STANDARD

ISA–77.41–1992
Formerly ISA–S77.41–1992

Fossil Fuel Power Plant

Boiler Combustion Controls

NOTICE OF COPYRIGHT
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substantial civil and criminal penalties.

Approved 9 October 1992

TM

ISA–The Instrumentation,
Systems, and
Automation Society
ISBN 1-55617-108-0

ISA-77.41-1992, Fossil Fuel Power Plant Boiler Combustion Controls

¤
Copyright 1992 by the Instrument Society of America. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise), without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISA
67 Alexander Drive
P.O. Box 12277
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
Preface

This preface is included for informational purposes and is not a part of ISA-77.41-1992.
This standard has been prepared as a part of the service of ISA towards a goal of uniformity in
the field of instrumentation. To be of real value, this document should not be static, but should be
subject to periodic review. Toward this end, the Society welcomes all comments and criticisms
and asks that they be addressed to the Secretary, Standards and Practices Board, ISA, 67
Alexander Drive, P.O. Box 12277, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, Telephone
(919) 549-8411, e-mail: [email protected].
The ISA Standards and Practices Department is aware of the growing need for attention to the
metric system of units in general, and the International System of Units (SI) in particular, in the
preparation of instrumentation standards. The Department is further aware of the benefits to U.
S. A. users of ISA Standards of incorporating suitable references to the SI (and the metric
system) in their business and professional dealings with other countries. Toward this end, this
Department will endeavor to introduce SI-acceptable metric units in all new and revised
Standards to the greatest extent possible. The Metric Practice Guide, which has been published
by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers as ANSI/IEEE Standard 268-1982, and
future revisions will be reference guide for definitions, symbols, abbreviations, and conversion
factors.
It is the policy of the ISA to encourage and welcome the participation of all concerned individuals
and interests in the development of ISA Standards. Participation in the ISA standards-making
process by an individual in no way constitutes endorsement by the employer of that individual, of
the ISA, or any of the Standards that ISA develops.
The information contained in this preface, the footnotes, and appendices is included for
information only and is not part of the standard.
The following people served as members of ISA Subcommittee SP77.41:

NAME COMPANY

G. McFarland, Chairman ABB Power Plant Controls

H. Hopkins, Managing Director Utility Products of Arizona
E. Adamson Stone & Webster, Inc.
M. Blaschke Weyerhaeuser Company
W. Blazier Sargent & Lundy
L. Broeker PSI Energy
N. Burris Tennessee Valley Authority
R. Campbell Salt River Project
T. Dimmery* Duke Power Company
R. Eng Foster Wheeler Energy Corporation
D. Frey Computer & Control Consultant
M. Fryman Illinois Power Company

*One vote

ISA-S77.41-1992 3
W. Holland Southern Company Services, Inc.
H. Hubbard Retired
R. Hubby Leeds & Northrup
L. Hughart Union Carbide Company
M. Laney* Duke Power Company
W. Matz Forney, Int.
E. McWilliams Consultant
J. Murphy E. I. du Pont
T. Russell Honeywell, Inc.
A. Schager Consultant
R. Spellman Westinghouse Electric Corporation
O. Taneja Consultant
T. Toms Carolina Power & Light Company
B. Traylor Sandwell, Inc.
H. Wall* Duke Power Company

The following people served as members of ISA Committee SP77:

NAME COMPANY

R. Johnson, Chairman Sargent & Lundy

T. Russell, Co-Chairman* Honeywell, Inc.
H. Hopkins, Managing Director Utility Products of Arizona
M. Fryman, Secretary Illinois Power Company
L. Altcheh Israel Electric Corporation
W. Blazier Sargent & Lundy
L. Broeker PSI Energy
J. Cartwright Ohmart Corporation
Q. Chou Ontario Hydro
T. Dimmery* Duke Power Company
C. Fernandez Comision Federal de Electricidad
D. Foreman Brown & Root, Inc.
A. Gile Potomac Electric Company
R. Hicks Black & Veatch
W. Holland* Southern Company Services, Inc.
R. Hubby* Leeds & Northrup
R. Karvinen EG & G Idaho, Inc.
D. Lee Bailey Controls, Company
W. Matz Forney, International
G. McFarland ABB Power Plant Controls
J. Moskal ABB Combustion Engineer Systems
J. Murphy* E. I. du Pont
T. New* Leeds & Northrup

*One vote

4 ISA-S77.41-1992
N. Obleton* Honeywell, Inc.
R. Papilla Consultant
J. Pickle* E. I. du Pont
R. Ramachandran American Cyanamid Company
D. Rawlings, II Babcock & Wilcox, Company
R. Roop Hooser Energy, Inc.
J. Rutledge Jacksonville Electric Authority
A. Schager Consultant
J. Smith Westinghouse Electric Corporation
T. Stevenson Baltimore Gas & Electric Company
C. Taft* Southern Company Services, Inc.
D. Tennant Georgia Power Company
B. Traylor Sandwell, Inc.
H. Wall* Duke Power Company
J. Weiss EPRI
J. Wiley Public Service of Colorado

This draft standard was approved for publication by the ISA Standards and Practices Board in
November 1992.

NAME COMPANY

W. Weidman, Vice President Gilbert Commonwealth, Inc.

M. Widmeyer, Vice President Elect The Supply System
H. Baumann H.D. Baumann & Associates Ltd.
C. Gross Dow Chemical Company
H. Hopkins Utility Products of Arizona
A. Iverson Lyondell Petrochemical Company
K. Lindner Endress & Hauser GmbH & Company
G. McFarland ABB Power Plant Controls
E. Nesvig ERDCO Engineering Corporation
D. Rapley Rapley Engineering Services
R. Reimer Allen-Bradley Company
J. Rennie Factory Mutual Research Corporation
R. Webb Pacific Gas & Electric Company
J. Weiss Electric Power Research Institute
J. Whetstone National Institute of Standards & Tech.
C. Williams Eastman Kodak Company
M. Zielinski Rosemount, Inc.
D. Bishop** Chevron U.S.A., Inc.
P. Bliss** Consultant
W. Calder, III** Consultant
B. Christensen** Consultant

*One vote
**Director Emeritus

ISA-S77.41-1992 5
L. Combs** Retired/Consultant
**
N. Conger Consultant
T. Harrison** FAMU/FSU College of Engineering
**
R. Jones Retired/Consultant
R. Keller** Engineering Support Services
O. Lovett, Jr.** Consultant
**
E. Magison Honeywell, Inc.
R. Marvin** Roy G. Marvin Company
**
A. McCauley, Jr. Chagrin Valley Controls, Inc.
W. Miller** Retired/Consultant
**
J. Mock Bechtel
G. Platt** Retired/Consultant
**
R. Prescott Moore Products Company
C. Reimann** National Institute of Standards & Tech.
**
K. Whitman ABB Combustion Engineering
J. Williams** Consultant

**Director Emeritus

6 ISA-S77.41-1992
Foreword

A variety of combustion control systems have been developed over the years to fit the needs of
particular applications. Load demand, operating philosophy, plant layout, and type of firing must
be considered before the ultimate selection of a system is made. Therefore, this standard is not
intended to limit the complexity or scope of the combustion control system design that one might
wish to implement, but rather to establish a minimum of control needed.
This standard is part of a series resulting from the efforts of the SP77 Committee on Fossil Power
Plant Standards, especially subcommittee SP77.40 on Boiler Controls. It should be used in
conjunction with the other SP77 series of standards for safe, reliable, and efficient design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of the power plant. It is not the intent of this standard
to establish any procedures or practices that are contrary to any other standard in this series.

ISA-S77.41-1992 7
 Contents

1 Purpose ............................................................................................................................ 11

2 Scope ............................................................................................................................... 11

3 Definitions ....................................................................................................................... 11

4 Minimum design requirements for combustion control system ................................ 12

4.1 Process measurement requirements ..................................................................... 13
4.2 Control and logic requirements .............................................................................. 13
4.3 Final control device requirements........................................................................... 14
4.4 System reliability and availability ............................................................................ 14
4.5 Minimum alarm requirements ................................................................................ 15
4.6 Operator interface .................................................................................................. 15

References........................................................................................................................... 17

Appendix A .............................................................................................................. 19

Appendix B .............................................................................................................. 23

ISA-S77.41-1992 9
1 Purpose

1.1 The purpose of this standard is to establish the minimum requirements for the functional design
specification of combustion control systems for drum-type fossil-fueled power plant boilers.

2 Scope

2.1 The scope of this standard is to address the major combustion control subsystems in boilers
with steaming capabilities of 200,000 lb/hr (25 kg/s) or greater. These subsystems include, but
are not limited to, furnace pressure control (balanced draft), air flow control, and fuel flow control
when firing coal, oil, gas, or combinations thereof. Specifically excluded from consideration are
development of boiler energy demand, all burner control, interface logic systems, and associated
safety systems, as well as all controls associated with fluidized bed and stoker-fired combustion
units.

3 Definitions

The following definitions are provided to clarify their use in this standard and may not be relevant
to the use of the word in other texts. For other definitions, please refer to ISA-S51.1, Process
Instrumentation Terminology.
air: The mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases, which, with varying amounts of water
vapor, forms the atmosphere of the earth.
air purge: A flow of air through the furnace, boiler gas passages, and associated flues and ducts
that will effectively remove any gaseous combustibles and replace them with air. Purging may
also be accomplished by an inert medium.
balanced draft: A system of furnace pressure control in which the inlet air flow or the outlet flue
gas flow is controlled to maintain the furnace pressure at a fixed value (typically slightly below
atmospheric).
boiler: A closed vessel in which water is heated, steam is generated, steam is superheated, or
any combination thereof, by the application of heat from combustible fuels in a self-contained or
attached furnace.
combustion: The rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the combustible elements of a fuel,
resulting in the production of heat.
combustible: The heat producing constituent of a fuel, flue gas, or fly ash.
control (controller): Any manual or automatic device or system of devices used to regulate
processes within defined parameters.
convection: The transmission of heat by the circulation of a liquid or a gas such as air.
Convection may be natural or forced.

ISA-S77.41-1992 11
draft: The difference between atmospheric pressure and some lower pressure existing in the
furnace or gas passages of a steam-generating unit.
efficiency: The ratio of energy output to the energy input. The efficiency of a boiler is the ratio of
heat absorbed by water and steam to the heat equivalent of the fuel fired.
excess air: Air supplied for combustion in excess of theoretical combustion air.
flue gas: The gaseous products of combustion in the flue to the stack.
forced draft fan: A fan supplying air under pressure to the fuel-burning equipment.
fuel: A substance containing combustible material used for generating heat; coal, oil, and gas
are fuels referenced in this standard.
furnace: An enclosed space provided for the combustion of fuel.
furnace pressure: The pressure of gases in the furnace (see also draft).
induced draft fan: A fan exhausting flue gases from the furnace.
load: The rate of output.
primary air: (transport air, pulverizer air): The air or flue gas introduced into the pulverizer to
dry the fuel and convey the pulverized fuel to the burners.
redundant (redundance): Duplication or repetition of elements in electronic or mechanical
equipment to provide alternative functional channels in case of failure.
secondary air: The air supplied by the forced draft fan to the burners for combustion.
secondary combustion: Combustion that occurs as a result of ignition at a point beyond the
furnace.
shall, should*: The word "shall" is to be understood as a REQUIREMENT; the word "should" as
a RECOMMENDATION.
tertiary air: The air supplied to certain types of burners for cooling the burner metal or to
improve the combustion process.
theoretical (stoichiometric) combustion air: The chemically correct amount of air required for
complete combustion of a given quantity of a specific fuel.

4 Minimum design requirements for combustion control system

The combustion control system shall meet operational requirements and correctly interface with
the process. To accomplish this objective, the following requirements are defined for minimum
system design:
1) Process measurement requirements
2) Control and logic requirements
3) Final control device requirements
4) System reliability and availability
5) Alarm requirements
6) Operator interface

*Per ANSI Style Manual

12 ISA-S77.41-1992
4.1 Process measurement requirements
4.1.1 Instrument installation for combustion control
Process sensing devices should be installed as close as practical to the source of the measurement
with consideration being given to excessive vibration, temperature, and access for periodic main-
tenance. Recommendations for the location of instrument and control equipment connections can
be found in the American Boiler Manufacturer Association (ABMA) "Recommendations for Location
of Instrument and Control Connections for the Operation and Control of Watertube Boilers."
Separate isolation valves and impulse lines should be run to each pressure-sensing device used
for control.

4.1.2 Measurement and conditioning

Filtering techniques used to condition process measurements shall not adversely affect stability
or reduce control system response.

4.1.3 Process measurements

4.1.3.1 Mass air flow measurement

The mass air flow measurement shall be a repeatable signal that is representative of the air entering
the furnace.
When volumetric air flow rate measurement techniques are employed and the air temperature at
the flow-measuring element varies 50°F (28°C) or more, the measured (indicated) flow shall be
compensated for flowing air density to determine the true mass air flow rate.

4.1.3.2 Furnace pressure measurement

Furnace pressure shall be measured with three furnace pressure transmitters, each on a separate
pressure-sensing tap.

4.1.3.3 Fuel measurement

The fuel flow measurement shall be a representative measure of the total fuel energy entering the
furnace.

4.1.3.4 Gas analysis measurement

A representative flue gas oxygen measurement shall be provided. A representative flue gas sample
of equivalent combustibles should be provided.

4.2 Control and logic requirements

4.2.1 Automatic tracking shall be provided for bumpless control mode transfer.

4.2.2 The combustion control, which responds to the boiler energy demand, shall be accomplished
with the following:
1) Furnace pressure (balanced draft systems) control
2) Air demand and air control
3) Fuel demand and fuel control
The development of the boiler energy demand is covered in another SP77 fossil power plant
standard.

4.2.3 Furnace pressure (draft) control

The furnace pressure control shall regulate flue gas flow to maintain furnace pressure at the desired
set point in compliance with the requirements of NFPA 85 G.

ISA-S77.41-1992 13
The furnace pressure control shall utilize a feedforward demand signal from the air flow control.

4.2.4 Air demand and air control

Air flow demand shall be developed from the boiler energy demand and used to control air flow to
the furnace.
There shall be a minimum air flow demand limit to prevent air from being reduced below the level
required to support stable flame conditions in the furnace when the air control is in automatic.
Suitable provisions shall be included to prevent controller windup under minimum air limit
conditions.
The minimum air flow limit shall be in compliance with the requirements of the NFPA 85 series.
The following are prerequisites for the air flow control in automatic:
1) Furnace pressure control in automatic (balanced draft systems)
2) One forced draft fan (or other air source) in service and the associated regulating
device(s) in automatic control
Provision shall be made to ensure that the automatic regulation of air shall result in a fuel-to-air
ratio that provides safe boiler operation. This shall include limiting of fuel flow or air flow to
ensure that fuel flow never exceeds the safe combustion limit that the air flow will support.

4.2.5 Fuel demand and fuel control

Fuel demand shall be developed from the boiler energy demand and used to control fuel flow to
the furnace.
Total fuel input shall be determined from one or a combination of calculated values, fuel
measurements, or characterized fuel demand outputs.
The fuel demand/fuel input relationship shall be used to control energy balance on a Btu (kJ)
basis. When the fuel control is in automatic, there shall be a minimum fuel demand limit to
prevent fuel from being reduced below the level required to support stable flame conditions in the
furnace. Suitable provisions shall be included to prevent controller windup under minimum fuel
limit conditions.
The following are prerequisites for fuel controller in automatic:
1) Air control in automatic
2) One fuel source in service and the associated regulating device(s) in automatic control
Provision shall be made to ensure that the automatic regulation of fuel shall result in a fuel-to-air
ratio that provides safe boiler operation. This shall include limiting of fuel flow or air flow under all
conditions to ensure that fuel flow never exceeds the safe combustion limit that the air flow will
support.

4.2.6 Excess air

Excess air shall be maintained at all loads to assure proper combustion of the fuel entering the
furnace and should not allow the furnace to operate at an oxygen level in the flue gas below the
boiler or burner manufacturer's requirements.

4.3 Final control device requirements

All final control elements shall be designed to fail safe on loss of demand signal or motive power,
i.e., open, close, or lock in place. The fail-safe position shall be determined by the user and be
based upon the specific application.

14 ISA-S77.41-1992
4.4 System reliability and availability
In order to establish minimum criteria, the combustion control system specification shall include
the following as part of the system design base:
1) Maximum and minimum unit load (steaming capacity)
2) Normal operating load range
3) Anticipated load changes
4) Start-up and shutdown frequency
5) Degree of automation
6) Boiler auxiliary maximum and minimum capacities
Field transmitting device redundancy should be provided to the extent necessary to achieve
desired system reliability.
When two transmitters are employed, excessive deviation between the transmitters shall be
alarmed, and the associated control loop shall be transferred to manual.
When three transmitters are employed, excessive deviation between the transmitters shall be
alarmed. A transmitter select scheme shall be used for control purposes.

4.5 Minimum alarm requirements

Minimum alarm requirements shall include the following:

4.5.1 Process alarms

1) Low air flow
2) Low flue gas oxygen
3) High/low furnace pressure
4) Fuel alarms per NFPA 85 series

4.5.2 Hardware alarms

1) Loss of control power
2) Loss of final drive power
3) Control loop transfer to manual due to hardware failure
4) Failure of process measurement signal
5) Redundant transmitters deviation alarm
6) Final drives at control limit
7) Loss of redundant components

4.6 Operator interface

4.6.1 The following information used in the combustion control system shall be made available to
the operator:
1) Boiler energy demand
2) Air flow
3) Total fuel flow (measured or inferred)

ISA-S77.41-1992 15
 4) Individual fuel flow(s) (according to fuel type for multiple fuels)
5) Furnace pressure
6) Flue gas oxygen content
7) All alarms previously defined in 4.5
8) Control loop status and output demand
9) Set points
10) Bias

4.6.2 In addition to the above, the following information, as applicable, should be made available
to the operator:
1) Final drive position(s) and demand deviation status
2) Valve position(s)
3) Feeder speeds
4) Control power status
5) Drive motive power status
6) Oil or gas burner pressure

4.6.3 The system shall include capabilities for the automatic and/or manual control of each indi-
vidual final control device.

16 ISA-S77.41-1992
References

1) ANSI/IEEE Std. 268-1982, The Metric Practice Guide, American National Standards
Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, New York, NY 10036.
2) ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984, Instrumentation Symbols and Identifications, ISA, 67 Alexander
Drive, P. O. Box 12277, Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27709.
3) ANSI/ISA-S5.4-1976 (R 1981), Instrument Loop Diagrams, ISA.
4) ANSI/ISA-S51.1-1979, Process Instrumentation Terminology, ISA.
5) ASME, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section 1, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017, 1983.
6) API RP550 Pt. IV-1984, Manual on Installation of Refinery Instruments and Control
Systems: Steam Generators, American Petroleum Institute, 1220 L Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20005.
7) ASTM, Annual Book of Gaseous Fuels: Coal and Coke Atmospheric, Parts 19 and
26, American Society for Testing Material.
8) Babcock & Wilcox, Steam - Its Generation and Use, 39th ed., New York, NY, 1978.
9) IEEE Std. 502-1985, "IEEE Guide for Protection, Interlocking and Control of Fossil-
Fueled Unit Connection Steam Stations," Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017, 1985.
10) NFPA 85 Pamphlet Series, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02269,
1988 Editions. These are as follows: NFPA - 85 A (1987); 85 B (1989); 85 C (1991);
85 D (1989); 85 E (1985); 85 F (1988); 85 G (1987).
11) PMC 20.1-1973, Process Measurement and Control Terminology, Scientific
Apparatus Makers Assoc., 1101 16th Street, NW, Ste. 300, Washington, DC 20036.
12) PMC 22.1-1981, Functional Diagramming of Instrument and Control Systems,
Scientific Apparatus Makers Association.
13) Singer, Joseph G., Combustion: Fossil Power Systems, 3rd ed., Combustion
Engineering, Inc., 1981.
14) Skretzki, Bernhardt G.A., "Electric Generation-Steam Stations."
15) UltraSystems, Inc. (for Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory), "Theory of Boiler Control
Systems — Operation Manual," N62474-81-C-9388, Irvine, CA, 142 pp.
16) SAMA/ABMA/IGCI's Std., Instrument Connections Manual, "Recommendations for
Location of Instrument and Control Connections for the Operation and Control of
Watertube Boilers," Scientific Apparatus Makers Association and Industrial Gas
Cleaning Institute, Inc., ABMA, 950 North Glebe Road, Suite 180, Arlington, VA
22203; IGCI, 700 North Fairfax Street, Suite 304, Alexandria, VA 22314, 1981.

ISA-S77.41-1992 17
Appendix A

General tutorial
This appendix is included for information purposes and, therefore, is not considered a part of the
ISA-S77.41.

A.1 Purpose
The purpose of this appendix is to provide tutorial information on the philosophy underlying this
standard and to assist in specifying and applying combustion control strategies that will best
serve the requirements of the user.

A.2 Introduction
The purpose of any combustion control system is to safely and efficiently maintain the desired
boiler output without the need for constant operator attention. Therefore, the combustion process
inside the furnace must be controlled while the boiler output changes in response to load
demands. The basic principle of combustion control is to meet the boiler load requirements by
regulating the quantities of fuel and air while achieving optimum combustion and maintaining safe
conditions for operators and equipment.

A.3 Combustion process

As the combustion process takes place in the furnace, oxygen in the combustion air combines
chemically with the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel to produce heat. The amount of air that
contains enough oxygen to combine with all the combustible matter in the fuel is called the
"stoichiometric" value or theoretical air.
It is improbable for every molecule of fuel that enters the furnace to combine chemically with
oxygen. For this reason, it is necessary to provide more air than the stoichiometric requirement.
For most boilers it is customary to provide 5 to 20 percent more air than the stoichiometric
requirement to ensure complete combustion. This additional air is called "excess air." A boiler
firing at 1.2 times the stoichiometric air requirement would be said to be firing at 20 percent
excess air.
If insufficient oxygen is introduced into the furnace, incomplete combustion of the fuel will occur.
This wastes fuel, causes air pollution, and results in hazardous conditions in the boiler. The
unburned fuel may ignite in the boiler or breeching and result in secondary combustion, causing
a dangerous explosion.
Providing too much combustion air reduces the explosion danger but also reduces efficiency.
The largest energy loss in the boiler is the heat that escapes as hot flue gas. Increasing the
excess air increases this energy loss. High excess air can also result in unstable burner
conditions due to the lean fuel/air mixture.
In practice, a large number of items that affect boiler efficiency are related to excess air. The
proper value of excess air is a function of boiler load, fuel quantity, air leakage through idle
burners, steam temperature, flame stability, and energy losses.

ISA-S77.41-1992 19
A.4 Basic combustion control strategies
Various combustion control strategies that are based on requirements for safe, efficient, and
responsive control of boilers have evolved. More sophisticated controls were developed as
instrumentation became more reliable and accurate. The control strategies can be divided into
two major categories: positioning systems and metering systems.
In positioning systems the fuel and air control devices are simultaneously positioned, based on
energy demand. Each position of the fuel control device assumes a corresponding position for
airflow control device. A control station is normally available for the operator to trim the fuel/air
ratio.
The positioning system is simple and fast responding, but it cannot compensate for varying fuel
characteristics, atmospheric conditions, dynamic characteristics of the fuel delivery equipment,
or the imbalance of the fuel-to-air ratio during rapid load changes.
Metering systems measure the actual fuel and air delivered to the boiler. The measured flows
are used in feedback control schemes to precisely regulate the fuel-to-air ratio. Air flows can be
measured without too much difficulty. The fuel flow in a gas or oil boiler can also be readily
measured. Fuel flow in a coal-fired boiler cannot be directly measured, and various schemes
have been developed to infer the fuel delivery rate based on other variables. In addition, the
heavy equipment necessary to transport the coal and prepare it for burning present dynamic
operational and control problems.
A typical combustion control function diagram is shown in Figure A.1.

Figure A.1 — Typical combustion control functional diagram.

20 ISA-S77.41-1992
A.5 Air flow requirements concepts
Air flow measurements can be established by primary elements located on either the air side or
the flue-gas side of the unit.
A suitable place to measure air flow is the entry of the forced draft fan. When there is potential
leakage between the forced draft fan and the furnace, a preferred location may be the air duct
between the forced draft fan and the burners downstream of the air heater.
An alternate, but less preferred, location for air flow measurement is on the flue-gas side of the
boiler. Connections for a differential pressure transmitter are located across a section of the
boiler, and the pressure drop of the flue gas is measured. The connections should be located to
avoid the pressure drop across the air heater. Potential problems with this method are the
corrosive effects of the flue gas and leakage.

A.6 Furnace pressure (draft)

Furnace pressure (draft) control is required on balanced draft boilers. While either the forced
draft fan(s) or the induced draft fan(s) could be used to control the furnace pressure, typically the
induced draft fan(s) is used. A typical furnace pressure control functional diagram is shown in
Figure A.2. It utilizes a feedforward signal characterized to represent the position of the forced
draft control device(s). In a properly designed and calibrated system, the output of the furnace
pressure controller will remain near its midrange for all air flows.

Figure A.2 — Typical furnace pressure control functional diagram.

ISA-S77.41-1992 21
A.7 Control of gas and oil fired boilers
Gas- and oil-fired boilers often allow burning gas and oil separately or together. Provisions must
be made to assure that the fuel-to-air ratio is maintained as multiple fuels are introduced into the
boiler. This can be accomplished by summing the individual fuel flows on a Btu (kJ) value basis.
The output of the summer becomes the "total fuel" in the calculation of the fuel-to-air ratio.
Limiting circuitry should be provided to ensure a safe fuel-to-air ratio.

A.8 Control of pulverized coal-fired boilers

Two major considerations in the development of a metering-type control strategy for a pulverized
coal-fired boiler are compensation for pulverizer dynamics and the selection of an inferred coal
flow signal. In addition, the fuel demand signal must be corrected for the number of pulverizers in
service.

A.8.1 Pulverizer dynamics

Pulverizers induce time lags into the control process. There is a finite time between the
introduction of coal into the pulverizer and the delivery of fuel to the furnace. The grinding and
drying of the coal in the pulverizer and the time required to transport the coal/air mixture to the
burners both contribute to time lags. In addition, the volume of coal in the pulverizer increases as
the load on the pulverizer increases.
A.8.2 Ball tube pulverizers
The ball tube or Hardinge-type pulverizers utilize small diameter (2 inch) steel balls in a rotating
drum to grind coal. These pulverizers exhibit large coal storage characteristics. It is common for
this type of pulverizer to produce controlled coal flow for 10 to 15 minutes after the coal feeder is
stopped. The coal feeder signal is, therefore, useless in the control scheme as a fuel flow signal.
An implied fuel flow signal can be derived from boiler heat release, primary air flow, linearized
classifier differential, characterized primary air damper position, or exhauster inlet damper
position. Since these signals, with the exception of heat release, can produce an apparent coal
flow in an empty mill, the signals must be verified by logic signals monitoring the mill level and
feeder status.
In a ball tube pulverizer, the coal feeder normally operates independently of the boiler energy
demand or fuel demand signals. The coal feeder control for ball tube pulverizers may be based
on the following:
1) Pulverizer level (differential measurement)
2) Pulverizer dB (sound measurement)
3) Pulverizer kW (power measurement)
4) Pulverizer kW and dB
The usual control of the feeder is based on pulverizer coal level with a slight feedforward or
derivative from boiler energy demand or fuel demand.
A.8.3 Non-ball tube mills
Pulverized coal-fired boilers normally use a sophisticated combustion control system having
several pulverizers, each supplying multiple burners. It is not only important to maintain the
correct fuel-to-air ratio at all times, but the fuel from each pulverizer to its associated burner
should be properly proportioned and distributed for stable and efficient boiler operation.
The firing rate demand is compared to the total measured fuel flow (summation of all feeders in
service delivering coal) to develop the demand to the fuel controller. The fuel demand signal is
then applied in parallel to all operating pulverizers.

22 ISA-S77.41-1992
Should an upset in available air occur so that air is limited, an error signal from air flow control
should reduce the firing rate demand to the fuel controller to maintain a minimum acceptable fuel/
air ratio. Limiting circuitry shall be provided to ensure that air flow is always above demanded
fuel flow; hence, a safe combustion mixture is always present. This demand is compared with
total feeder speeds or the heat absorbed signal. Should there be a difference between the fuel
demand and total fuel flow, the fuel controller will readjust the speed of the feeders in service to
the extent necessary to eliminate the error.
Since there may be some delay between a change in feeder speed and the actual change in coal
to a furnace, a lag (mill model) is incorporated into the speed feedback, so that the air flow and
fuel flow control are kept in step with the actual coal to the furnace. During conditions of a mill
overload, the feeder speed demand signal should be reduced until the overload condition is
resolved.

A.8.4 Reference for pulverizer control

The pulverizer manufacturer is the prime source for information concerning recommended
control strategies.

Appendix B

Fault tolerance
This appendix is included for information purposes and, therefore, is not considered a part of
ISA-S77.41.
The ability of a combustion control system to tolerate failures and still provide an acceptable level
of performance is influenced by the user's decisions regarding system design. Typically, the
vendor's hardware is modular and can be configured in many forms. The way the system design
utilizes these modules has a significant effect on the ability of overall systems to tolerate failures.
A careful review of the entire system is necessary to determine the effect of equipment failures
and the ability of the operator to continue operations.

B.1 Geographic distribution

Geographic distribution results from placing the hardware (controllers, data acquisition modules,
power supplies, etc.) in physically remote areas of the plant and connecting them via a digital
communications network. This hardware is normally placed in a convenient location close to the
equipment being monitored or controlled.
While geographic distribution may enhance reliability, it will also require additional effort and
expense if redundant power sources, air conditioned environments, or redundant communication
channels are necessary. Often, geographic distribution is used to reduce wiring costs or relieve
overcrowded equipment rooms.

B.2 Functional distribution

The goal of functional distribution is to limit the effects of a hardware failure to an acceptable
level. By partitioning the system into modules, the effect of a single hardware failure is minimized
to predefined situations. All of the elements of a specific control task (i.e., furnace pressure,
pulverizer A, etc.) are segregated into a module capable of independent operation. Each module

ISA-S77.41-1992 23
should be capable of continued operation at some minimal level without depending on inputs
from other modules. Aspects to be considered are the power source(s), transmitters, operator
interface, input/output circuits, communications links, and computational requirements.

B.3 Fail-safe positioning

Final drive units must be evaluated to determine the preferred failure mode upon loss of motive
power. Most drive units can be selected to fail open, fail closed, or fail in place. In addition, the
effect of the loss of the driving signal must be considered. In some cases, air-to-close (or
increasing current-to-close) dampers are preferred.

B.4 Redundant component

The modular design of most vendors' equipment allows the user to take a building block
approach to selecting components. Modules can be added or deleted as needed. In most
cases, the number of inputs, outputs, and computational power are flexible within certain limits.
This allows the user to add redundant modules to achieve the desired level of fault tolerance.

B.4.1 Power supplies

Power supplies driven from separate primary feeds should be considered, especially for operator
interface consoles. Each power supply should be capable of continuous operation in the event of
failure of the other. Battery backup is also an option.

B.4.2 Communications
As a minimum, the communication channels should be redundant. If portions of the system are
geographically distributed, separate cable routes should be capable of continuous operation in
the event of failure of the other.

B.4.3 Controllers
Redundant controllers can be utilized in a 1-to-1 configuration or in a 1-to-N configuration. In the
1-to-1 configuration, each controller has a backup controller. In the 1-to-N configuration, one
backup controller monitors the operation of several controllers and automatically replaces the
functions of a failed unit but cannot support multiple controller failures.

B.4.4 Operator interface

Console units, manual/automatic stations, and failure modes must be considered together when
evaluating operator interfaces. No firm rules exist for minimum requirements concerning
redundancy. The goal should be to maintain the operator's ability to control the boiler in spite of
any equipment failures. Multiple, functionally independent console units may be preferred to a
single console with manual/automatic stations serving as backup.
If multiple console units are used to achieve redundance, the consoles should be as independent
as possible with due regard to economics and convenience, As a guideline, a single equipment
failure or loss of a power source should not prevent the operator from responding to emergency
situations.
Manual/automatic stations have traditionally been considered "fail-safe" components. However,
manual/automatic stations may incorporate a significant number of electronic components that
must remain functional for the operator to have "hard manual" control of the process.
Strong consideration should be given to the use of actual final element position through the
position feedback sensors for display on M/A stations and for use in the operation of the
combustion control system in lieu of "demand output."

24 ISA-S77.41-1992
B.4.5 Field devices
Field device redundancy should be provided to the extent necessary to achieve the required
reliability and meet the requirements of the standard. In most cases, this requires a case-by-
case consideration of critical parameters.

ISA-S77.41-1992 25
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