Mingxiang Ling

Institute of Systems Engineering,

China Academy of Engineering Physics,
No. 28, Mianshan Road,
Mianyang 621999, China
e-mail: [email protected]
Kinetostatic and Dynamic
Larry L. Howell Modeling of Flexure-Based
Mem. ASME
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Brigham Young University,
Compliant Mechanisms:
Provo, UT 84602;
Department of Mechanical Engineering, A Survey

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Brigham Young University,
Provo, UT 435S CTB Flexure-based compliant mechanisms are becoming increasingly promising in precision
e-mail: [email protected] engineering, robotics, and other applications due to the excellent advantages of no fric-
tion, no backlash, no wear, and minimal requirement of assembly. Because compliant
Junyi Cao mechanisms have inherent coupling of kinematic-mechanical behaviors with large deflec-
State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing tions and/or complex serial-parallel configurations, the kinetostatic and dynamic analy-
Systems Engineering, ses are challenging in comparison to their rigid-body counterparts. To address these
Xi’an Jiaotong University, challenges, a variety of techniques have been reported in a growing stream of publica-
No.64, Xianning Road, tions. This paper surveys and compares the conceptual ideas, key advances, and applica-
Xi’an 710049, China ble scopes, and open problems of the state-of-the-art kinetostatic and dynamic modeling
e-mail: [email protected] methods for compliant mechanisms in terms of small and large deflections. Future chal-
lenges are discussed and new opportunities for extended study are highlighted as well.
Guimin Chen The presented review provides a guide on how to select suitable modeling approaches for
Mem. ASME those engaged in the field of compliant mechanisms. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4045679]
Shaanxi’s Key Laboratory of Intelligent Robots,
Xi’an Jiaotong University,
No. 64, Xianning Road,
Xi’an 710049, China
e-mail: [email protected]

1 Introduction advantages, disadvantages, discrepancies, and applicable scopes

among these modeling methods. It would be difficult for designers
Flexure-based compliant mechanisms generally refer to
with little experience in the field of compliant mechanisms to find
mechanical devices gaining some or all of their mobility through
a starting point from where they can be guided toward the model-
elastic deformation of flexible members [1], which by nature pos-
ing issues [21] and to identify which method is most suitable for
sess the benefits of monolithic structure and variable stiffness
their specific applications. As stated in Ref. [21], this problem
over their rigid-body counterparts, thereby reducing friction,
will be enlarged by the amount of knowledge that a designer
backlash, wear, no need for lubrication and assembly. Owing to
should possess, such as mechanics of materials, mechanical
these uniqueness, compliant mechanisms have been widely
dynamics, kinematics of mechanisms, and nonlinear mechanics.
applied, including constant-force generation [2], multistable
A review has already focused on synthesis approaches to com-
switches [3], micro-electro mechanical systems (MEMS) [4], pre-
pliant mechanisms including topology optimization and rigid-
cision positioning stages and grippers [5–7], micro/nanomanipula-
body-replacement methods [21]. In this paper, key concepts and
tions [8], fast servotools in precision machining [9], servovalves
recent advances on the state-of-the-art kinetostatic and dynamic
[10], energy harvesting [11], microvibration suppression [12],
modeling approaches for compliant mechanisms involving small and
alignment of optics, robotic actuation [13], and so forth.
large deflections are surveyed, compared, and summarized. Details
During the last three decades, a variety of techniques and meth-
of synthesis methods for compliant mechanisms, such as topology
odologies have been developed for kinetostatic and dynamic mod-
optimization [22–30], building block approach [31,32], freedom and
eling of compliant mechanisms, such as the pseudo-rigid-body
constraint topology (FACT) method [33,34], are out of the scope of
model (PRBM) [14], Castigliano’s second theorem [15], compli-
this paper and will not be discussed in detail. Extensive studies can
ance matrix method [16], elastic beam theory [17], two-port
be found in Refs. [21–34] and related references [35,36].
dynamic stiffness model [18], Ryu’s method [19], and beam con-
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Progress
straint model [20]. These methodologies have enabled significant
on parametric modeling of compliant mechanisms is briefly over-
advances in designing compliant mechanisms. However, the
viewed in Sec. 2. Details of various modeling approaches, classi-
kinetostatic and dynamic modeling of compliant mechanisms
fied as (i) flexure hinges, (ii) kinetostatics of small deflection, (iii)
remain challenging owing to their intrinsic coupling of kinematic
kinetostatics of large deflection and (iv) issues on the dynamics,
and elastomechanical behaviors. In addition, large-deflection anal-
are, respectively, described from Secs. 3–6. Future challenges and
ysis and complex serial-parallel configurations often encountered
open research topics are discussed in Sec. 7 and followed by con-
in compliant mechanisms lead to intractable modeling procedures.
clusions in Sec. 8.
Although many solutions are now available for kinetostatic and
dynamic modeling of compliant mechanisms [14–20], there has
been less effort on clarifying and comparing the conceptual ideas, 2 Brief Overview: Modeling Advances in Compliant
Mechanisms
Manuscript received March 21, 2019; final manuscript received November 12, In this section, key advances on compliant mechanisms in terms
2019; published online January 20, 2020. Assoc. Editor: Michael Leamy. of kinetostatic and dynamic modeling during the past three

Applied Mechanics Reviews Copyright V

C 2020 by ASME MAY 2020, Vol. 72 / 030802-1
decades are briefly described in chronological order. A detailed is treated as rigid links connected by a revolute joint attached with
survey of different types of modeling approaches involving small a torsional spring. Consequently, analyzing compliant mecha-
and large deflections will be carried out from Secs. 3–6. nisms can be simplified as an issue of rigid-body mechanisms.
The pseudo-rigid-body model has been proven over time to be
2.1 Overview of Key Advances. Since the proposal of Her an effective tool for analysis and synthesis of compliant mecha-
and Midha in 1980s [37], compliant mechanisms, in only the last nisms involving both small and large deflections [61–65]. In
three decades, have drawn ever-increasing research interests due to 2001, the first book in the context of compliant mechanisms
the inherent characteristics of precision motion without friction, appeared, in which the pseudo-rigid-body model was systemati-
backlash and wear over their rigid-body counterparts. In such a cally introduced [1].
monolithic mechanism, flexible members such as flexure hinges Before and after 2000, many efforts were devoted to the com-
transmit force and movement by elastic deformation with a similar pliance modeling of all kinds of notch flexure hinges with small
function to gears and joints in traditional rigid-link mechanisms. deflection, such as circular, hyperbolic, and elliptic flexure pivots
Compliant mechanisms can be classified into partially compli- [66–69]. Afterward, many investigations focused on modeling the
ant mechanisms and fully compliant mechanisms [1], and the lat- kinetostatic force–deflection relationship of flexure hinges for

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ter can be further subdivided into lumped, distributed, and hybrid their design. A comparative review on the accuracy of compliance
compliant mechanisms (see Fig. 1). Partially compliant mecha- equations for circular flexure hinges within a wide range of geo-
nisms often bear large deflection widely applied in areas such as metric parameters was provided in 2008 [70]. These investigations
statically balanced mechanisms [38–41], constant-force mecha- on the kinetostatics of flexure hinges provided powerful tools and
nisms [42–44], and joint of robots [45]. Fully compliant mecha- guidelines on designing multitudinous flexure hinges [71–75].
nisms are usually manufactured in monolithic structures, which As to the modeling of compliant mechanisms with small defor-
are widely applied in precision engineering with static and mation, Castigliano’s second theorem was utilized to model the
dynamic applications. A majority of the present fully compliant kinetostatics of bridge-type flexure amplifiers in 2003 [76], while
mechanisms are designed with small deflection but serial-parallel elastic beam theory was employed for the kinetostatics of this
configurations increase the kinetostatic and dynamic modeling type of amplifier in 2006 [77]. These two methods are now widely
complexity. On the other hand, nonlinearities in modeling compli- used to design compliant mechanisms with small deflections
ant mechanisms with intermediate or large deflections pose design [78–81]. However, inner-force analysis is required in these two
challenges for some newly emerging dynamic applications with methods, resulting in great complexity in serial-parallel compliant
large workspaces [46–50]. mechanisms. As a result, the compliance matrix method was devel-
As an important element in compliant mechanisms, research on oped for complex configurations [82–87]. Some theorized investi-
the displacement–force relationship of flexure hinges and flexible gations on the compliance matrix method for compliant
beams has been a popular topic [53]. The pioneer work can be mechanisms were also conducted [87–89], in which the matrix
traced back to the investigations of Paros and Weisbord [54], operation enabled easy analysis of complex compliant mechanisms.
wherein the theoretical equations of compliance for circular flex- Another aspect on the linear kinetostatic modeling of compliant
ure hinges were derived. On the other hand, elliptic integral solu- mechanisms was the finite element method. The theoretical com-
tions [55,56] and the chain algorithm [57] were two useful pliance matrix of circular flexure hinges was converted into the
techniques for the kinetostatic analysis of flexible beams with elemental stiffness matrix in the framework of the finite element
large deflection prior to the ground-breaking PRBM proposed in method in 2008 [90]. With similar conversion formulas, the
the 1990s [58–60]. Although the accuracy of elliptic integral solu- kinetostatic and dynamic modeling of all kinds of flexure-hinge-
tions is high, the modeling procedures of this method along with based compliant mechanisms were carried out based on the finite
the chain algorithm are relatively complicated. The disadvantage element method without dealing with the complicated issue of
was overcome by the PRBM wherein each flexure member variable cross section in flexure hinges [91,92].

Fig. 1 Conceptual illustration of flexure-based compliant mechanisms and rigid-body mechanisms as well as application
examples of compliant mechanisms [2,5,51,52] (Reprinted with permission from Wang and Xu [2]. Copyright 2018 by Elsevier;
Reprinted with permission from Qin et al. [5]. Copyright 2014 by IEEE; Reprinted with permission from Teo et al. [51]. Copy-
right 2014 by Springer; Reprinted with permission from Song et al. [52] (Open Access)): (a) conceptual comparison between
rigid hinges and flexure hinges, (b) conceptual comparison between rigid-body mechanisms and complaint mechanisms, and
(c) exemplary engineering applications of complaint mechanisms.

030802-2 / Vol. 72, MAY 2020 Transactions of the ASME

 In addition to investigations on the linear modeling of compli- (1) The first distinction is synthesis design of compliant mech-
ant mechanisms, much effort was also devoted to the large- anisms by employing the rigid-body-replacement method
deflection issue. In 2006, the beam constraint model was proposed [21,133], building block approach [31,32], screw theory
to provide a kinetostatic solution for flexure mechanisms when [134,135], FACT method [33,34] or topological optimiza-
the deflection is within 10% of the beam length based on the con- tion technique [22–30]. In the case of the rigid-body-
tinuum beam theory and Taylor series expansion [93–96]. The replacement method, compliant mechanisms are designed
characteristic of this method lies in the captured load-stiffening through creating the kinematic model of a basic rigid-link
effects. The beam constraint model was classified as an mechanism and then replacing rigid joints with flexure
intermediate-range kinetostatic method of compliant mechanisms hinges, while the conceptual configuration is searched with-
in “Handbook of Compliant Mechanisms” [97]. Afterward, this out a priori knowledge in the topological optimization. The
method was further enhanced by including shear effects [98] and challenge for synthesis design lies in identifying the best
extended for large-deflection analysis of flexure beams [99,100], configurations, while the target of kinetostatic and dynamic
namely, the chained beam constraint model. modeling of compliant mechanisms mainly focuses on their
On the other hand, since the prediction accuracy of the pseudo- performance prediction, influence analysis, and parametric

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rigid-body model is limited in estimating larger end slope of optimization by virtue of mathematical formulating. It is
flexible beams, efforts have been focused on improving the per- noted that the pseudo-rigid-body model was not only uti-
formance of the pseudo-rigid-body model by including more lized for the synthesis of compliant mechanisms [21] but
parameters, such as the 2R (R denotes a revolute pair), 3R, 5R, also widely applied to their kinetostatic and dynamic analy-
and RPR (P denotes a prismatic pair) pseudo-rigid-body models ses. Readers should distinguish these subtle differences for
[101–104]. Moreover, some multi-axis flexure hinges with com- clear understanding.
plex configurations and large deflection, such as the Cartwheel (2) The second concept is the term “kineto-elastodynamics”
flexure hinge, were analyzed based on the pseudo-rigid-body and the term “flexible multibody dynamics” in the context
model [105–107]. Recent progress on the pseudo-rigid-body of mechanical dynamics and in the field of aerospace
model was to include mass factors for the dynamic analysis of [136,137]. The objectives of these two disciplines are both
flexure mechanisms [108]. Moreover, the kinetostatics of large- on the dynamic analysis of rigid-body mechanisms or
deflection compliant mechanisms has emerged as an optimizing mechanical systems considering negative elastic deforma-
problem instead of the usual way of formulating the load equilib- tion and on how to eliminate the vibration at high speeds.
rium equations [109–112]. In these energy-based methods, the In contrast, compliant mechanisms make use of elastic
kinetostatic analysis of compliant mechanisms was resolved in the deformation to transmit motions and forces. Classical meth-
framework of the principle of elastic energy minimization. ods of relative, absolute, and hybrid coordinates in the flex-
During the past three decades, the dynamic issue has been also ible multibody dynamics and kineto-elastodynamic model
an important aspect of designing compliant mechanisms. How- [136,137] would not be directly applicable to the kineto-
ever, research on the dynamics of compliant mechanisms has not static and dynamic modeling of compliant mechanisms due
been extensively studied. Two books in the field of compliant to their distinguishing configurations and different charac-
mechanisms [1,97] mainly involve the kinetostatic issue. To sum teristics of deformation.
up, the previous dynamic modeling of compliant mechanisms was
mainly based on Lagrange’s method [113–130]. In recent years,
some newly dynamic modeling approaches, such as the pseudo- 2.3 Modeling Challenges for Compliant Mechanisms.
rigid-body model with mass factors [108] and the dynamic stiffness Challenges associated with the kinetostatic and dynamic modeling
modeling method based on d’Alembert’s principle [18,131,132], of flexure-based compliant mechanisms mainly arise from the fol-
were developed for the dynamic analysis of compliant mechanisms. lowing three inherent factors:
The existing Lagrange-based dynamic modeling methods for 2.3.1 Coupling of Kinematic and Elastomechanical Behav-
compliant mechanisms can be further generalized into three cate- iors. In rigid-link mechanisms, kinematics, statics, and dynamics
gories. When flexure hinges/flexible beams are modeled as elastic are usually analyzed in sequence and the kinematics is only
joints connected to rigid links and the dynamic model is built by dependent on geometric parameters decoupling from the kinetic
simplifying compliant mechanisms as the rigid-link mechanisms, behaviors. However, compliant mechanisms rely on the elastic
this version is known as the PRBM-based method [113–118]. For deformation to transmit forces and create desired motion DOFs.
example, a PRBM-based dynamic model was built for parallel- Modeling of compliant mechanisms requires simultaneous solu-
guided compliant mechanisms [114] based on Lagrange’s equa- tion of kinematic and elastomechanical behaviors.
tion and the dynamic equivalence. In the second category, the
equivalent input/output stiffness of compliant mechanisms is first 2.3.2 Serial-Parallel Configurations. Serial-, parallel- and
modeled by using a variety of kinetostatic methods, the dynamic their hybrid-kinematic configurations are frequently designed in
model can be then formulated by calculating elastic and kinetic flexure-guided manipulators due to their own advantages and dis-
energies based on Lagrange’s equation with motion degrees-of- advantages in terms of stroke range, mechanical bandwidth and
freedom (DOFs) as the variables, all these solutions can be classi- output stiffness [5–9]. The over-constraint configuration in many
fied as a lumped-parameter dynamic model [119–123]. The third compliant mechanisms poses some complexity for their kineto-
category is termed the distributed-parameter model with finite num- static and dynamic formulating.
ber of DOFs [124–132], in which compliant mechanisms are usu-
ally discretized into several submembers and the dynamic model is 2.3.3 Nonlinear Large Deflections. In addition to hard and
established by calculating total elastic and kinetic energies. For time-consuming modeling procedures at the level of large-deflection
example, a method similar to the rigid-multibody dynamics flexure beams, greater difficulty comes from modeling the whole
[19,126] was used to design flexure manipulators by several groups compliant mechanisms with large deflection. Although several model-
[127–130]; moreover, various finite element dynamic models have ing methods such as the pseudo-rigid-body-model and energy-based
been developed in the last decades [92,124,125]. methods [109–112] are available for modeling large-deflection com-
pliant mechanisms, more concise and accurate methods for dynamic
issues of complex compliant mechanisms are still intractable.
2.2 Distinction Between Two Sets of Terminologies. The
kinetostatic and dynamic modeling of compliant mechanisms 2.4 Classification of Modeling Methods for Compliant
should be distinguished from the following two relevant Mechanisms. Although versatile finite element packages such as
concepts: ANSYS are widely available, these packages give less insight into

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Fig. 2 Category of the kinetostatic and dynamic modeling approaches for compliant mechanisms. (It is noticed that synthesis
methods for compliant mechanisms, such as the building block approach, topology optimization, FACT method, and screw
theory, are not included here and can refer to Refs. [21–35,133–135]).

the intrinsic deformation of compliant mechanisms from the per- requirements of design [67], such as discrepant motion accuracy,
spective of designers. Moreover, their modeling step is somewhat out-of-plane stiffness, or different levels of stress concentration.
time-consuming and is not appropriate for the early stage of Generally, the target of kinetostatic modeling for flexure hinges is
design where conceptual ideas should be analyzed and evaluated to obtain their force–deflection relationship, namely, the compli-
in an intuitive sense and in a short period of time. Therefore, con- ance matrix. A general form of the compliance matrix of flexure
tinuous efforts have been devoted to developing parametric mod- hinges for planar problems can be expressed as follows [53,68]:
eling methods for the kinetostatic and dynamic analysis of 2 3 2 3
compliant mechanisms, as summarized in Fig. 2. Detailed surveys Dx=Fx 0 0 cx 0 0
for each category will be discussed in the following Secs. 3–6. C¼4 0 Dy=Fy Dh=Fy 5 ¼ 4 0 cy ca 5
0 Dy=Mz Dh=Mz 0 ca ch
2 31
3 Modeling of Flexure Hinges kx 0 0
¼ 4 0 ky ka 5 (1)
Flexure hinges undergo elastic deformation relative to adjacent
stiffer regions in compliant mechanisms. Normally, the difference 0 ka kh
of compliance and stiffness is reached by geometric characteris- where cx, cy, ca, ch and kx, ky, ka, kh are the compliance and stiff-
tics of deformation regions. Depending on these characteristics, ness coefficients. Fx, Fy, and Mz are the tensile, shear, and moment
flexure hinges are often designed with single or multiple axes. loads with corresponding deflections Dx, Dy, and Dh.
Notch-type flexure hinges with single axis are often profiled as Since the pioneer works on formulating circular flexure hinges
rectangular section (also known as leaf spring), circular, corner- by Paros and Weisbord [54], plenty of methods have been pre-
filleted, elliptic, parabolic, hyperbolic or other conic profiles and sented to describe the kinetostatics of all kinds of flexure hinges.
hybrid cross sections [15,138] (see Fig. 3). Each type of profiles In the literature, there are basically two categories for the compli-
provides unique mechanical properties to suit different ance modeling of flexure hinges, namely, analytical formulas and

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Fig. 3 Exemplary flexure hinges and the coordinate definition: (a) typical notch flexure hinges, (b) multi-axis flexure hinges,
and (c) coordinate system of planar flexure hinges

empirical equations; the former can be subdivided again into previous closed-form formulas can accurately predict the compli-
Castigliano’s second theorem [139–145], unit load method in ance characteristics of flexure hinges in a large range of geometric
mechanics of materials [69,146–149], and inverse conformal map- parameters. Smith et al. [151] developed empirical equations for
ping [150]. Compliance coefficients of single-axis flexure hinges the compliance of circular flexure hinges. Schotborghet al. [152]
in Eq. (1) can be further solved as the following unified integral derived empirical equations for circular and corner-filleted flexure
form based on analytical modeling methods [53,68]: hinges with dimensionless design graphs. Yong et al. [70] com-
8 pared the accuracy of several compliance models for circular flex-
ð ð
>
>
> Dx 1 l 1 Dy 12 l x2 E ure hinges with the finite elemental results as the benchmark and
>
< c x ¼ ¼ dx c y ¼ ¼ dx þ  cx established empirical compliance models for use in a large range
Fx Ed 0 hð xÞ Fy Ed 0 h3 ð xÞ jG
ð ð of geometric parameters. Other empirical compliance models for
>
> Dh 12 l 1 Dh 12 l x corner-filleted and multinotched flexure hinges can refer to those
>
>
: ch ¼ M ¼ Ed h3 x dx ca ¼ F ¼ Ed h3 x dx in Refs. [153–155].
z 0 ð Þ y 0 ð Þ
(2)
3.3 Other Works. Complex flexure hinges are combination
where E is the Young’s modulus, l and d are the length and out- of simple flexures, which can act as revolute and prismatic joints
of-plane thickness of a flexure hinge, G is the shear modulus, j is [138]. For the compliance modeling of multi-axis flexure hinges
the shape factor, h(x) is the in-plane thickness of the profile. It is such as the Cartwheel flexure hinge, some authors have suggested
noticed that the shear effect is included and Eq. (2) would be the pseudo-rigid-body model [105,106], compliance matrix
slightly different from expressions in some literature due to the method [156] and Ryu’s method [157]. Other contributions to the
different coordinate definitions. compliance formulating of flexure hinges, among many, were
those investigated by Lobontiu et al. [158–161], wherein a general
3.1 Analytical Formulas. Usually, design of notch-type flex- model of compliance was established for segmentally symmetric
ure hinges is confined to small deformation but variable profiles and curve-axis flexure hinges. Recently, the dynamic-PRBM and
increase the modeling complexity. Smith et al. [66] extended the a dynamic stiffness matrix were separately developed by Su et al.
compliance model in Ref. [54] for elliptic flexure hinges, but the [108] and Ling et al. [162] for the purpose of dynamic analysis of
shear effect is not a part of these two studies. Castigliano’s second large-deflection flexure hinges and notch flexure hinges with vary-
theorem is a popular method for the compliance modeling of flex- ing cross section.
ure hinges due to its straightforward concept and easy operation.
For example, closed-form compliance equations for corner- 3.4 Discussion on this Study. For notch-type flexure hinges,
filleted, elliptic, and hyperbolic flexure hinges were derived by the essence of compliance modeling is to solve similar integrals in
Lobontiu and coworkers [67,68,139,140]; compliance equation Eq. (2), while compliance formulating of complex multi-axis flex-
for V-shaped flexure hinges was built by Tian et al. [141]. Other ure hinges can be regarded as a modeling issue of compliant
similar compliance modeling include hybrid flexure hinges by mechanisms. Castigliano’s second theorem and the unit load
Zhang et al. [142]; semicircular flexure hinges by Horacio et al. method are two straightforward approaches for the compliance
[144], L-shape hinges considering high-order shear effects by modeling of notch flexure hinges. However, depending on the
Nguyen et al. [145] and others [143]. In addition to Castigliano’s geometric aspect ratio of flexure hinges, large deviation exists
second theorem, the unit load method is another useful technique among different compliance models and even in components of
for deriving the compliance of flexure hinges [69]. Chen et al. the same model. Several compliance models for circular flexure
[146,147] unified the profiles of several conic flexure hinges and hinges have been compared in a phenomenological sense [70].
obtained a generalized compliance model, while profiles of sev- However, the influence factors should be further investigated. For
eral flexure hinges were fitted as the rational Bessel curve for gen- instance, even the shear effect has already been considered, the
eral formulating of compliance by Vallance et al. [148] and the prediction accuracy in some previous compliance models still
rational B-spline curve in Ref. [75]. Apparently, compliance mod- deteriorates with the increase of the minimum thickness of flexure
els for the same flexure hinge in Refs. [68], [69], and [146] are hinges meaning other factors would still exist limiting the model-
identical and can be summarized as solving the integrals in Eq. ing accuracy; for another example, different components in one
(2) for different profiles of flexure hinges. compliance matrix derived by the same method have discrepant
prediction errors [66,69,70]. Some researchers recommended tai-
3.2 Empirical Equations. Empirical equations by finite ele- loring accurate components from different compliance matrices
ment analysis are favorable considering the fact that few of the [163]. However, it relies on experience and is intractable for

Applied Mechanics Reviews MAY 2020, Vol. 72 / 030802-5

designing new flexure hinges. Empirical modeling is a reliable later widely used in the field of compliant mechanisms [165,166].
way to analyze flexure hinges with high accuracy but it is time- From Ref. [76], one can observe that modeling procedures and the
consuming, noninsightful and nonuniversal for a new type of flex- resulting model are somewhat complicated even for such a simple
ure hinges. configuration. Even so, Castigliano’s second theorem is very use-
ful for some applications with the characteristics of guiding flex-
ure beams. For example, input/output stiffness of several XYZ
4 Kinetostatic Modeling of Compliant Mechanisms flexure-based manipulators were analyzed based on Castigliano’s
With Small Deflection second theorem, respectively, by Yong and coworkers [167–169],
There have been a considerable number of publications on the Kenton and Leang et al. [170] and Gu and coworkers [171]. More-
kinetostatic modeling of small-deflection compliant mechanisms over, as stated in Sec. 3, Castigliano’s second theorem was fre-
[5–12,164]. The implementation complexity on this issue lies in quently employed for the compliance modeling of all kinds of
the difficulty to deal with serial-parallel configurations often exist- notch-type flexure hinges [139–145]. In the case of more compli-
ing in compliant mechanisms [5–7]. In general, the kinetostatic cated design, Ueda et al. [172,173] derived the force–deflection
modeling of compliant mechanisms within the regime of small relationship of a flexure gripper to measure its tip force based on

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deflection falls into four categories: Castigliano’s second theorem, Castigliano’s second theorem; they also employed this method to
elastic beam theory, compliance matrix method, and finite ele- build the two-port force–displacement model of a nested multistage
ment method (matrix displacement method). flexure amplifier [174,175]. Other applications of this method can be
found in the literature, such as Yeom et al. [176] for an elliptic-type
amplifier; Du et al. [177] for a 6DOFs flexure mechanism as well as
4.1 Castigliano’s Second Theorem a vertical nanopositioner in Ref. [120].
4.1.1 Conceptual Idea. The key procedure of Castigliano’s 4.1.3 Discussion on this Study. The key feature of Castigliano’s
second theorem for the kinetostatic modeling of compliant mecha- second theorem is the concise form of strain energy, making it
nisms is to solve the total strain energies of all flexure members in particularly suitable for flexure-beam-guided compliant mecha-
compliant mechanisms, like the tensile, shear, and bending strain nisms with simple configurations, such as plenty of XYZ flexure-
energies. Input and output displacements of compliant mecha- based manipulators in Refs. [167–171]. However, it becomes
nisms can be calculated as the first-order differential of the total somewhat complicated to implement inner-force analysis for com-
strain energy with respect to their corresponding external force; pliant mechanisms with complex configurations.
this procedure can be formulated as
ð li 2 ð li ð li 2 !
X n
N i ð xÞ S2i ð xÞ M i ð xÞ 4.2 Elastic Beam Theory
U¼ dx þ dx þ dx (3)
i¼1 0 2EAi ð xÞ 0 2jGAi ð xÞ 0 2EIi ð xÞ 4.2.1 Conceptual Idea. The key procedure of elastic beam
theory for the kinetostatic modeling of compliant mechanisms is
@U @U similar to Castigliano’s second theorem in terms of energy form.
uin ¼ ¼ F1 ð fin ; fout Þ ; wout ¼ ¼ F2 ð fin ; fout Þ (4)
@fin @fout The first step is normally to express the inner force of each flexi-
ble beam as the function of external loads. Constrained reactions
where Ai and Ii are the area and moment of inertia of the cross sec- should be also calculated in advance as the function of external
tion of the ith flexure member. n is the total number of flexure loads by virtue of boundary conditions. Then, the deflection for-
members. F1 and F2 are the notation of functions. Ni(x), Si(x), and mula and the principle of energy conservation or the principle of
Mi(x) are the inner tensile force, shear force, and bending moment virtual work [178] in mechanics of materials can be employed to
of the ith flexure member as shown in Fig. 4, which should be formulate the kinetostatics of compliant mechanisms [80]
solved in advance as the function of external loads based on force
equilibrium equations and other necessary displacement boundary Mi ðxÞ ¼ EI  y00i (5)
conditions. In some cases, there is no external output force excited
on compliant mechanisms; thus, a dummy force is often assumed Xn ð li 2 ð li
1 1 Ni ð xÞ S2i ð xÞ
and setting it to zero later [76]. fin  xin  fout  xout ¼ dx þ dx
2 2 i¼1 0 2EAi ð xÞ 0 2jGAi ð xÞ
4.1.2 Key Advances. Castigliano’s second theorem was ð li 2 
Mi ð xÞ
employed to formulate the kinetostatics of bridge-type compliant þ dx (6)
amplifying mechanisms by Lobontiu and Garcia [76] and was 0 2EIi ð xÞ

Fig. 4 Kinetostatic modeling based on Castigliano’s second theorem: (a) exemplary complaint mechanism
and (b) notation of force in local flexure element

030802-6 / Vol. 72, MAY 2020 Transactions of the ASME

where yi is the deflection of the ith flexible beam. The prime 4.3 Compliance Matrix Method
denotes the derivative with respect to spatial coordinate x. Other 4.3.1 Conceptual Idea. The basic idea of this method is to
variables in Eqs. (5) and (6) are denoted in Fig. 4. In Eq. (6), the transfer the compliance of each flexure member from the local
key idea of the principle of energy conservation is that work done coordinate frame into an assigned reference coordinate system.
by the input force along its corresponding input displacement is Kinetostatics of compliant mechanisms can be modeled based on
equal to the tensile, shear, and bending strain energies as well as the principle of compliance summation in the serial chain and
the opposite work by the output force. stiffness summation in a parallel structure. As shown in Fig. 5, the
4.2.2 Key Advances. Elastic beam theory was widely used for output compliance matrix with respect to the fixed end for serial,
bridge-type compliant mechanisms [179–182]. Ma et al. [77] parallel and hybrid chains can be formulized as [82,83]
derived the analytical formula of the displacement amplification X
n
ratio for bridge-type compliant mechanisms based on elastic beam Coj ¼ Tji Ci ðTji ÞT (7)
theory. Subsequently, plenty of similar analytical formulas sprung i¼1
up, such as those by Mottard and St-Amant [183], Hwang et al. !1
X

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[184], Xu and Li [185], Chen et al. [79], Shao et al. [186], Liu and n
Yan [187], and Higuchi and Higuchi [188]. In view of the low Coj ¼ ðTji Ci ðTji ÞT Þ1 (8)
prediction accuracy of some previous models, Qi et al. [78] and i¼1
Ling et al. [80] separately proposed enhanced analytical formulas 2 !1
based on elastic beam theory. Moreover, other investigations were X
4
dedicated to this problem by accounting for the compliance of all CoA ¼ TA1 C1 ðTA1 ÞT þ4 TAi Ci ðTAi ÞT
members [81,189,190]. Wei and Shirinzadeh [191] proposed a i¼2
general model for kinetostatic analyzing of three kinds of bridge- !1 31
type flexure amplifiers. Ling [192] extended this general model X
8
þ TAi Ci ðTAi ÞT 5 (9)
for simultaneously analyzing their kinetostatics and dynamics
i¼5
with a concept of two-port dynamic stiffness model. The existing
kinetostatic formulas for bridge-type compliant mechanisms are
listed in Table 1. Detailed comparison on their prediction accu- where Ci is the compliance matrix of the ith flexure member in
racy can be found in Ref. [192]. As another typical application, the local coordinate. The coordinate transformation matrix Tji can
the kinetostatics of parallel four-link flexure mechanisms was ana- be found in the literature such as Refs. [82] and [83].
lyzed with elastic beam theory in Refs. [193] and [194]. Other
studies such as those in Refs. [195] and [196] can be also regarded 4.3.2 Key Advances. The compliance matrix method can be
as a variation of elastic beam theory. recognized as an efficient toolkit for a wide range of compliant
mechanisms with complex configurations [198–203]. Pham and
4.2.3 Discussion on this Study. Elegant analytical formulas Chen [198] employed the compliance matrix method for parallel
can be obtained with elastic beam theory that is insightful for compliant mechanisms, while this method was extensively used to
revealing the deformation characteristics of compliant mecha- analyze flexure-based precision positioning stages by the groups
nisms. The major disadvantage of this method, however, lies in its of Li, Xu [82–84,199] and other researchers [204,205]. However,
complicated inner-force analysis for complex configurations. it is difficult to obtain the detailed displacements in compliant
Hence, some members in compliant mechanisms, such as the mechanisms. To overcome this limitation, the effort has gone into
input port, are often assumed to be rigid for the conciseness of combining the compliance matrix method with the inverse-
modeling but with some loss of accuracy [77–81,192]. kinematic model [202]. It is noted that the input/output

Table 1 Theoretical models of the displacement amplification ratio for bridge-type compliant mechanisms

Methods Refs. Analytical models of displacement amplification ratio Configurations

Simplified model [77] Ramp ¼ coth

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
[76] Ramp ¼ ð L2 sin2 h  2LDx cos h  Dx2 þL sin hÞ=Dx
[197]  sin h  sinðh  DhÞ 
Ramp ¼  
cos h  cosðh  DhÞ 
ðh
[78]
cotudu .
sin h
Ramp ¼ hDh ¼ lnð Þ Dh
Dh sinðh  DhÞ
Kl L2 sin h cos h
Elastic beam theory [48] Ramp ¼ Parallel
[77] 2Kh cos2 h þ Kl L2 sin2 h Parallel
[188] Rhombic
[185] Kl L2 sin h cos3 h Parallel
Ramp ¼
2Kh þ Kl L2 cos2 h sin2 h
[78] Kl LH Parallel
Ramp ¼ ðH ¼ L tan hÞ
4Kh þ Kl H2
[80] 2 Rhombic
Kl L sin h cos h
Ramp ¼
12Kh cos2 h þ Kl L2 sin2 h
0
[80] Kl LH þ Kl Kh HL2 =2K h Parallel
Ramp ¼
ð4Kh þ Kl H Þ þ 2Kl Kh ð1=Kl þ H 2 =4Kh0 Þ
2 0

[186] L Rhombic
Ramp ¼
2Kh coth=Kl L þ L tan h

Others [81,189–192]

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Fig. 5 Exemplary kinetostatic modeling with the compliance matrix method: (a) serial, (b) parallel, and (c) serial-parallel

Fig. 6 Comparison of coordinate frame between the compliance matrix method and the finite element
method (matrix displacement method): (a) compliance matrix method and (b) matrix displacement method

displacements coincide with the points of actuation force in the [206–208]. The underlying idea of this method is also based on
above investigations [198–205]. The modeling procedure will matrix transformation but is different from the compliance matrix
become more complicated with multiple actuation forces, and method (Fig. 6). It can be viewed from Fig. 6 that the number of
when the solved displacement is not coincident with the points of degrees-of-freedom for planar flexure beams is six in the finite
actuation force. Lobontiu and coworkers [87,88] provided investi- element method, while the flexure beam is usually considered to
gations on the kinetostatic modeling of serial-parallel compliant be fixed at the end of the preceding rigid block in the compliance
mechanisms with multiple forces and the case of displacements at matrix method.
different points of actuation force. A general two-port kinetostatic
model of compliant mechanisms was also established based on 4.4.2 Key Advances. Considering the varying cross section in
the compliance matrix method in Ref. [205]. all kinds of notch flexure hinges, a mathematic formula transfer-
ring the theoretical compliance matrix into the elemental stiffness
4.3.3 Discussion on this Study. The compliance matrix matrix of flexure hinges was proposed by Wang and Zhang [90].
method has emerged as a versatile kinetostatic modeling tech- This formula is advantageous in the framework of the finite ele-
nique for compliant mechanisms with complex configurations. ment method and was later applied to all kinds of flexure-hinge-
Compared to Castigliano’s second theorem and elastic beam based compliant mechanisms [91,209]. Li and Hao [210] derived
theory, there is no need for inner-force analysis, thus the compli- the elemental stiffness matrix of flexible beams based on screw
ance matrix method by nature possesses some inherent advantages theory. Ling et al. [209] presented a straightforward kinetostatic
in terms of conciseness. This merit is particularly useful for modeling approach for serial-parallel compliant mechanisms by
serial-parallel compliant mechanisms. On the other hand, coupled directly building the nodal force equilibrium equation without
compliance between the shear force and bending moment is con- extra procedures of assembling the global stiffness matrix. A tree-
sidered in the compliance matrix method. One challenge of this structure method similar to the finite element method was pro-
method, however, lies in the fact that the output and input stiffness posed in Ref. [211] to transfer the loads into the local flexure ele-
are separately modeled with reduplicative procedures. In addition, ment but not the common way of stiffness matrix assembling in
the modeling procedure becomes complicated with multiple the finite element method. Some other modeling methods dis-
actuation forces and when the solved displacements are not coin- cussed in Ref. [212] can be also regarded as variants of the finite
cident with the points of actuation force [87,88]. element method.

4.4 Finite Element Method (Matrix 4.4.3 Discussion on this Study. The obvious benefit of the
Displacement Method) finite element method is that it can be applied to a wide class of
compliant mechanisms and has higher prediction accuracy over
4.4.1 Conceptual Idea. The finite element method has been other kinetostatic modeling approaches. Moreover, the inner dis-
employed in the field of compliant mechanisms for a long time placement information can be obtained with single or multiple

030802-8 / Vol. 72, MAY 2020 Transactions of the ASME

 8
>
> MðxÞ ¼ M þ S  ðL  xÞ ðsmall deflectionÞ
<
MðxÞ ¼ M þ S  ðL  xÞ  N  ðb  yÞ ðsecond  order theoryÞ
>
>
: MðxÞ ¼ M þ S  ða  xÞ  N  ðb  yÞ ðlarge deflectionÞ

(11)

Equation (10) together with Eq. (11) describes the kinetostatic

model of flexure beams under different levels of deflection. The
key problem associated with the kinetostatic analysis of large-
deflection beams is to solve the deflections fa, bg and the slope h
under the tip loads fN, S, Mg by solving Eqs. (10) and (11) as
well as necessary axial-deformation equations which are not
shown here. It is noticed that the constitutive relationship of mate-
rials in Eq. (10) are usually isotropic and homogeneous where the

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Fig. 7 Conception of the pseudo-rigid-body model: (a) contin-
uum model of large-deflection beams and (b) corresponding conventional elastic beam theory is applicable. Nonconventional
pseudo-rigid-body model materials such as plastic may be used in compliant mechanisms
and their constitutive relationship is different from Eq. (10).

actuation loads. However, degrees-of-freedom in the finite ele- 5.1 Pseudo-Rigid-Body Model
ment model are usually huge.
5.1.1 Pseudo-Rigid-Body Model of Flexure Beams at the Ele-
ment Level. Previous research on the pseudo-rigid-body model was
mainly for three types of flexure members: Fixed-free beams, short
5 Kinetostatic Modeling of Compliant Mechanisms flexure pivots, and fixed-guided beams [58–60]. Figure 8 shows a
With Large Deflection fixed-free flexure beam with its pseudo-rigid-body model. The beam
Compliant mechanisms with large deflection have been popular is decoupled into a joint with a torsional spring and two rigid-link
research topics [1,37,58,94]. In general, the present kinetostatic bars. Its deflection path is emulated by kinematic trajectory of rigid-
modeling methods for large-deflection analysis of compliant link mechanisms, while the force–deflection relationship is approxi-
mechanisms can be summarized as six categories: (1) pseudo- mated by the spring that represents the pivot’s stiffness. The key
rigid-body model, (2) beam constraint model, (3) elliptic integral issue is to find the position of the characteristic pivot and the charac-
solutions, (4) nonlinear finite element method, (5) chain algo- teristic stiffness of spring. The detailed procedure is to approximate
rithm, and (6) energy-minimization-based solutions. Some of the tip trajectory fa, bg and slope h of the pseudo-rigid-body model
these methods are aimed at single flexure beams while others can subjected to external loads fF, Mg with respect to the exact contin-
deal with compliant mechanisms. It should be noticed that the uum model by means of optimization strategies [1,58].
pseudo-rigid-body model, initially proposed for large-deflection Howell and coworkers [58–60] developed the pseudo-rigid-
problems, has been also widely used for modeling small- body model and provided the characteristic parameters for several
deflection compliant mechanisms. kinds of flexure beams subject to different end-force loadings
Figure 7 provides the kinetostatic model of a large-deflection based on the elliptic integral solutions [1]. Since one rotational
beam subjected to the tip loads of tensile force N, shear force S pivot is used in the original pseudo-rigid-body model, it is called
and bending moment M. The bending equation can be generally the 1R model. The pseudo-rigid-body model with variable parame-
formulated as ters and the case of different types of beams were studied by Dado
[213], Lyon [214], and Kimball and Tsai [215]. In an attempt to
overcome the limitation of dependence of the 1R model on the
dh d2 y=dx2
Mð xÞ ¼ EI ¼ EI h i3=2 (10) types of end-force loading, several variations of the pseudo-rigid-
ds body model were developed. For example, Su [101] presented a 3R
1 þ ð dy=dxÞ2
pseudo-rigid-body model with high accuracy for a larger range of
deflection and with load-independence coefficients, wherein the
Equation (10) can be simplified as a linear model if the term flexure beam was divided into four rigid segments with three elas-
“dy/dx” is ignored for small-deflection analysis. In addition, the tic joints. A set of new characteristic parameters of the 3R pseudo-
force balance equation of large-deflection flexure beams should be rigid-body model was re-optimized by Chen et al. [216] based on a
described after deformation, i.e., new multi-objective optimization strategy.

Fig. 8 Mechanical model of large-deflection flexure beams: (a) continuum model of large-deflection beams and (b) corre-
sponding pseudo-rigid-body model

Applied Mechanics Reviews MAY 2020, Vol. 72 / 030802-9

 As reported, the 3R model [101,216] can predict the kinematic configurations as well as for free vibration analysis of compliant
behaviors of large-deflection beams subjected to multiple end mechanisms. On the other hand, procedures of the pseudo-rigid-
forces. However, the 3R model becomes more complicated owing body model for modeling compliant mechanisms is usually
to the introduction of three pivots. Yu et al. [102] reduced the performing the kinematic solution with loop closure theory or
joints and proposed a 2R pseudo-rigid-body model. In addition to kinematic approximation; then, carrying out the static analysis by
the 2R and 3R models, a RPR model considering tensile effects the virtual work principle and at last establishing the dynamic
and a 5R model for offsetting inflection points were also devel- model based on Lagrange’s equation. It shows some complicacy
oped [103,104,217]. Besides, the pseudo-rigid-body model with for complex configurations. Therefore, kinematic approximations
shear effects in short pivots for robotic joints [218], circular-shape and mass lumping are usually adopted with limited accuracy.
flexure beams [219] and a general matrix for all kinds of pseudo- Moreover, characteristic parameters in the pseudo-rigid-body
rigid-body models [220] were studied by Su and Venkiteswaran. model were optimized under kinematic conditions which may be
Saggere and Kota [221] introduced a finite element type of model inaccurate for the dynamic analysis of compliant mechanisms,
in which the beam was divided into more than three segments especially for high-frequency solutions.
joined by torsional springs. Other developments on the pseudo-


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rigid-body model can be found in the works by Salinić and
5.2 Other Methods
Nikolić [222] and Valentini and PennestrI [223].
5.2.1 Beam Constraint Model. The beam constraint model
5.1.2 Applying the Pseudo-Rigid-Body Model to Compliant proposed by Awtar and coworkers [93–96] provides a closed-form
Mechanisms. The key idea of utilizing the pseudo-rigid-body model based on the continuum beam theory and Taylor series
model for the analysis of compliant mechanisms is to substitute expansion. Since a linear form of Eq. (10) was used in the beam
the flexure pivots and flexible beams in compliant mechanisms constraint model, it is mainly suitable for flexure beams within an
with the PRBM parameters, while other parts of compliant mecha- intermediate deformation range (10% of the beam length). The
nisms are assumed as rigid bodies. As a consequence, the pseudo- characteristics of this model lies in the captured load-stiffening
rigid-body model can be considered as a bridge connecting effects [94]. Furthermore, the constraint behavior of flexure beams
compliant mechanisms with rigid-link mechanisms. Modeling of in terms of their stiffness and error motion is specified with this
compliant mechanisms can thus be solved in the framework of the method [245]. Zhao et al. [246] developed the analytical static
traditional rigid-body mechanics. model for the Cartwheel flexure hinge while Malaeke and
Howell and Midha [224] presented in detail the pseudo-rigid- Moeenfard [245] investigated the mixed flexure-rigid-link mecha-
body model for the kinetostatic analysis of compliant mechanisms nisms with the beam constraint model. Recently, Chen et al.
based on the loop closure theory and the principle of virtual work. included the shear effect [98] and developed the beam constraint
Lyon et al. [225] established the kinetostatic model of parallel- model for large-deflection analysis of planar and spatial flexure
guiding and slider-crank compliant mechanisms based on the beams, namely, the chained beam constraint model [99,100], in
pseudo-rigid-body model, while Yu and coworkers [114,226] built which a flexible beam was divided into a few elements and each
the PRBM-based dynamic model of large-deflection parallel- element was modeled by the beam constraint model. The second-
guided compliant mechanisms. Other considerable investigations order Taylor series in the beam constraint model was expanded to
include those such as partially compliant mechanisms by Tanik the third order [247]. Moreover, the beam constraint model was
et al. [227], bistable compliant mechanisms by Pucheta and used to analyze grippers and accelerometers [248,249]. The
Cardona [228], constant-force mechanisms by Aten et al. [229], (chained) beam constraint model formulates medium/large-deflec-
Cartwheel flexure hinges by Pei and coworkers [105,106], to men- tions by capturing load-stiffening effects. Previous investigations
tion a few. A computational design tool of compliant mechanisms on this method were mainly focused on single beams or simple
for personalized animatronics was also developed by Disney compliant mechanisms. Further applying it for more complex
Research with the pseudo-rigid-body model [230]. In addition to compliant mechanisms with intermediate/large deflections, such
compliant mechanisms, the pseudo-rigid-body model was also as the increasingly used large-stroke flexure-based manipulators,
applied to analyze the large deflection of carbon nanotubes is still an open problem.
[231,232] and human spines to predict implant-induced changes
on motion [61]. 5.2.2 Nonlinear Finite Element Method and the Chain Algo-
Experiences in the last decades have also shown the pseudo- rithm. The finite element method can deal with complex geomet-
rigid-body model can be a potentially efficient tool for some types ric shapes by discretizing the structure into small elements.
of small-deflection compliant mechanisms. For example, the Kinetostatic and dynamic modeling of small-deflection compliant
pseudo-rigid-body model has been widely used for the kinetostatic mechanisms based on the finite element method is easy to be
and dynamic analyses of flexure grippers by modeling flexure implemented [92,125]. However, formulizing the global stiffness
hinges as equivalent joints with a spring, such as several types of matrix will become complicated with time-consuming iterative
flexure-based grippers designed by Chen and coworkers computations for nonlinear large-deflection analysis. Thus, there
[233,234], Wang et al. [235], Tian and coworkers [117,236,237], were limited parametric modeling cases of compliant mechanisms
and so on. Other pioneering works were applying the pseudo- by employing the nonlinear finite element method. In general, the
rigid-body model to the design and analysis of precision position- nonlinear finite element method is implanted into commercial
ing stages by Li and coworkers [238,239], Wan and Xu [240], software packages such as ANSYS and ABAQUS. On the other hand,
Tian and coworkers [241–243], Liu et al. [244], and so forth. the chain algorithm [57,250] also discretizes a structure into small
elements, but unlike the finite element method, elements in the
5.1.3 Discussion on this Study. The benefit in the use of the chain algorithm are treated in succession with no requirement of
pseudo-rigid-body model comes from transmitting compliant the inversion of assembled stiffness matrix [251]. The shooting
mechanisms into equivalent rigid-body mechanisms. This facili- method was often used to satisfy boundary conditions in the chain
tates the use of the wealth of existing rigid-body mechanics algorithm [251]. However, accuracy of the chain algorithm still
knowledge for the solution of compliant mechanisms. The use of depends on the resolution of discretization and the inserting inter-
pseudo-rigid-body model provides a quick way to test concepts val of loads. Salamon [252] utilized a graphical, user-driven itera-
and thus reduces the effort to obtain final concepts. Although the tive technique for better convergence of the chain algorithm,
2R, 3R, RPR and 5R pseudo-rigid-body models are more versatile, while Lan and Coulter [251,253] introduced an increment-loading
the 1R model was widely used for compliant mechanisms owing method into the chain algorithm to improve its accuracy. In addi-
to its simplicity. However, the load dependency in the 1R model tion, a chain algorithm element was created from pseudo-rigid-
makes it not well-suited for complex loads and complicated body segments and used in a chain calculation to accurately

030802-10 / Vol. 72, MAY 2020 Transactions of the ASME

predict the force–deflection relationship of flexure beams with established by calculating the kinematics with the loop closure
large deflection by Chase et al. [254]. It is noticed that investiga- theory, then performing the static analysis with the principle of
tions and applications on the chain algorithm were mainly focused virtual work and at last calculating the elastic/kinetic energies in
on single beams but less for compliant mechanisms [255,256]. sequence. The detailed procedure can be found in literatures such
as Refs. [113–118]. It is noticed that approximate kinematic rela-
5.2.3 Elliptic Integral Solutions. Owing to its high accuracy tionships between inner members and the input/output motion
and analytical form for the kinetostatic analysis of flexure beams, DOFs are often utilized to avoid the complicated solution of kine-
the elliptic integral method is a robust solution in the field of com- matics with the loop closure theory [263,264]. Since the input/out-
pliant mechanisms. The key idea is to express the solutions of put motion DOFs of compliant mechanisms are usually taken as the
large-deflection bending equations, namely, Eqs. (10) and (11), as variables of the PRBM-based dynamic model, it can be generally
the integral of trigonometric functions and the integral solutions considered as a lumped-parameter model in such a sense.
can be obtained by table look up [55,56]. The elliptic integral sol-
utions of fixed-fixed beams was provided by Lyon and Howell
[257], while Kimball and Tsai deduced the elliptic integral for
flexure beams with one inflection point [55]. Zhang and Chen 6.1.2 Lumped-Parameter Dynamic Model. A popular and ele-

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et al. [258] established a complete elliptic integral solution for gant methodology for the dynamic modeling of small-deflection
flexure beams with any number of inflection points. More compliant mechanisms is the so-called lumped-parameter
recently, kinetostatics of an XY micro positioning stage with the dynamic model with the input or output motion DOFs as the vari-
negative stiffness mechanism was analyzed by Wang and ables [119–123]. Indeed, the analytical formula of fundamental
coworkers [44,259] based on the elliptic integral solutions. From frequency can be obtained with this method. As shown in Fig. 9,
the previous advances, elliptic integral solutions were mainly lim- the input or output stiffness of compliant mechanisms is first mod-
ited to single beams. Research described in Refs. [44] and [259] eled by a sort of kinetostatic methods, such as the compliance
are examples for application in compliant mechanisms. In addi- matrix method or Castigliano’s second theorem. Afterward, elas-
tion, elliptic integral solutions were frequently applied to optimize tic and kinetic energies are calculated in the form of motion DOFs
the characteristic parameters in the pseudo-rigid-body model due as shown in Eq. (12). At last, the dynamic model of compliant
to its high accuracy [58,59,101,102,214]. mechanisms can be further derived by employing Lagrange’s
equation
5.2.4 Energy-Minimization-Based Kinetostatic Solutions. In 8
view of the difficulties associated with the kinetic solutions in pre- > 1 1
>
> 2 2
vious mechanics-model-guided methods for large-deflection com- < U ¼ 2 Kin  Xin or U ¼ 2 Kout  Xout
>
pliant mechanisms, attention was devoted to the kinetostatic    
modeling of compliant mechanisms in the presence of large >
> 1X n
_ 2 1X n
_ 2 ¼ F X_ 2 or T ¼ F X_ 2
>
> T ¼ M i  X þ J i  h
deflections by using energy-minimization-based approaches. For : 2 i¼1 i
2 i¼1 i in out

example, an investigation by the group of Su was devoted to the

kinetostatic analysis of large-deflection compliant mechanisms (12)
based on the principle of minimum potential energy and using
optimization strategies [109–111]. Chen and Ma [112] also pro- where Kin and Kout are the input and output stiffness of compliant
vided a framework for the kinetostatic analysis of large-deflection mechanisms calculated by a sort of kinetostatic methods, respec-
compliant mechanisms based on the principle of minimum poten- tively. Xin and Xout are the input and output motion DOFs. The
tial energy. Other similar solutions can be found in Refs. [260] superimposed dot indicates differentiation with respect to the
and [261]. Energy-minimization-based methods are generally time. Mi is the lumped mass of the ith rigid link or flexure member
kinetostatic solutions for large-deflection compliant mechanisms whose kinetics is prominent. Ji is the rotational moment of the ith
without solving mechanical equations, but how to extend it to the rigid link. F is the sign of a function.
dynamic issues would be difficult and is still an interesting open In Eq. (12), the elastic energy can be easily calculated with the
problem. prepared input or output stiffness at the stage of kinetostatic anal-
ysis, differing from the pseudo-rigid-body model wherein the elas-
tic energy is the summation of all characteristic springs [233–244]
6 Dynamic Modeling of Compliant Mechanisms and kinematic solutions are required for calculating the total elas-
Increasing applications of compliant mechanisms are extended tic energy. On the other hand, the kinetic energy in Eq. (12) is
to high speeds and high frequencies [5–12,262], thus determining dependent on the kinematics of compliant mechanisms and would
their dynamic behavior is necessary and interesting. This can be be intractable to obtain for complex serial-parallel configurations.
crucial for evaluating/optimizing natural frequencies and for Therefore, some of the previous investigations employed approxi-
designing controllers. To sum up, many of the previous dynamic mately kinematic relationships to calculate the kinetic energy
modeling of compliant mechanisms was mainly based on [119–123,265].
Lagrange’s method [113–130]. Some improved modeling Polit et al. [122] directly derived the dynamic model of a
approaches [108,131,132] were recently developed for the flexure-based precision positioning stage based on Lagrange’
dynamic analysis of compliant mechanisms. In the following, equation, while Ferrira and coworkers [263,264] derived the
recent advances on the Lagrange-based modeling methods and dynamic model of a parallel flexure mechanism based on Jacobian
these newly emerging approaches will be discussed in detail. matrix and Lagrange’ equation. The dynamic model and analyti-
cal fundamental frequency of several flexure-beam-guided XY
6.1 Lagrange-Based Methods. Over the past three decades, and XYZ nanopositioners were directly established by using
Lagrange-based dynamic modeling approaches have been devel- Lagrange’s equation by Yong and coworkers [167–169]. Other
oped for compliant mechanisms [113–130]. Generally speaking, similar investigations can refer to the works by Tian and
the reported approaches can be roughly classified into three cate- coworkers [265–268] for several kinds of flexure mechanisms.
gories, as shown in Fig. 9. For some compliant mechanisms with complex configurations,
exact solutions of kinematics are difficult; thus, approximate kine-
6.1.1 PRBM-Based Dynamic Model. In the case of pseudo- matics was employed. For example, the dynamic model of bridge-
rigid-body model, compliant mechanisms are first transmitted into type amplifiers was built with elastic beam theory and approximate
rigid-link mechanisms by substituting flexure pivots and flexible kinematic solutions by Nabae et al. [192]. In addition, the kineto-
beams with the pseudo-rigid-body model and its corresponding statics and dynamics of several XY precision manipulators were ana-
characteristic parameters. The dynamic model can thus be lyzed by combining the compliance matrix method and Lagrange’s

Applied Mechanics Reviews MAY 2020, Vol. 72 / 030802-11

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Fig. 9 Dynamic modeling of compliant mechanisms based on Lagrange’s method

equation with approximate kinematics by the groups of Li and finite element model at the first glance. However, they are differ-
coworkers [82–84,199,269] as well as other researchers [270–272]. ent especially in terms of the notation of variables (DOFs). The
variables in Ryu’s method are the motion DOFs of rigid links
6.1.3 Distributed-Parameter Dynamic Model. In the while the variables in the finite element method are nodal dis-
distributed-parameter model, the detailed DOFs of each flexure placements between flexure members. This discrepancy leads to
member or rigid-body member are taken as the variables, in which distinguishing modeling procedures for these two approaches.
compliant mechanisms are usually discretized into several subele-
6.1.4 Discussion on this Study. It is pointed out that
ments and the dynamic model is established by formulating the total
Lagrange-based dynamic modeling method is a commonly used
elastic and kinetic energies and combining them with Lagrange’s
technique in the field of compliant mechanisms with the concise
equation [124–130]. In the literature, two different approaches can be
form of energy. However, the challenge of this method lies in the
found for the distributed-parameter dynamic formulation of compliant
required kinematic solutions. The coupling of kinematic and elas-
mechanisms, namely, the finite element method and a rigid-
tomechanic behaviors in compliant mechanisms has led to compli-
multibody-similar dynamic model introduced by Ryu et al. [126].
cated kinetostatic modeling procedures, the whole modeling
The finite element method is versatile in handling complex con-
complexity will be further enlarged when involving the dynamic
figurations, leading itself well to model the kinetostatics and
issues. In addition, the usual practice of kinematic approximation,
dynamics of compliant mechanisms. Lobontiu et al. [161] and
mass lumping, or even mass neglecting for flexure hinges and
Zhang and Hou [273] derived three-node mass matrix of circular
flexible beams in some of the previous Lagrange-based dynamic
flexure hinges for dynamic analysis of compliant mechanisms,
models often led to limited prediction accuracy.
while a force-interpolation-based mass matrix of circular flexure
hinges was proposed in Ref. [125]. R€osner et al. [124] proposed
an improved finite element method with Krylov model reduction 6.2 Other Methods. In addition to the aforementioned
scheme for the purpose of real-time control simulation of compli- Lagrange-based dynamic models, some efforts have been contrib-
ant mechanisms, while the finite element method based on an ana- uted to the dynamic modeling of compliant mechanisms. For
lytical stiffness matrix formula was developed for the dynamic example, the transfer matrix method was employed for the fre-
modeling of flexure-hinge-based compliant mechanisms by Ling quency analysis of small-deflection compliant mechanisms in Ref.
et al. [92]. Other examples of using the finite element method for [280], which has the characteristics of easy programming and low
the dynamic modeling of flexure manipulators can be found in matrix order. However, the transfer matrix method is advanta-
Refs. [274–276]. geous for serial configurations and the existing solutions are diffi-
On the other hand, the use of rigid-multibody-similar dynamic cult for plenty of the serial-parallel substructures in compliant
approach proposed by Ryu et al. [126] seems to be a useful way mechanisms. Moreover, the dynamic modeling procedure in the
because of its concise modeling procedure. This method was present transfer matrix method is mutually exclusive for the
applied to the dynamic modeling of lumped compliant mecha- simultaneous kinetostatic analysis and extra procedures are
nisms or their composed flexure manipulators by several research required.
groups [127–130,277–279]. As shown in Fig. 9, the expression of For the large-deflection analysis of compliant mechanisms, the
dynamic model in Ryu’s method is closely similar to that of the mass property was included into the pseudo-rigid-body model in

030802-12 / Vol. 72, MAY 2020 Transactions of the ASME

Ref. [108], which can be considered as a dynamic pseudo-rigid- serial-parallel configurations. Therefore, more innovative solu-
body model. The characteristic parameters of mass for large tions are still required to achieve this goal:
deflection were optimized based on the linear continuum vibration
model in the framework of small deformation in Ref. [108]. Fur-
7.1 Accurate Modeling of Flexure Hinges With Variable
ther investigations would be interesting to compare the difference
Cross Section. There have been numerous kinetostatic models for
between the linear continuum vibration model and nonlinear
all kinds of flexure hinges. However, large error exists among dif-
large-deflection vibration model.
ferent analytical kinetostatic models and even in the components
More recently, a dynamic stiffness modeling methodology
by the same modeling method depending on the geometric aspect
based on d’Alembert’s principle was proposed by Ling et al.
ratio of flexure hinges [70]. Some other factors in addition to shear
[18,131,281,282] to model the simultaneous kinetostatics and
effects would influence the modeling accuracy. Empirical model-
dynamics of compliant mechanisms with small deflection in a
ing is a reliable way to analyze flexure hinges with high accuracy
static manner. As shown in Fig. 10, two parallel distributed- and
but it is time-consuming and non-insightful for a new type of flex-
lumped-parameter models were established based on the matrix
ure hinges. On the other hand, only the stiffness of flexure hinges
displacement method and an improved transfer matrix method.
but not their mass was included in some previous dynamic model-

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Indeed, it is a frequency-domain modeling method by employing
ing of flexure-hinge-based compliant mechanisms, which would
some concepts in the spectral method [283]. The advantage of this
be inaccurate for compliant mechanisms with distributed/hybrid
approach lies in the fact that the kinetostatics and dynamics of
compliance as well as for calculating high-order dynamic
compliant mechanisms can be simultaneously modeled where the
responses. Further studies are still pending for clarifying the influ-
dynamic modeling is simplified as a static-similar problem with-
ence factors on the modeling accuracy of flexure hinges with a
out the requirements of inner-force analysis and kinematic calcu-
wide range of geometric aspect ratio. Moreover, tailoring these
lation. Moreover, kinematic approximation and mass lumping are
influence factors to accurately and concisely formulate the kineto-
avoided. However, the resulting transcendental or polynomial
statics and dynamics for all kinds of flexure hinges is of great
eigen-problem for the solution of natural frequencies and the diffi-
importance.
culty to formulate the dynamic stiffness matrix of some irregular
members in compliant mechanisms with lumped compliance are
main disadvantages of this method [131,132]. 7.2 Efficient Kinetostatic/Dynamic Modeling of Complex
Serial-Parallel Compliant Mechanisms. The kinetostatic and
dynamic modeling of compliant mechanisms with small deflection
have been popular research topics for performance prediction and
7 Discussion geometric parameter optimization. Castigliano’s second theorem
Flexure-based compliant mechanisms have emerged as an and elastic beam theory are advantageous for relatively simple
increasingly used technique in modern precision manipulation, configurations due to their requirement of inner-force analysis.
robotics, and other engineering applications. Despite the advanta- The compliance matrix method was widely used for the kineto-
geous properties of compliant mechanisms, it is still challenging static modeling of compliant mechanisms with complex configu-
for researchers to perform accurate and concise modeling of com- rations. However, input and output stiffness are usually separately
pliant mechanisms owing to their coupling of kinematic and elas- modeled and it will become complicated for the solution of inner
tomechanical behaviors with large deflections and/or complex displacement with multiple actuation forces [87,88]. As to the

Fig. 10 Dynamic modeling procedures for compliant mechanisms based on d’Alembert’s principle

Applied Mechanics Reviews MAY 2020, Vol. 72 / 030802-13

dynamic modeling of compliant mechanisms by combining the  National Defense Technology Foundation Program of China
aforementioned kinetostatic modeling methods with Lagrange’s (Grant No. JSHS2018212C001).
equation, kinematic solutions are usually necessary and it would
become intractable for complex configurations. The finite element
method is general and powerful but often with multiple DOFs. References
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