen
duced important reductions of regular monthly runoff. largely by CO2 reaction with the carbonate ion to create
Equally, deforestation has resulted to substantial upsurge bicarbonates. The uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere by
in flooding. Comparable outcomes were also obtained terrestrial ecosystems is governed by gross production
in relation to the basis of analyzing data gotten in other (photosynthesis). Losses are a function of autotrophic
physiographic contexts. Forest zone research carried out and heterotrophic respiration; the latter being dominated
in European region of Russia have revealed that forest im- by microbial decomposers. Human pour nitrogen dioxide
pact on evapotranspiration, as well as runoff remarkably into the atmosphere and nitrates into aquatic ecosystems.
depends on forest age. Cutting down old forest might not The major sources of nitrogen oxides are automobiles and
modify evaporation, as well as accumulation increase of power plants. Nitrogen dioxide is then converted through
snow might cause roughly growth of spring runoff. In sev- ultraviolet light in the direction of nitrogen monoxide
eral areas, forest cutting has led to a remarkable intensifi- as well as atomic oxygen. These substances react with
cation in disastrous floods as well as also triggered severe hydrocarbons in the atmosphere to produce a number
soil erosion [2,3,6.7]. In addition, the process of urbanization of pollutants, including ozone and PAN. Both PAN and
often causes changes in groundwater levels as a result of ozone make up photochemical smog, a pollutant harmful
decreased recharge and increased withdrawal. In rural to plants and animals. Excessive quantities of nitrates are
areas water supplies are usually obtained from shallow added to aquatic ecosystems by improper use of nitrogen
wells, while most of the domestic wastewater is returned fertilizer on agricultural crops, by animal wastes, and by
to the ground through cesspools or septic tanks. Thus, a sewage effluents. Nitrogen oxides have also been impli-
quantitative balance in the hydrologic system remains. As cated in forest decline. Thus, water is important to the mi-
population increase, many individual wells are abandoned lieu as well as is well-thought-out to be nature drivers. All
in favour of deeper public wells. Later, with the intro- studies relating to water remain concerned with portion of
duction of sewer systems, storms water and wastewater the water cycle. The occurrence as well as water availa-
typically discharge to a nearby surface water body. Thus, bility is thoroughly associated with human advancement.
three conditions disrupt the subsurface hydrologic balance Due to several activities of humans, the characteristics/
and produce decline in groundwater levels; features of several water cycle components are experienc-

40 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i3.426

 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

ing changes, which can lead to long-term climate change. sions that helped to substantially improve this manuscript.
It is obligatory toward predicting the magnitude as well as
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44 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i3.426

 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Research on World Agricultural Economy

http://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae

Discussion on High-yield Cultivation and Assembling and Supporting Technol-

ogy of Selenium-enriched Rice and Rapeseed Rotation in Taoyuan County
Bangxing Ye¹* Keping Jiang² Haijun Hou³ Jiaqing Wang4
1. Comprehensive Agricultural Service Center of Zhangjiang Street, Taoyuan County, Hunan 415700, China
2. Selenium-enriched Products Research Institute of Taoyuan County, Hunan, 415700, China
3. Taoyuan Ecological Experimental Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hunan, 415700, China
4. Leading Group of Selenium-enriched Functional Agriculture of Taoyuan County, Hunan, 415700, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Taoyuan County is a large grain and rapeseed production county. Taking
Received: 7 July 2021 advantage of the resource advantage of soil rich in selenium in Taoyuan
County, it promotes high-yield cultivation and assembly technology of
Accepted: 22 July 2021 selenium-rich rice and rapeseed rotation in one-season rice area, optimizing
Published Online: 31 July 2021 the aggregate structure of the soil, improving the soil ecology and reducing
the content of heavy metals in the soil, laying the foundation for the
Keywords: continuous increase in agricultural efficiency and farmers’ income. Through
Selenium-enriched rice and rapeseed rotation, the overwintering base of rice field borers
are reduced, and the incidence of pests and diseases in the coming year
Rice and rapeseed rotation is effectively reduced. The popularization of assembling and supporting
Assembling technologies for rice-rapeseed rotation cropping and the promotion of
Cultivation technology high-quality varieties and planting techniques can increase the farmers'
income significantly. This paper will describe the methods and technologies
in detail from three aspects: the assembling and supporting methods
of selenium-enriched rice and rapeseed rotation high-yield cultivation,
main points of the supporting technology for the rice selenium-enriched
cultivation and main points of supporting technology for the rapeseed
selenium-enriched cultivation.

1. Assembling and Supporting Methods supporting technology of rice rapeseed rotation cultivation
with high efficiency can realize rice yields of more than
1.1 Reasonable selection and matching of varieties 600kg per mu, rapeseed yields of more than 150kg per
The crops should be arranged according to the different mu (=0.0667 hectares), and the total economic benefits of
principles of riceoil’snutrient requirements. By selecting more than 1,000-2,000 yuan per mu.
suitable crops of high-quality rice and double-low rape- Rice variety selection: High-quality, high-yield, sta-
seed varieties, rationally matching according to the growth ble-yield and resistant mid-maturing varieties (or mid-
period, making full use of temperature and light resources, late varieties) are selected according to local conditions.

*Corresponding Author:
Bangxing Ye,
Comprehensive Agricultural Service Center of Zhangjiang Street, Taoyuan County, Hunan 415700, China;
Email: [email protected]

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Varieties that have passed the certification and have good 1.4 Scientific water transfer method
rice quality, high and stable yield, suitable growth period,
and strong resistance to diseases and insects should be Water controlling irrigation. Generally, the irrigation
selected, such as: Yueliangyou 2646, Hezhongxiang No. depth is about 2cm each time, and the time for the rice
2, Kexiang No. 2, Jingliangyou 1377, Longjingyou 1195, field exposed should be increased as much as possible.
The field should not crack in other periods except the sun-
Jingliangyou 5438, Gongxiangyoulongsi.
dried period.
Rapeseed variety selection: Double-low rapeseed varieties
Lightly sun light several times in advance. When the
with strong lodging resistance, antibacterial nuclear disease,
number of seedlings in the field reaches about 80% of the
high yield and high oil yield are selected, such as, Jingyou
planned ear number, the field will be dried. When the rice
99, Xiangza You 631, Xiangza You 518, Sunshine 2009,
field edge is slightly cracked, and the middle of the field
Huayouza 62, and coated seeds to achieve effective pre-
is not sunk for feet, the field will be irrigated with a small
vention and control of pieris rapae, aphids and diseases in
amount water, maintaining the crack not widened and the
the early stage of seedling.
soil not soften, with repeated times dried. Moist irriga-
1.2 Fertilizer formulation on demand tion will be conducted when the young ear differentiation
period begins, and water retention is the main thing from
The strategy of using organic fertilizers instead of some inverting 2 leaf tip stage to heading and flowering, and the
chemical fertilizers, and the fertilization principles of re- moisturization is the main during the rice filling period.
ducing nitrogen, controlling phosphorus, stabilizing potas- Deep water temperature adjustment. In the case of high
sium and replenishing micro-fertilizers should be adhered temperature during the rice filling period, the temperature
to. Organic nitrogen should account for more than 50% of can be adjusted by irrigating deep water of more than
the total nitrogen application. Organic fertilizers can be 10cm.
green manure, straw, marsh manure, cake fertilizer, live- Generally, the water is cut off 7 days before harvest to
stock and poultry manure and commercial organic fertiliz- ensure the soil moisture of the mechanized harvest of rice
er. The fertilization ratio of nitrogen fertilizer, phosphate and the whole seedlings of rape.
fertilizer and potassium fertilizer for rice is 2:1:3, and
attention should be paid to the application of micro-ferti- 2. Main Points of the Supporting Technology
lizer on the leaf surface. Rapeseed fertilization should be for the Selenium-enriched Cultivation of One
based on the principles of sufficient base fertilizer, early Season Rice
seedling fertilizer, stable moss fertilizer, and appropriate
2.1 Seed treatment and seed quantity
flower fertilizer, and scientific fertilization. Fertilizers
should comply with NY/T394-2000 regulations, and the The rice seeds are sterilized and soaked, and the ger-
use of chemical fertilizers, biological fertilizers, organic mination is accelerated until the breasts are broken, and
fertilizers and mineral fertilizers that have not been regis- the seeds are treated with 15% paclobutrazol wettable
tered by the national or provincial agricultural department powder before sowing. The seeds are pretreated according
is prohibited. to the standard of one catty (0.5 kg) of seeds, one gram of
paclobutrazol, one (50 g) clear water, stack for one hour,
1.3 Appropriate mixing of pesticides (floppy disk seedling rice should not be treated with pa-
Pesticides in appropriate amounts should be used at the clobutrazol).
right time, and green technology of prevention and control The seeding amount per mu for direct seeding of hy-
of plant diseases and insect pests should be adopted, such brid species in field is 1.5 kg, and that for transplanting or
as agricultural prevention and control, biological control, floppy disk seeding is 1.0 kg.
and physical and chemical trapping. The use of chemical
2.2 Field improvement
pesticides should be in accordance with NY/T393, to con-
trol the use of chemical pesticides and the safety interval, After a certain amount of basefertilizer is applied, a rotary
and it should pay attention to reasonable mixing, rotation tiller is used to rotatably harrow the field, generally twice.
and alternate use of pesticides to overcome or delay the The spreading rice field shall be divided into compart-
emergence and development of the drug resistance of ments, the width of which is about 3m, and the depth
pests and diseases. Chemical pesticides should be im- about 25-30cm. A “tic-tac-toe”-shaped waist ditch should
plemented adhering to the accurate requirements for the be opened for the larger sowing field, and a “cross” waist
standards, selections, periods, amount and methods. ditch should be opened for the smaller field, and the waist

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

ditches are 35-40cm deep. Ditches around the field are and low-residue pesticides are choosed, without the use
opened with a depth of 30-35cm. of high-toxicity, high-residue pesticides and other banned
pesticides. Attention should be paid to the prevention and
2.3 Reasonable dense planting control of three insects and four diseases (three insects:
Seedling and plot transplanting densities are as follows: rice leaf roller, second and third generation stem borer and
hybrid rice 23.3×26.6 cm or 30.0×20.0 cm, two grains per rice planthopper) (four diseases: sheath blight, rice blast,
stump, to ensure that the effective panicle number per mu bacterial blight and rice smut).
paddy field is 200,000-220,000.
2.6 Field plowing and improvement
2.4 Fertilizer and water management After harvesting, the “three ditches” (circle ditch, waist
In rotary tillage, 80 kg of selenium-enriched bio-organ- ditch and box ditch) and ridges should be opened in time
ic compound fertilizer is applied as base fertilizer per mu ready for rapeseed transplanting (direct seeding).
of field.
3. Main Points of Supporting Technology for
In the rice seedling stage (2-3 leaf stage), 2.5-3 kg of
the Rapeseed Selenium-enriched Cultivation
urea is sprayed per mu to extract seedlings.
In the rice seedling stage (4-5 leaf stage), microfertiliz- 3.1 Enough preparation of seedbed
er is applied on the leaves. The selenium-enriched foliar
fertilizer 1g + plant tonic 40g + brown sugar 75g + urea 0.12 mu seedbeds are needed one mu of rapeseed trans-
50g are made into a 15 kg aqueous solution, which is planting field, and 1.5-2kg of selenium-enriched organic
sprayed 15 kg per mu. And spray 6-7.5 kg of urea per mu compound fertilizers will be applied for deep soil prepara-
to promote tillering. tion.
At the end of tillering of rice, after drying the field and
3.2 Timely sowing
re-watering, strong fertilizers are applied according to the
color of the seedlings. The direct seeding time is September 15th to 20th,
At the beginning of rice heading, micro-fertilizer is 200g per acre of field will be used for direct seeding, with
applied on the leaves. Selenium-enriched foliar fertilizer thin and even sowing.
1g + plant strengthening agent 40g + brown sugar 75g + The seedlings will be transplanted from August 28th
urea 50g + salt 40g + 20% benzyl prochloraz 15g (5% dif- to September 8th, 30g of field seeds will be transplanted
enoconazole + 15% prochloraz, a kind of high efficiency, per mu. Thin and even sowing should be insisted. After
broad spectrum and low toxicity fungicide with multiple sowing, dilute manure water is spread to cover the fire soil
effects on various diseases) is formulated into a 15 kg ash, and no seeds will be seen.
aqueous solution, which is sprayed with 30 kg per mu.
At the early stage of rice filling, the 15 kg of aqueous 3.3 Seedbed management
solution made of 1g of selenium-enriched foliar ferti- The germination of seeds after sowing should be paid
lizer, 40g of plant strengthening agent, 40g potassium attention to, and the seedbed moist should be kept for the
dihydrogen phosphate and 40g of salt and 20% of benzyl seedlings emergence.
▪ prochloraz is sprayed 30 kg per mu. Strong growth of Aphids, cabbage caterpillars, jumping beetles and ape
grass seedlings in the early stage (no wind-growing seed- leaf insects should be controlled, and damping-off in rainy
lings), stable growth in the mid-term and no premature days should be prevented.
senescence in the late stage will be ensured through scien- Weeds should be removed, thinning seedlings should
tific fertilization. The leaves will be green, and seeds will be well grasped, with seedlings retained, and about 50
be yellow with good color fading, achieving the goal of strong seedlings should evenly be reserved per square me-
stable and high yield. ter.
Selenium should be supplemented to control seed-
2.5 Disease and pest control
lings. When the rapeseed seedlings grow to 5-6 leaves,
The comprehensive measures such as physical and chem- each back tube water (15kg) + paclobutrazol 1g (to pre-
ical trapping and biochemical control are adopted to prevent vent high-footed seedlings) + selenium-enriched foliar
and control diseases and insect pests, with prevention as fertilizer 1g (to supplement selenium) + plant strengthen-
the main, treatment as a supplement, and a combination ing agent 1g (to promote photosynthesis) + pesticides.
of prevention and control. High-efficiency, low-toxicity, Application method: the agent should be spayed when

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

it is cloudy or sunny and there is no water droplets on the of paclobutrazol (to prevent tall seedlings) + 1g of seleni-
leaf surface. It will take snowflake form to spray covering um-enriched foliar fertilizer (to supplement selenium) +
the top once, and can not be repeated to avoid the injury insecticide.
caused by the strengthening agent.
The second is moss stage (late December to mid-Jan-
3.4 Enough preparation of pressed fertilizer uary) when the rapeseed seedlings are 35-40cm high and
show flower buds. Each knapsack sprayer (15kg) + 1g of
Enough fire soil ash 200 kg needs to be prepared for per mu
plant strengthening agent + lg of selenium-enriched foliar
rapeseed field, which will be planted thinly. Selenium-enriched
bio-organic compound fertilizer 10kg, urea 3kg, boron fertilizer fertilizer (to supplement selenium) + 1000-2000 times
1.5kg, mixing into human and animal manure fertilizer 3-4 dans, of 80% Ethylicin E. C + 40g of salt (to prevent and cure
are piled and covered with agricultural film or straw. 3-5 rapeseed sclerotia) are compounded into 15kg solution to
days after transplanting thin plants, 200g stump fertilizer be sprayed 30kg per mu.
is applied per plant. The third time is from rapeseed bloom, early March
3.5 Field management of the following year. The spraying should be choosed
when it is cloudy or sunny, with no water droplet on the
Topdressing and seedling promotion: 5-7 kg of urea is
rapeseed leaves and no strong wind. The type, dosage and
applied per mu 5day to 7days after transplanting. It should
be applied when it is rainy. Human and animal manure dosage of the third application are the same as those of
fertilizers will be added or mixed. Urea should not be the second application. In order to increase the selenium
applied close to the roots to prevent roots burning, leaves content or prevent serious sclerotium disease, it is better
damaging and seedlings death. to spray it with a drone in mid-April.
Inter-tillage weeding: Closed chemical weeding should
be applied once within 2-3 days in direct seeding field, 3.6 Timely harvest
and it is required that the field is sprayed once and evenly,
and it must not be too late to affect the emergence of rape- If rapeseed is harvested too early, it will affect the rape-
seed. In transplanting field, cultivating and weeding will seed yield and oil yield and reduce income. Harvesting is
be conducted once ten days. too late, increasing the difficulty of harvesting, causing
Clear ditch and drain: In the spring of the following a large amount of grain loss and reducing the harvest.
year, when it is rainy and prolonged, the three ditches During the silique ripening period, a harvester is used to
should be dredged to prevent waterlogging. harvest in a timely manner to ensure that the harvest is
Clever application of winter fertilizers: Before and after
completed in mid-May without affecting the production of
the winter solstice (December 18th-25th), according to the
seedling sentiment and leaf color, the strong moss fertiliz- one season of rice.
er should be applied. The first kind of seedlings has dark
green leaves and 7.5-10kg of selenium-enriched biological
References
organic compound fertilizer should are sprayed per mu. [1] Yan Songgui, Yao Yafu, Yang Jinqiu. Discovery and
The second kind of seedlings have green and yellowish
Practice of Selenium-Enriched Soil + Biological Se-
leaves, mainly green, and 12.5kg of selenium-enriched bi-
lenium Conversion Method [J]. Agricultural Devel-
ological organic fertilizer and 5kg of urea are sprayed per
mu. The third kind of seedlings have yellow and greenish opment and Equipment. 2016, 4 (30-31).
leaves, mainly yellow, 15kg of selenium-enriched bio-or- [2] Fei Weixin, Rong Songbai, Chu Mingguang, et al.
ganic compound fertilizer and 7.5kg of urea are sprayed Study on The Enrichment Differences of Heavy
per mu. After January 1st of the following year, regardless Metals Cadmium and Copper in Farmland Soil by
of whether the rapeseeds are growing well or not, top Cabbage Rapeseed Varieties [J]. Anhui Agricultural
dressing is prohibited to prevent the rapeseeds returning
Sciences, 2019.
to bloom in the later period, which may cause a reduction
[3] Su Honghu. Discussion on the Occurrence of Rice
in production.
Three times appropriate fertilization: Stem Borers and Corresponding Control Measures
The first is when the rapeseed seedlings grow to 5-6 in Changde City [J]. China Agricultural Resources,
leaves, each knapsack sprayer (15 kg) will be added 1g 2013 (28).

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

Research on World Agricultural Economy

http://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae

Practice and Thinking of Traditional Chinese Medicine Agriculture

Helping Rural Revitalization
Lijian Zhang*
Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history China is a big agricultural country with a long history, and has created a
Received: 16 June 2021 brilliant agricultural civilization. Agriculture has always been an important
foundation of China’s national economy and has made great achievements.
Accepted: 1 July 2021 At present, promoting sustainable agricultural development has become an
Published Online: 31 July 2021 important part of the strategic adjustment of China’s economic development
mode, and it is of great significance to explore and strive to blaze a path of
Keywords: sustainable agricultural development with Chinese characteristics.
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)
Agriculture
Rural

1. Introduction with Chinese characteristics. “Traditional Chinese medi-

cine agriculture” keeps pace with the times and has made
Traditional Chinese medicine is a scientific system rapid progress in the field of research and development.
based on ancient Chinese materialism and dialectics as the It has played an important role in production practice and
philosophy and the holism as the guiding ideology. Tradi- will make due contributions to “rural revitalization” and
tional Chinese medicine understands nature, and life with “the construction of a community with a shared future for
a connected, developing and comprehensive perspective. mankind”.
What the “Traditional Chinese Medicine Agriculture” “Traditional Chinese medicine agriculture” can be the
means is to apply the principles and methods of traditional comprehensive prevention and control of water, soil and
Chinese medicine to the agricultural field, and to realize gas pollution and improve the producing environment,
the cross-border integration of modern agriculture and promote the healthy growth of animals and plants, ensure
traditional Chinese medicine, complementing each other’s the effective supply and quality and safety of agricultur-
advantages and integrated innovation. al products, and explore a new way for the sustainable
“Traditional Chinese medicine agriculture” is the car- development of agriculture in China and even the world.
rier of Chinese traditional farming culture, the crystalliza- “Traditional Chinese medicine agriculture” is an ecologi-
tion of the diligence and wisdom of the Chinese nation for cal agriculture with Chinese characteristics.
thousands of years, the integrated inheritance and inno- “Traditional Chinese medicine agriculture” has three
vative development of agricultural culture and traditional characteristics: first it is systematic, focusing on the inter-
Chinese medicine culture, and an ecological agriculture nal connection of agricultural ecosystem and all parts of

About the Author:

Lijian Zhang,
Former vice president of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, “Traditional Chinese Medicine Agriculture” initiative scientist,
Researcher, Doctoral Supervisor;
Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China;

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

the organism, which is the essential requirement of main- At present, in the production practice, “TCM agricul-
taining relative stability and harmony between agricultural ture” has formed a 10 series of inputs with good results.
components; second, it is comprehensive, forming mul- In terms of market development, agricultural production
ti-faceted, multi-level composite effect, namely achieving experiments show that the agricultural products produced
comprehensive effect through comprehensive means; by TCM agricultural technology have a clear degree of
third, it is whole, emphasizing covering all production product quality differentiation. The concept of agricul-
units and planting and breeding chain. tural products in traditional Chinese medicine is easier to
be accepted by consumers. Traditional Chinese medicine
2. The Theory and Practice of “Traditional agricultural products have the characteristics of “differen-
Chinese Medicine Agriculture” tiation”, which will help to build a well-known local ag-
It is mainly reflected in three aspects: 1, producing pes- ricultural products brand. “Traditional Chinese medicine
ticide and veterinary medicine to protect the growth of an- agriculture” can produce “food homologous medicine”
imals and plants; 2, producing fertilizers and feed through or “functional agricultural products” that are conducive
the combination of Chinese herbal medicine and natural to the sub-health population accounting for about 70% of
nutrition elements to promote the growth of animals and the total population to improve their immunity, which will
plants; 3, regulating the growth of animals and plants by produce important application value in the development
the mutual promotion and restrict mechanism between and application of food homologous medicine, health food
animals and plants (such as live Chinese herbal medicine and food for special medical use.
organism) and other biological communities. “Traditional Chinese medicine agriculture” has in-
“Traditional Chinese medicine agriculture” can reduce novated the way of agricultural scientific research and
the use of chemical pesticides, chemical fertilizers, chem- production methods, providing new and huge space for
ical feed additives and various antibiotics and hormones, research and development for the innovation of agricultur-
which is conducive to the healthy growth of animals and al science and technology system with Chinese character-
plants, and the implementation of environment-friendly istics, and “Traditional Chinese medicine agriculture” has
prevention and control of diseases and insect pests. created a new field to explore the sustainable development
“Traditional Chinese medicine agriculture” keeps pace of mankind and the world.
with the times and has had a good impact at home and In practice, we can connect with industrial strong town
abroad. It has made rapid progress in the research and de- projects. “Traditional Chinese Medicine Agricultural In-
velopment, and has played an important role in production dustry Strong Town Project” are composed of four levels
practice. CNKI journal paper search results show more of business formats: 1, Basic business format, which gen-
than 6000 papers about “TCM agriculture”, and there are erally refers to the basic agriculture (traditional Chinese
hundreds of thousands of researchers in “TCM agricul- medicine agricultural planting, breeding), and processing
ture” related research and development projects in nation- industry. 2, Intermediate business format, which refers to
al universities, scientific research agencies, and more than the business format that has interactive experience with
1 million agricultural operators apply “TCM agriculture” consumers, including catering, leisure, entertainment,
thinking and techniques in agricultural production pro- health preservation, and cultural experience, etc. 3, Ad-
gresses, with good results, and they have accumulated a vanced business format, which refers to the TCM agri-
lot of experience and data. At the same time, developing a cultural products experience (stores), (monopoly) stores
large number of “TCM agriculture” series of inputs. or (characteristic) products that are branded and can be
In recent years, various inputs of “TCM agriculture” exported. 4, characteristic business format, which refers to
have shown remarkable results in production practice. the unique local, or the most well-known business format
Take three of the inputs of TCM agricultural series as an system (authentic traditional Chinese medicinal materials
example: in 2019, 34 agricultural products of 520,000 mu and the local superior TCM agricultural products), etc.
in 26 provinces (cities and autonomous regions), generally The business formats at the four levels are integrated with
manifested as high quality and high yield, ecological safe- each other to jointly form the industrial ecosystem of “the
ty, integrity, full color and fragrance, strong functionality, towns characterized by TCM agriculture.” Experts point-
long preservation period, good adverse resistance and ed out that the “Traditional Chinese Medicine Agricultural
reduced production costs. At the same time, the soil repair Industry Strong Town Project” is the way combining ur-
agent of TCM agriculture input can significantly improve banization with industry, which not only provides an inno-
the soil mass structure, microbial community and organic vative model for the coordinated and sustainable develop-
matter content. ment of social, economic and ecological, but also provides

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

a personalized choice plan for human development. “TCM products aimed at improving the sub-health population
Agricultural Industry Strong Town Project” is a future accounting for about 70% of the total population are
community in life. Around the high-end characteristic produced, with the local advantage of food and drug ho-
TCM agricultural industry, the town will gather a number mologous agricultural products brand being formed; 3,
of relevant high-end talents, and form a future community the industrial chains are optimized and extended, with
with life, production, ecology and characteristic cultural an industrial cluster with good benefits and reasonable
connotation and spirit. The town will also attract tourists structure being formed, and the “Internet” in ten places
by the uniqueness of the TCM industry, culture and life, (the relevant big cities) and the sales channels of the TCM
deeply integrating the development of traditional Chi- agricultural product experience stores being established; 4,
nese medicine agricultural industry with culture, tourism, the combination of forest and animal husbandry, efficient
health and other industries, to form an emerging agricul- planting, characteristic breeding and deep processing are
tural industry chain such as leisure agriculture. formed, with entrepreneurial innovation, population of
The preparation of “Traditional Chinese Medicine Ag- science and leisure, science and technology incubation
ricultural Industry Strong Town Project” should establish and other functions, and I, II and III industries are inter-
“TCM agriculture comprehensive demonstration base”. graded to form the “traditional Chinese medicine agricul-
Taking the “TCM agricultural planting stereoscopic pro- tural planting and breeding three-dimensional production
duction (experimental) demonstration base” project as an demonstration base” with a complete industrial chain.
example, according to the “agricultural application of tra- We should use the principle of traditional Chinese med-
ditional Chinese medicine principles and techniques (TCM icine holistic view guiding “traditional Chinese medicine
agriculture)” thinking, the “demonstration base” has three agricultural demonstration base” design: 1, agriculture
objectives: 1. to build an efficient ecological agriculture is an integrated management system, covering farming,
model with Chinese characteristics; 2. to produce food ho- forest, animal husbandry and fishing, and we should pay
mologous medicines and functional agricultural products; attention to the overall function of the agricultural system,
3. to restore and improve the property of authentic tradi- according to the local situation to conduct appropriate
tional Chinese medicinal materials and Chinese medicinal planting or breeding and the matching with large ecosys-
herbs. “TCM agriculture comprehensive demonstration tem, aiming at the highest overall output level (output,
base” should include three levels of design content: 1, quality and efficiency). 2. According to the regional natu-
basic level, which optimizes the practice of agricultural ral conditions, we should flexibly choose the agricultural
production with traditional Chinese medicine technology planting and breeding structure, building a composite
(producing pesticide and veterinary medicine, feed fer- ecological system mode, to benefit the multi-level utiliza-
tilizer and natural conditioners based on the principle of tion of material and energy, improving the utilization rate
Chinese herbal medicine blending); 2, intermediate level, of space and light energy and increasing the quality and
which uses traditional Chinese medicine thinking and yield. 3. Moderate-scale planting and breeding combina-
methods to coordinate agricultural production ideas (based tion can play the ecological function of the holistic agri-
on the mutual promotion and restrict mechanism, use the culture in order to achieve the best output benefits. High
interaction between biological communities to improve efficiency of material circulation and energy conversion
the function of the agricultural system); 3, advanced level, must also be built on a certain scale. In addition, a large
which refers to “holistic view of traditional Chinese med- agricultural system and subsystems with certain scales
icine” to improve the layout of agricultural production are needed to effectively resist large natural disasters.4.
(unity of nature and man, harmony between man and na- The diversity of species in the composite ecosystem can
ture, etc.), and integrates the ecological circulation plant- improve the efficiency of material circulation and energy
ing and breeding technology mode based on the healthy conversion, thus can make full use of organic residues,
circulation theory of traditional Chinese medicine. increase the organic source of breeding feed and planting
The basic conditions for the “demonstration base”: 1. fertilizer, reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and feed
The areas with good ecological environment are selected additives, and provide natural conditions for pest preven-
as the project areas; local authentic Chinese herbal medi- tion and control, thus reducing the use of chemical agents.
cine and advantageously functional agricultural products “Traditional Chinese medicine agriculture” works in
and the “TCM agricultural inputs” that have good per- the long term, not in the moment, it should accelerate the
formance in production practice are selected as pesticide, development on the basis of good security and stability.
veterinary drugs, fertilizer, feed and growth regulation; “Traditional Chinese medicine agriculture” will produce
2, food homologous medicine or functional agricultural the effect of gathering resources, complementing each

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

other’s advantages, integrating innovation and win-win Academician Yuan Longping, the winner of the National
cooperation. It has very important social, economic and Supreme Science and Technology Award and the father of
ecological benefits and will make due contributions to the Hybrid Rice, said: “This is a good and big project. I can
rural revitalization and healthy China strategy. be your consultant, and my 19 bases can be experimental
fields”. Li Zhensheng, the winner of the National Acad-
3. “Traditional Chinese Medicine Agriculture” emy of Science and Technology Award and former vice
Recognized Highly at Home and Abroad president of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, said: “The
Former Director-General of the UN Food and Agricul- researchers at the Chinese Academy of Sciences have
ture Organization (FAO) Graziano delivered a speech at been doing the relevant research. Yours are higher, more
the 15th World Congress on Traditional Chinese Medicine systematic and more meaningful than ecological agricul-
and said that the latest concept of “TCM agriculture” will ture.
be included in the FAO work plan. “Traditional Chinese On September 28, 2019, the United Nations Industrial
medicine originated in ancient Chinese farming society, Development Organization (UNlDO) Global Science and
traditional Chinese medicine and agriculture are the two Technology Innovation Conference was held in Shanghai.
oldest industries in China. The tradition and modernity Dr. Zhang Lijian, former vice president of the Chinese
of traditional Chinese medicine agriculture get integrat- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, was invited to deliver
ed, develop innovatively, and this will be China’s major a special report on “TCM Agriculture Help Green Agri-
contribution to mankind”. Said professor He Jialun, FAO culture Innovation and Development” at the conference,
pharmaceutical consultant and vice chairman of the World and won the “Outstanding Contribution Award”. At the
Federation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Societies. conference, Zhang Lijian was recommended as the exec-
Sang Binsheng, vice chairman and secretary general of utive chairman of the Global Scientific and Technologi-
the World Federation of Societies of Traditional Chi- cal Innovation Expert Committee of the United Nations
nese Medicine, noted that the agricultural application of Industrial Development Organization. During the period,
traditional Chinese medicine principles and techniques Academician Wang Weiqi, the chairman of the UNIDO
(TCM agriculture) highlights the world. The cross-border evaluation committee of global conference on science and
integration, complementary advantages and integrated technology innovation award, and academician Huang
innovation of traditional Chinese medicine and agriculture Chongqi, the chairman of review supervision committee
have far-reaching significance for the development of the and two committee experts said that the agricultural ap-
two fields. plication of traditional Chinese medicine principles and
On November 17, 2018, the 15th World Congress of techniques (TCM agriculture) is a major innovation, con-
Traditional Chinese Medicine opened in Rome. Dr. Zhang ducive to agricultural sustainable development, national
Lijian, the initiator of agricultural application of tradi- sustainable development, and will even benefit human and
tional Chinese medicine principles and techniques (TCM global sustainable development.
agriculture), was invited to make the report on the theme
4. Thoughts and Suggestions on “Traditional
of “Developing Traditional Chinese Medicine Agriculture,
Chinese Medicine Agriculture Helping Rural
Taking the Road of Ecological Agriculture with Chinese
Revitalization”
Characteristics”. On the 19th, Dr. Zhang Lijian and his
delegation were invited to visit the headquarter of the (I) 1. We should link the development of TCM agricul-
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, tural industry with the strategies of rural revitalization and
Rome) and discussed with four relevant departments healthy China, and take TCM agricultural characteristic
including the Department of South-South Cooperation industries as the platform and important starting point to
(DPSS) to discuss the agricultural application of tradition- promote rural revitalization, especially rural industrial
al Chinese medicine principles and techniques (TCM agri- revitalization. 2. We should adhere to the principle of
culture) and reached consensus on the project cooperation. market leading and government support, and support the
On September 28, 2019, Dr. Zhang Lijian, the initiator of select the TCM agriculture-related leading industries with
“TCM Agriculture”, was invited to attend the UN Indus- good foundation, large scale and distinctive comparative
trial Development Organization (UNlDO) Global Science advantages in the region, to build a batch of TCM agri-
and Technology Innovation Conference in Shanghai, and culture-related characteristic industrial clusters with rea-
won the Outstanding Contribution Award and delivered sonable structure and complete chains, stepping up efforts
a special report of “TCM Agriculture Help Green Agri- to strengthen, complement and extend the chain. 3. We
culture Innovation and Development” at the conference. should form joint efforts in agricultural development of

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

traditional Chinese medicine, overcome difficulties, and of replacing chemical fertilizer with agricultural fertilizer
form innovative development approaches and ideas. It is of traditional Chinese medicine to the direction of sociali-
necessary to further excavate the characteristic resources zation and industrialization. 9. We should intensify the fi-
of TCM agriculture and highlight its industrial character- nancial support of agricultural development of traditional
istics. Efforts should be made to establish a group of dif- Chinese medicine, give full play to the role of agricultural
ferent types of traditional Chinese medicine agricultural special funds, give priority to traditional Chinese medicine
demonstration bases with obvious innovation efficiency, agricultural projects, set up purchase subsidy policy for
remarkable industry driving effect and efficient synergis- traditional Chinese medicine agricultural fertilizer to the
tic mechanism. 4. At present, we should implant “TCM farmers and enterprises engaged in agricultural production
agriculture” in the process of organic agriculture produc- of traditional Chinese medicine, and encourage and sup-
tion, integrating the advantages, to fill the shortage of high port agricultural fertilizer of traditional Chinese medicine
production cost and low yield of organic agriculture, to research and development institutions and production
ensure the quantity and quality of high-quality agricultural enterprises. 10. We should actively meet the social needs
products and market demand, and to effectively promote of health care, cultivate the industrial chain of “TCM agri-
the development of organic agriculture. 5. As the food culture”, and promote the formation of industrial clusters
with the highest safety coefficient, the products of tradi- in the key areas of general concern. 11. We need to estab-
tional Chinese medicine agriculture have broad market lish a national experimental area of TCM agriculture to
demand, and at the same time, the production process of form a variety of replicable and popularizable models. At
“TCM agriculture” emphasizes the harmony between man present, agricultural experimental bases of traditional Chi-
and nature, advocates environmental protection and eco- nese medicine distributed throughout the country use Chi-
logical balance, and emphasizes sustainable development, nese herbal medicine fertilizer, organic manure, beneficial
which is a good model for the concept of “green devel- microorganisms, and marine organisms and trace fertiliz-
opment.” National development plan of TCM agriculture ers in minerals to replace chemical fertilizers, forming an
should be formulated to guide and promote its healthy efficient ecological model that can solve the problem of
and orderly development. 6. We should formulate indus- low yield of organic agriculture. It has led a number of ag-
trial standards for TCM agriculture and build a unified ricultural enterprises nationwide, and can be upgraded to
certification and supervision platform. It is necessary to a national pilot area. 12. We will actively build the “TCM
formulate the production standards and product standards Agriculture Research and Development Platform (Center)”
of TCM agriculture, and special institutions should be and develop it into a new agriculture-related discipline.
set up to supervise the production, logistics, processing, TCM agriculture will add a series of new innovative high-
sales and testing of TCM agriculture. We should strictly lights to the field of agricultural science and technology
enforce product certification standards and procedures, research and development, with the characteristics of ma-
build a unified product certification platform and trace- jor agricultural science and technology projects. Support
ability system, and standardize the punishment and exit should be approved at the national level. 13. We should
mechanism. 7. We should promote multidisciplinary and prepare for the achievement transformation and technol-
collaborative research, to promote the construction of ogy integration demonstration base. The goal of the base
the discipline system of TCM agriculture in universities is to produce “food homologous medicine” or “functional
and related research institutes, to deepen the research on agricultural products” that are conducive to the sub-health
the key fields and mechanism of TCM agriculture, and to population that account for about 70% of the total pop-
cultivate reserve talents. 8. We should combine with the ulation to improve their immunity. We should link TCM
“double reduction” measures of chemical fertilizer of the agriculture to agricultural project bases, combining with
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, and carry out related modern agricultural industrial park and storage and
the “replacing the chemical fertilizer with the Traditional transportation of agricultural industry, to promote the con-
Chinese medicine fertilizer” action nationwide. We should nection of TCM agricultural ecological food materials and
vigorously develop Chinese herbal medicine, greatly ecological restaurants; 14. We actively create conditions,
increase the supply of Chinese herbal medicine without organize and set up the “Traditional Chinese Medicine
occupying cultivated land, making TCM agriculture ferti- Agriculture Association.” We should publish 100 Cases of
lizer medicine, facility vegetables and fruit, emphasizing Agricultural Application of Traditional Chinese Medicine
regional key points, focusing on superior producing areas, Principles and Techniques (TCM Agriculture) as soon as
relying on the base of the park and taking the new agricul- possible, and cultivate a large number of new professional
tural operation subject as the core, promoting the action farmers who are skilled in the production skills of TCM

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

agriculture. 15. There are many ethnic minorities in the produce “food homologous medicine” or “functional ag-
western region. We should increase support for the devel- ricultural products” that are conducive to the immunity of
opment of ethnic minority areas, and based on the culti- the sub-health population accounting for about 70% of the
vation of local agricultural characteristic resources, we total population.
should expand the poverty alleviation industry, extend the Fourth, we should link TCM agriculture to all levels of
industrial chain, improve the mechanism of connecting agricultural project bases. It is suggested to give priority
interests, and make contributions to all ethnic groups into to the ecological origins and the hometown of traditional
a well-off society. 16. We should establish an international Chinese medicine agriculture production bases. The mod-
cooperation platform and establish an international alli- ern agricultural industrial park, closely combined with
ance of TCM agricultural science and technology innova- the development of TCM agricultural industry, and the
tion and industrial development as soon as possible. The storage, transportation and marketing projects supporting
establishment of the alliance will be conducive to summa- the agricultural industry, promote the connection of TCM
rize these experience, promote the better, more stable and agricultural ecological food materials and ecological res-
faster development of TCM agriculture, expand the coop- taurants.
eration and exchanges of experts and related enterprises Fifth, we will strengthen institutional improvement and
in the field and promote the theoretical and technological team building, actively create conditions, organize and set
innovation of TCM agriculture, exploring a new way of up the “Traditional Chinese Medicine Agriculture Asso-
ecological agricultural production with Chinese character- ciation”. “The Principles and Application of Traditional
istics, and making due contributions to the construction of Chinese Medicine Agriculture” should be compiled as
“community with a shared future for mankind”. soon as possible, and a large number of new professional
(II) We should make up for the shortcomings of the “TCM farmers who can master the production skills of TCM ag-
agriculture”, strengthen the “TCM agriculture” in basic re- riculture should be educated and trained.
search and development, excellent input used areas, industrial Sixth, we should establish youth experience bases
(supply) chain establishment and industrial cluster formation, of traditional Chinese medicine agricultural cultivation
farmers’ interests and brand market promotion, so as to make farms, utilizing China modern agriculture and industri-
TCM agriculture develop well and rapidly, and make greater alization forum and platform to build a farming pastoral
contributions to rural revitalization and healthy China. complex integrating with farming law, labor education,
First, we should build a research and development ecological catering, ecological experience, outdoor ex-
platform. From the national level, we should pay close pansion, wedding photography, leisure fishing, science
attention to resource integration, cross-border integration, research and rural health, improve and maintain a high
complementary advantages, and integrated innovation, level of organic matter content of soil based on the cycle
actively build the “TCM Agriculture Research and Devel- and balance of organic farming and by means of farmland
opment Platform (Center)”, carry out systematic, in-depth waste returning to the field. Under the premise of ensur-
and meticulous research, and develop the “TCM agricul- ing the soil water and fertilizer conservation capacity, the
ture” into a new discipline related to agriculture. soil sustainable production and utilization capacity will
Second, we should plan and approve projects. Traditional be gradually improved. We will adhere to the harmonious
Chinese medicine agriculture will add a series of new inno- coexistence between man and nature and take the path
vative highlights to the field of agricultural science and tech- of ecological development. We will build a platform car-
nology research and development, with the characteristics rier and important starting point for the revitalization of
of major agricultural science and technology projects. It is “Chinese food landmark” and “China cultural and tourism
suggested to plan the project from the national level. A basic landmark” cultivation and cultural publicity and education
research and development project of cultivating efficient and base industry.”
multi-effective new medicinal plants (products) species to lay
5. Main Action of “Traditional Chinese Medicine
a good foundation for the good, fast and stable research and
Agriculture Helping Rural Revitalization” during
development of “TCM agriculture”.
the 14th Five-Year Plan Period
Third, we should prepare the achievement transforma-
tion and technology integration demonstration bases. It The 14th Five-Year Plan is the first five years to start
is suggested to build a number of demonstration bases of a new journey of comprehensively building a modern
TCM agriculture as soon as possible to help the achieve- socialist country. It is also a key five years to comprehen-
ment transformation of “food homologous medicine sively promote rural revitalization and accelerate agricul-
industry development”. The goals of the bases are to tural and rural modernization. It is a milestone in China’s

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

development process. At present, there are 1 million new chain resources, and become the organizer and integrator
agricultural business entities in China, 2.2 million farm- of the industrial chain. Form a TCM agricultural industrial
ers cooperatives, 893,000 various agricultural socialized system of “Industrial Park plus Logistics Park plus Ser-
service organizations, and nearly 90,000 leading agricul- vice Base plus Regional Agriculture” (forming an indus-
tural industrialization enterprises above the county level, trial cluster-driven type).
creating the foundation and conditions for “agricultural V. Need to pay attention to two effects: 1. The TCM
application of traditional Chinese medicine principles and agricultural industry should help to meet the requirements
techniques (TCM agriculture).” During the 14th Five-Year for the development of emerging industries in the national
Plan period, “Traditional Chinese Medicine Agriculture” strategies of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater
usher in an important historical period of development Bay Area, the Yangtze River Economic Belt, the Yangtze
and will make due contributions to rural revitalization. River Delta regional integration, and the coordinated de-
I. Implant the “agricultural application of traditional velopment of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region. 2. With
Chinese medicine principles and techniques (TCM agri- the expansion of the industrial scale, the industrial layout
culture)” into the agricultural production procedures of should achieve the comprehensive improvement of the
state supported agricultural key projects, to produce prod- competitiveness of the whole TCM agricultural industry
ucts with high quality and high yield, ecological safety, by promoting the development of key clusters in key are-
good color, flavor and function, long and good resistance, as.
and reduce production costs while improving farmland VI. Expand agricultural functions, deeply integrate the
quality to achieve resource integration, complementary development of traditional Chinese medicine agricultural
advantages, integrated innovation, cooperation and mutual industry with culture, tourism, health care and other in-
benefits. dustries, and form an emerging agricultural industry chain
II. Set up a batch of “TCM Agricultural Planting and such as leisure agriculture. According to the data from
Breeding Three-dimensional Production Demonstration 2019, the number of domestic tourists is 6.006 billion,
Base” projects, according to the “agricultural application with the total tourism revenue of 6.63 trillion yuan.
of traditional Chinese medicine principles and techniques VII. Implement and timely promote “Zhongguancun
(TCM agriculture)” thinking and “Overall View of Tradi- Green Valley Ecological Agriculture Industry Alliance”
tional Chinese Medicine” design project plan. approved and issued Group standards: Agricultural Stand-
III. Explore the establishment of a “TCM agricultural ardization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Part 1: Stand-
production trusteeship service system” in line with the ards for Production, Processing, Identification and Man-
national conditions. At present, the family operation of agement, the standard number is T/GVEAIA 015-2020.
small and medium-sized farmers is still the most main VIII. 100 Cases of Agricultural Application of Tradi-
management mode of agriculture in China. According to tional Chinese Medicine Principles and Techniques (TCM
data, the number of small farmer households in the coun- Agriculture) compiled by the Branch of TCM and agri-
try accounts for 98.1% of agricultural farmers, and the culture, WFCMS, and the International Union of TCM
area of small farmers accounts for more than 70% of the Agriculture will be published and distributed by China
total arable land. Due to the different agricultural resource Agricultural Science and Technology Publishing House.
endowment, it is crucial to strengthen the role of support- IX. Develop the “basic formula table of TCM agricul-
ing small farmers in the development of TCM agricultural tural inputs” as soon as possible, so that local agricultural
industry according to local conditions. To accelerate the science and technology personnel can adapt according to
development of the TCM agricultural industry, we should the local actual needs (different agricultural products and
enable small farmers to stimulate the endogenous devel- producing environment, etc.) to achieve better results in
opment vitality, enhance the endogenous development production practice, and then explore the methods of “AI
driving force, enhance the endogenous development ca- matching and screening platform technology,” “remote
pacity, and take the development road of the endogenous hybrid” and “haploid breeding” to form an upgraded ver-
TCM agricultural industry. sion of the “basic matching table” with better TCM pro-
IV. Build the agricultural industrial chain operation duction results.
mode of “market driving leading enterprises, the leading X. Give full play to the role of TCM agriculture in
enterprises driving the bases and the bases connecting the effective connection between poverty alleviation and
farmers” of TCM agriculture. Do a good job in both ends rural revitalization industries. Over the years, the “TCM
of the value chain of TCM agricultural industry: technol- agriculture” team in the rocky desertification area in the
ogy and brand, other links to integrate the best industrial southwest, the eastern saline area, the western cold dry

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 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 03 | September 2021

area and the vast grassland area will implant the TCM ag- ricultural Demonstration Base” Helps Rural Revital-
riculture into the local traditional agricultural production ization http://www.caas.cn/xwzx/mtbd/306211.html.
mode, forming a lot of experience and results of promo-
[2] [People’s Daily Online] to develop “Traditional Chi-
tion modes of TCM agriculture technology integration
nese Medicine Agriculture”-- Taking the Road of
in the above areas of, and based on these experience and
achievements, develop the TCM agricultural industry with Ecological Agriculture with Chinese Characteristics
local characteristics, and promote the coordinated and http://yuqing.people.com.cn/n1/2017/0511/c210117-
sustainable development of social economy and ecology 29269394.html?
in the above-mentioned regions. [3] [Xinhua News Agency] Economic Information Daily
XI. Increase the development support for the western
(Economic Information Network) http://www.jjckb.
region, based on the local TCM agricultural characteristics
(such as: complex and changeable southwest mountainous cn/2018-02/12/c_1 36969567.htm?
terrain preserves rich agricultural germplasm resources), [4] [CPPCC Network] “Traditional Chinese Medicine
cultivate and expand the TCM agricultural industry, ex- Agriculture” Helps China’s Agricultural Green De-
tend the industrial chain and improve the interest linkage velopment http://www.caas.cn/xwzx/mtbd/3019
mechanism (the demand will appear more urgent in the
45.html, etc.
“post-poverty era”), to contribute to the common progress
of all ethnic groups in the western region. [5] Zhang Lijian, Wang Daolong, Liu Ruofan, Explora-
tion and Practice of Traditional Chinese Medicine
References Agriculture. China Agricultural Science and Technol-
[1] [People’s Daily] “Traditional Chinese Medicine Ag- ogy Publishing House, 2018.

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