Quantitative

Data
Presentation
and Analysis
Outline of the seminar-workshop
• Quantitative vs qualitative studies
• Revising your thesis outline
• Reporting descriptive statistics
• Inferential statistics
• How to identify a statistical test
• Performing the test
• Reporting inferential statistics
• Writing the Discussion
What to Expect
• This is not a full lecture. You are expected to answer questions
and perform activities.
• You cannot remember all the information here. The slides will
be shared to the USM-PALMA CRC.
• This talk cannot cover all possible topics related to
quantitative research. Instead, I will provide you additional
sources where you can find the specific information you might
need.
 Quantitative Method
Pros Cons
Accurate and reliable
measurements that allow for a
statistical analysis
Usually less time consuming
to do, compared to a
qualitative study
Rahman, M.S. (2016). The advantages and disadvantages using qualitative and quantitative approaches and
methods in language "testing and assessment" research: A literature review. Journal of Education and
Learning, 6(1), 102
 Quantitative Method
Pros Cons
Accurate and reliable Need a fairly large sample
measurements that allow for a
statistical analysis
Usually less time consuming Looks at a “snapshot” of a
to do, compared to a phenomenon, lack of rich
qualitative study description or in-depth detail
Rahman, M.S. (2016). The advantages and disadvantages using qualitative and quantitative approaches and
methods in language "testing and assessment" research: A literature review. Journal of Education and
Learning, 6(1), 102
 Surveys
Pros Cons
- Low development time - Reliability of data is very
- Cost-effective dependent on the quality of
- Easy data collection and answers and on the survey
analysis using statistics structure
- Can reach high audiences - Rigidity of the structure
- High representativeness - Don't capture emotions,
- Not affected by subjectivity behavior and changes of
emotions of respondents
Queiros, A. Faria, D., & Almeida, F. (2017). Strengths and limitations of qualitative and quantitative research
methods. European Journal of Education Studies, 3(9), 369-386.
 Surveys
Pros Cons
- Low development time - Reliability of data is very
- Cost-effective dependent on the quality of
- Easy data collection and answers and on the survey
analysis using statistics structure
- Can reach high audiences - Rigidity of the structure
- High representativeness - Don't capture emotions,
- Not affected by subjectivity behavior and changes of
emotions of respondents
Queiros, A. Faria, D., & Almeida, F. (2017). Strengths and limitations of qualitative and quantitative research
methods. European Journal of Education Studies, 3(9), 369-386.
 Surveys
Pros Cons
- Low development time - Reliability of data is very
- Cost-effective dependent on the quality of
- Easy data collection and answers and on the survey
analysis using statistics structure
- Can reach high audiences - Rigidity of the structure
- High representativeness - Don't capture emotions,
- Not affected by subjectivity behavior and changes of
emotions of respondents
Queiros, A. Faria, D., & Almeida, F. (2017). Strengths and limitations of qualitative and quantitative research
methods. European Journal of Education Studies, 3(9), 369-386.
 Surveys
Pros Cons
- Low development time - Reliability of data is very
- Cost-effective dependent on the quality of
- Easy data collection and answers and on the survey
analysis using statistics structure
- Can reach high audiences - Rigidity of the structure
- High representativeness - Don't capture emotions,
- Not affected by subjectivity behavior and changes of
emotions of respondents
Queiros, A. Faria, D., & Almeida, F. (2017). Strengths and limitations of qualitative and quantitative research
methods. European Journal of Education Studies, 3(9), 369-386.
Mix them up!
1.determine if there is a significant difference between the
pretest scores of control and experimental groups,
2.determine if there is a significant difference between the
posttest scores of control and experimental groups,
3.determine if there is a significant difference between the gain
scores of control and experimental groups, and
4.determine the views of the respondents about the LAS with
conceptual scaffolding approach.
Mix them up!
1.determine if there is a significant difference between the
pretest scores of control and experimental groups,
2.determine if there is a significant difference between the
posttest scores of control and experimental groups,
3.determine if there is a significant difference between the gain
scores of control and experimental groups, and
4.determine the views of the respondents about the LAS with
conceptual scaffolding approach.
Qualitative or Quantitative
Research?
• Depends on the objectives!
• Be aware of the strengths and limitations of each, so that
you can harness elements of both designs if needed.
 In which chapter should you put
the participant characteristics?
• Chapter 3 (Methodology)
• Chapter 4 (Results)

American Psychological Association (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).
Washington, DC: Author.
Participant characteristics can help show the
nature of the sample and the extent to which
results can be generalized.

• The study consisted of 75 Grade 11 students (40 in STEM

track, and 35 in HUMSS track) in the USM Laboratory
School. They had already completed the course General
Mathematics at the time of the study.

Write information that can help the reader

understand the generalizability of your results.
Do not forget to edit Chapter 3!

• Fill in the missing details that you now know

about your respondents.
From Outline to Manuscript…

• The respondents of this study will be the Mathematics

teachers of the Junior High School and college units and
students with mathematics subject of the Notre Dame of
Midsayap College.
From Outline to Manuscript…

• The respondents of this study were 7 Mathematics

teachers of the Junior High School and college units and
76 students with mathematics subject of the Notre Dame
of Midsayap College.
When should I use the past
tense?
• Use past tense for actions done in the past.
• Which is correct: Table 1 shows… or Table 1 showed…?
Task #1: Revisit your Outline
(esp. Chapter 3) and (1)
convert your actions to past
tense, and (2) fill in missing
details.
 To give evidence of my results, I
should put my raw data in
Chapter 4.
• True
• False

American Psychological Association (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).
Washington, DC: Author.
 General guidelines
• Mention all important results, regardless of whether your
hypotheses were supported.
• Raw data are not part of the chapter (due to length
considerations); you may put raw data in the Appendix instead.
• Be accurate, unbiased, and complete.

American Psychological Association (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).
Washington, DC: Author.
What are your research questions?
1. Determine the ___ of the respondents.
Descriptive statistics
2. Determine if there is a significant difference
between ___ and ___.
3. Determine if there is a relationship between ___
and ___. Descriptive statistics
4. Determine if there is a significant relationship
between ___ and ___.
What are your research questions?
1. Determine the ___ of the respondents.
2. Determine if there is a significant difference
between ___ and ___. Inferential statistics
3. Determine if there is a relationship between ___
and ___.
4. Determine if there is a significant relationship
between ___ and ___. Inferential statistics
Reporting
Descriptive
Statistics
Table 1. Frequency of received information on beekeeping
activities (n = 235)
Regularly Sometimes Never
Pests and diseases control 93 (39.6) 60 (25.6) 82 (34.9)
Site selection 173 (73.6) 56 (23.8) 6 (2.6)
Packaging/storage 93 (39.6) 64 (27.2) 78 (33.2)
Baiting 173 (73.6) 56 (23.9) 6 (2.6)
Swam catching 97 (41.3) 56 (23.8) 82 (34.9)
Hive inspection 168 (71.5) 61 (26.0) 6 (2.6)
Colony division 80 (34.0) 60 (25.5) 95 (40.4)
Selling/ Marketing 165 (70.2) 60 (25.5) 10 (4.3)
Hive products 160 (68.1) 69 (29.3) 6 (2.6)
Hives construction 173 (73.6) 56 (23.8) 6 (2.6)
Harvesting 92 (39.1) 65 (27.6) 78 (33.2)
Source (modified): Azees, K. K. (2022). Analysis Of Information Needs Of Beekeepers In Oyo State, Nigeria. JARDET, 4, 18-35
Table 1. Frequency of received information on beekeeping
activities (n = 235)
Regularly Sometimes Never
Site selection 173 (73.6) 56 (23.8) 6 (2.6)
Baiting 173 (73.6) 56 (23.9) 6 (2.6)
Easier to interpret if data are presented
Hives construction 173 (73.6) in increasing
56 (23.8) 6 (2.6)
or decreasing order.
Hive inspection 168 (71.5) 61 (26.0) 6 (2.6)
Selling/ Marketing 165 (70.2) 60 (25.5) 10 (4.3)
Hive products 160 (68.1) 69 (29.3) 6 (2.6)
Swam catching 97 (41.3) 56 (23.8) 82 (34.9)
Packaging/storage 93 (39.6) 64 (27.2) 78 (33.2)
Pests and diseases control 93 (39.6) 60 (25.6) 82 (34.9)
Harvesting 92 (39.1) 65 (27.6) 78 (33.2)
Colony division 80 (34.0) 60 (25.5) 95 (40.4)
Source: Azees, K. K. (2022). Analysis Of Information Needs Of Beekeepers In Oyo State, Nigeria. JARDET, 4, 18-35
Table 1. Frequency of received information on beekeeping
activities (n = 235)
Regularly Sometimes Never
Site selection 173 (73.6) 56 (23.8) 6 (2.6)
Baiting 173 (73.6) 56 (23.9) 6 (2.6)
There were 173 (73.6%) respondents
Hives construction 173 (73.6) who 56 (23.8)received6information
regularly (2.6) on
Hive inspection 168 (71.5) 61 (26.0)baiting, 6and
site selection, (2.6)
hive
Selling/ Marketing 165 (70.2) construction.
60 (25.5) There were 168 (71.5%)
10 (4.3)
respondents who regularly received
Hive products 160 (68.1) 69 (29.3) 6 (2.6)
information on hive inspection. There
Swam catching 97 (41.3) were56 165(23.8) 82 (34.9)
(70.2%) respondents who
Packaging/storage 93 (39.6) 64 (27.2)
regularly 78 (33.2)on
received information
Pests and diseases control 93 (39.6) selling…
60 (25.6) 82 (34.9)
Harvesting 92 (39.1) 65 (27.6) 78 (33.2)
Colony division 80 (34.0) 60 (25.5) 95 (40.4)
Source: Azees, K. K. (2022). Analysis Of Information Needs Of Beekeepers In Oyo State, Nigeria. JARDET, 4, 18-35
What is the purpose of a table?

• To help the reader make sense of the results.

• Tables make it easier to compare values.
• Do NOT just repeat the values in the table. If we do,
then the table becomes useless.
Table 1. Frequency of received information on beekeeping
activities (n = 235)
Regularly Sometimes Never
Site selection 173 (73.6) 56 (23.8) 6 (2.6)
Baiting 173 (73.6) 56 (23.9)
Information 6 (2.6) baiting,
on site selection,
Hives construction 173 (73.6) and hives construction6were
56 (23.8) (2.6)most
frequently received by respondents
Hive inspection 168 (71.5) 61 (26.0) 6 (2.6)
(73.6%). They also generally received
Selling/ Marketing 165 (70.2) 60information
regular (25.5) on10hive
(4.3)
inspection
Hive products 160 (68.1) 69 selling
(71.5%), (29.3) (70.2%),6 and
(2.6)hive
Swam catching 97 (41.3) products (68.1%). Information
56 (23.8) 82 (34.9) on colony
division was least frequently received,
Packaging/storage 93 (39.6) 64 (27.2)
and 40.4% 78 (33.2)never
of the respondents
Pests and diseases control 93 (39.6) even60 (25.6)any information
received 82 (34.9)on this
Harvesting 92 (39.1) topic.65 (27.6) 78 (33.2)
Colony division 80 (34.0) 60 (25.5) 95 (40.4)
Some tips
• It helps to arrange the data in increasing or decreasing
order with respect to the results.
• Your statements should be easily verified through the
table (i.e., do not elaborate too much), but provide some
interpretation as well (e.g., specify the highest/lowest
values)
Activity
Table 1. Forms of Cheating Among ____ High School Students
Table 1. Forms of Cheating Among ____ High School Students
Activity

• What phrase can you describe the most

common experiences of cheating?
• What phrase can you describe the least
common experiences of cheating?
Table 2 shows that the most common experiences
of cheating is seeing others either copying (M =
3.43) or sharing answers (M = 3.23) to their
classmates.
Table 2 shows that the most common experiences
of cheating is seeing others either copying (M =
3.43) or sharing answers (M = 3.23) to their
classmates. Using of the Teacher’s Guide to find
answers to assignment and projects (M = 1.22),
leaking the test questions illegally to other
sections (M = 1.23), and outright lying and
counterfeiting or falsifying of documents (1.26)
are some of the methods of cheating that are not
that common to the students.
Copying or talking during exams seems to be the
most favored form of cheating. These include:
 Copying or talking during exams seems to be the
most favored form of cheating. These include:
a. I have seen others copy in Mathematics
(Mean=3.43)
b. I have seen others sharing their answers to their
seatmates (Mean=3.23)
c. I talk to classmates during Math test (Mean=2.44)
d. I have cheated in Math (Mean=2.25)
e. I have let my classmates share their answers
during Math test (Mean=2.21)
There were also severe violations, but they were
very rare, having the mean of 1.32, that the
students have done just so they can cheat like the
following:
a. I have lied to my teacher (Mean=1.57)
b. I have skipped school when my teacher
announced that we will be having a test in Math the
next day (Mean=1.30)
c. I have counterfeited a grade or falsified an
excuse letter (Mean=1.26)
Table 2 shows that the most common experiences
of cheating is seeing others either copying (M =
3.43) or sharingAllanswers
tables should
(M = 3.23) to their
be cited in the
classmates. Using of the Teacher’s Guide to find
answers to assignment and projects (M = 1.22),
text.
leaking the test questions illegally to other
sections (M = 1.23), and outright lying and
counterfeiting or falsifying of documents (1.26)
are some of the methods of cheating that are not
that common to the students.
Table 2 shows that the most common experiences
of cheating is seeing others either copying (M =
3.43) or sharingAllanswers
tables should
(M = 3.23) to their
be cited in the
classmates. Using of the Teacher’s Guide to find
answers to assignment and projects (M = 1.22),
text.
leaking the test questions illegally to other
sections (M = The table
1.23), andshould
outright lying and
appear
counterfeiting or shortly
falsifying after this
of documents (1.26)
are some of theparagraph.
methods of cheating that are not
that common to the students.
Reporting
Inferential
Statistics
Good news:
We have FREE online
calculators for many of the
basic statistical tests!
We will focus more on
interpretations.
What is the p-value?
Suppose you found that the academic performance of boys
and girls in ULS are significantly different at 0.05 level of
significance. What does this mean?

n M SD
Boys 61 93.8 3.41
Girls 75 80.1 4.20
What does it mean
if 𝒑 < 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓?
M = 86.2 M = 86.2
M = 86.2 M = 86.2
 M = 86.2 M = 86.2

𝑛 = 61 𝑛 = 75

ҧ 93.8
𝑥= ҧ 80.1
𝑥=
 p < 0.05 means that there is less
than a 5% chance that we will
get a sample like this
(𝑥=
ҧ 93.8 and 𝑥=ҧ 80.1) if the
M = population
86.2 means are equal.M = 86.2

𝑛 = 61 𝑛 = 75

ҧ 93.8
𝑥= ҧ 80.1
𝑥=
 These are
probably NOT
the same.

M = 86.2 M = 86.2

𝑛 = 61 𝑛 = 75

ҧ 93.8
𝑥= ҧ 80.1
𝑥=
How do we
compute p-
values?
First, we need to know
which test to use.
 Test of Comparison
Does your data
come from a
random sample?
Are your
No samples
independent?
Independent Samples Paired Samples
Independent Samples Paired Samples
Two different samples The same sample tested
before and after.
Independent Samples Paired Samples
Two different samples The same sample tested
before and after.

Ex: Is there a significant

difference between the
grades of males and
females?
Independent Samples Paired Samples
Two different samples The same sample tested
before and after.

Ex: Is there a significant Ex: Is there a significant

difference between the difference between the
grades of males and grades of junior high
females? school students before
and after a lesson?
 Test of Comparison
Does your data
come from a
random sample?
Are your
No samples
independent?
 Test of Comparison
Yes
Do you have 2 Do you have
groups? independent
samples?
No
 Test of Comparison
Situation Use:
Two groups, independent Mann-Whitney U Test
samples
Two groups, paired samples Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
3 or more groups, Kruskal Wallis Test
independent samples
3 or more groups, repeated Friedman Test
samples
There are online calculators for these tests

Test Online calculator

Wilcoxon signed rank test https://www.statskingdom.com/175wilcoxon_signed_ra
nks.html
Mann-Whitney U test https://www.statskingdom.com/170median_mann_whit
ney.html
Kruskal Wallis Test https://www.statskingdom.com/kruskal-wallis-
calculator.html
Friedman Test https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/friedman/defaul
t.aspx
Activity: Is there a Condition
significant Ext. noise Mod. Noise No noise
difference in the 4 7 8
8 8 10
number of words 7 5 9
memorized by 5 8 10
three groups? 7 5 9
 Test of Comparison
Situation Use:
Two groups, independent Mann-Whitney U Test
samples
Two groups, paired samples Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
3 or more groups, Kruskal Wallis Test
independent samples
3 or more groups, repeated Friedman Test
samples
Activity: Is there a Male Female

significant 1.80 1.55

1.68 1.50
difference between 1.82 1.78
the heights of 1.70 1.67
1.87 1.64
males and females?
 Test of Comparison
Situation Use:
Two groups, independent Mann-Whitney U Test
samples
Two groups, paired samples Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
3 or more groups, Kruskal Wallis Test
independent samples
3 or more groups, repeated Friedman Test
samples
 Test of Relationship
Does your data
look like a line?
Spearman
No
correlation
Yes Pearson
correlation
 Test of Relationship
Will you perform
a test of
inference?
No Look at r.
Yes Look at r and p.
There are online calculators for these tests

Test Online calculator

Linearity test https://mathcracker.com/scatter_plot
Pearson correlation https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/pearson/
Spearman correlation https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/spearman/defau
lt2.aspx
Activity: Is there a
significant relationship Sugar (oz.) No. of
cavities
between number of 20 7
ounces of sugar a 0 0
child eats per week 1 2
and the number of 12 5
3 3
cavities in the child’s
mouth?
 −1 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 1

−1 0 1

-0.19 to 0.19 - very weak

-0.39 to -0.2 or 0.2 to 0.39 - weak

-0.59 to -0.40 or 0.40 to 0.59 - moderate,

-0.79 to -0.6 or 0.6 to 0.79 as strong

-1 to -0.8 or 0.8 to 1 as very strong
Correlation
does not
imply
causation!

https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27537142
Correlation
does not
imply
causation!

https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27537142
Writing up the Results (Sample)
Test If significant…
Mann-Whitney U Post-test scores of students from the intervention
test and control groups were compared. On average,
students in the intervention group had higher mean
ranks (Mdn = __) than those in the control group
(Mdn = __). The difference was statistically
significant (p = __).
Wilcoxon signed Students’ scores were compared before and after
rank test intervention. On average, the post-test ranks (Mdn
= __) were higher than those of the pre-test ranks
(Mdn = __), but the improvement was not
statistically significant (p = __).
Writing up the Results (Sample)
Test If NOT significant…
Wilcoxon signed Students’ scores were compared before and after
rank test intervention. On average, the post-test ranks (Mdn =
__) were higher than those of the pre-test ranks (Mdn
= __), but the improvement was not statistically
significant (p = __).
Mann-Whitney U test Post-test scores of students from the intervention
and control groups were compared. On average,
students in the intervention group had higher mean
ranks (Mdn = __) than those in the control group
(Mdn = __), but the difference was not statistically
significant (p = __).
 Writing up the Results (Sample)
Test If significant…
Pearson correlation Results of the Pearson correlation indicated that
there was a significant positive relationship between
transformational leadership and job satisfaction,
(r(112) = .60, p = .012). More transformational
leaders are associated with higher job satisfaction
among employees.

Note: No causation is impled in the paragraph

above.

https://www.statisticssolutions.com/reporting-statistics-in-apa-format/
 Writing up the Results (Sample)
Test If significant…
Spearman Results of the Spearman correlation indicated that
correlation there was a significant positive relationship between
transformational leadership and job satisfaction,
(r(112) = .60, p = .012). More transformational
leaders are associated with higher job satisfaction
among employees.

Note: No causation is impled in the paragraph

above.

https://www.statisticssolutions.com/reporting-statistics-in-apa-format/
Writing the
Discussion
Common Mistake: Shallow Relations to
Previous Studies

• This study shows that X is better than Y. The results agree

with those of Santos (2015) and Guzman and Reyes (2012).
These authors found that X is better than Y in temperate
climates. Also they found that X has no effect on Z. However,
the results of this study are not consistent with those of Yang,
Smith, & Liu (2018). They found that Y is better than X. They
also found that Y leads to fewer waste products than X.
Common Mistake: Shallow Relations to
Previous Studies

• This study shows that X is better than Y. The results agree

with those of Santos (2015) and Guzman and Reyes (2012).
These authors found that X is better than Y in temperate
climates. Also they found that X has no effect on Z. However,
the results of this study are not consistent with those of Yang,
Smith, & Liu (2018). They found that Y is better than X. They
also found that Y leads to fewer waste products than X.
 D I F F E R E N C E S I N R E S U LT S A N D
DISCUSSION
Results Discussion
Write about the information
gathered as part of the
methodology.
Simply state the findings,
without bias or interpretation

Location of tables and figures

https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185931
 D I F F E R E N C E S I N R E S U LT S A N D
DISCUSSION
Results Discussion
Write about the information Interpret your results.
gathered as part of the
methodology.
Simply state the findings, Explain your findings (both
without bias or interpretation expected and unexpected
findings).
Location of tables and figures Mention limitations.

https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185931
 Methodology Results
?
(Observabl
e)

Image: https://medium.com/@mlardelli/data-science-is-not-a-black-box-managers-must-understand-it-too-28c92749d29c
 Methodology Results
?
(Observabl
e)

Discussion
Image: https://medium.com/@mlardelli/data-science-is-not-a-black-box-managers-must-understand-it-too-28c92749d29c
 SAMPLE
Results (Observable) Discussion (Why?)
The highest yields were
recorded from plants fermented
for 5
days, at 1.5 or 2.5 tbsp/L while
the lowest were noted from
plants applied with an FPJ
concentration of 2.0 tbsp
FPJ/L water, fermented for 10 or
15 days.
 SAMPLE
Results (Observable) Discussion (Why?)
The highest yields were A possible reason is that
recorded from plants fermented FPJ enhances the production of
for 5 auxin (Sakimin et
days, at 1.5 or 2.5 tbsp/L while al, 2017) and auxin in higher
the lowest were noted from concentration becomes
plants applied with an FPJ inhibitory to the growth of the
concentration of 2.0 tbsp shoot (Thimann, 1939).
FPJ/L water, fermented for 10 or
15 days.
 SAMPLE
Results (Observable) Discussion (Why?)
The CWG, ADWG, and FCR
of broilers were not significantly
affected (p>0.05) by varying
levels of wood vinegar via
drinking water.
 SAMPLE
Results (Observable) Discussion (Why?)
The CWG, ADWG, and FCR The effects of wood vinegar on
of broilers were not significantly growth parameters are
affected (p>0.05) by varying greater in less sanitary
levels of wood vinegar via environments (Diógenes et
drinking water. al. ,2019), which was not the
case in this study.
 SAMPLE
Results (Observable) Discussion (Why?)
There was an indication of
resistance of the parasites to
both albendazole and levamisole,
while there was an indication of
low resistance was noted for
ivermectin.
 SAMPLE
Results (Observable) Discussion (Why?)
There was an indication of In the present study, the regular
resistance of the parasites to use of albendazole and
both albendazole and levamisole, levamisole could have
while there was an indication of contributed to the observed
low resistance was noted for anthelmintic resistance to these
ivermectin. two drugs, while ivermectin,
which was occasionally used, was
still active against
nematodes in buffaloes >1 to 2
years old.
Results Discussion
Only 27% of elementary Whereas prior research
teachers can correctly answer provides important elements of
1÷3
2 SCK that teachers need to
learn during their training
(Depaepe et al., 2015; Kaasila,
et al., 2009; Lee, 2017), this
study has shown that the
teachers in the sample need
training in CCK.
Results Discussion
Only 27% of elementary Whereas prior research
teachers can correctly answer provides important elements of
1÷3
2 SCK that teachers need to
learn during their training
(Depaepe et al., 2015; Kaasila,
et al., 2009; Lee, 2017), this
study has shown that the
teachers in the sample need
training in CCK.
Results Discussion
79 teachers explained their They ensured that rules
solution by saying there is an sounded clear and friendly, with
“imaginary” 1 in the little attention to correctness
denominator. or precision (which may also be
due to poor CCK). In the
words of Bergqvist and Lithner
(2012, p. 267), “the teachers’
presentations may be
considered examples in which
the reduction of complexity is
taken too far.”
Results Discussion
79 teachers explained their They ensured that rules
solution by saying there is an sounded clear and friendly, with
“imaginary” 1 in the little attention to correctness
denominator. or precision (which may also be
due to poor CCK). In the
words of Bergqvist and Lithner
(2012, p. 267), “the teachers’
presentations may be
considered examples in which
the reduction of complexity is
taken too far.”
Results Discussion
79 teachers explained their They ensured that rules
solution by saying there is an sounded clear and friendly, with
“imaginary” 1 in the little attention to correctness
denominator. or precision (which may also be
due to poor CCK). In the
words of Bergqvist and Lithner
(2012, p. 267), “the teachers’
presentations may be
considered examples in which
the reduction of complexity is
taken too far.”
How to Relate to Previous Studies
The Results and Discussion sections must focus on YOUR study.
Interpret your OWN results, rather than repeat the results of
others.

Citing prior research is not just for compliance. Rather,

these can help you explain your results and identify
limitations in your research.
Tip: Results include what you
observed. The Discussion includes
the meanings of your results.
Comparing to previous studies
can deepen the meaning of your
own results.

104
Writing for JARDET