CHAPTER 11

Excretion
 What you would learn
in this section…
(11.1) The Need for Excretion
(11.2) Excretion in Humans
(11.3) Urine Formation
(11.4) Osmoregulation
(11.5) Kidney Failure
 (11.1) The Need for Excretion

Chemical reactions in cells

The chemical reactions that take place in living cells can

be categorized into:
• anabolic reactions that build up complex molecules
• catabolic reactions that break down complex molecules

enzyme simple
substance enzyme
complex
substance

complex substance simple substances

 (11.1) The Need for Excretion

Chemical reactions in cells

Examples:
Anabolism
• Photosynthesis – synthesis of glucose using carbon
dioxide and water
• Formation of glycogen from glucose molecules
Catabolism
• Oxidation of glucose during respiration to form carbon
dioxide and water
• Deamination of proteins and amino acids to form urea
 (11.1) The Need for Excretion

Chemical reactions in cells

• Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions
within the body of an organism.

anabolism + catabolism = metabolism

• Metabolic reactions produce waste products that can

harm the body if they accumulate.
• Therefore, these waste products need to be removed.
 (11.1) The Need for Excretion

What is excretion?
• The process by which metabolic waste products and toxic
substances are removed from the body.

How is it important in the functioning of the

body? (2001/2A/4)
• These metabolic wastes have to be removed as they can
be harmful if allowed to accumulate in the body
 (11.1) The Need for Excretion

What is excretion?
• While most unicellular organisms excrete waste products
via simple diffusion, larger organisms have excretory
organs for excretion.
• Examples of excretory organs found in mammals:

skin lungs liver kidneys

 What you would learn
in this section…
(11.1) The Need for Excretion
(11.2) Excretion in Humans
(11.3) Urine Formation
(11.4) Osmoregulation
(11.5) Kidney Failure
 (11.2) Excretion in Humans

Waste products excreted by:

skin lungs liver kidneys

• urea • carbon • bile • urea

• excess dioxide pigments • excess water
water • excess • excess salts
in faeces
• excess salts water
through
in urine
in expired the
in sweat intestines
air
 (11.2) Excretion in Humans

Excretory product Organ Mode of excretion

Carbon dioxide Lungs Expired air
Urea and excess Kidneys Urine
mineral salts
Skin Sweat
Excess water Kidneys Urine
Skin Sweat
Lungs Expired air
(as water vapour)
Bile pigments Liver Faeces
(from breakdown of via the
haemoglobin) intestines
An average person pees about ______ times a year

1. 1000

2. 2000

3. 3000

4. 4000
White cast of uric
acid defecated
with the dark
faeces from a
lizard. Insects,
birds and some
other reptiles also
undergo a similar
mechanism.
 (11.2) Excretion in Humans

Components of the human urinary system

Kidneys
- produce urine
Ureters
- connect the kidneys to the
bladder
Bladder
- stores urine temporarily
Urethra
- passage through which urine is
discharged from the bladder
 (11.2) Excretion in Humans

Components of the human urinary system

inferior vena cava
right aorta
kidney
left renal artery
left renal vein

Hilus
- a concave depression where the
blood vessels are connected to the
kidney
Sphincter muscle
- controls the exit of urine from the
bladder. When the muscle relaxes, it
allows urine to flow into the urethra.
 (11.2) Excretion in Humans

Structure of a human kidney

- The kidney consists of an outer
fibrous capsule cortex and an inner medulla.

The cortex is the outer dark red

region that is surrounded by a
fibrous capsule.

The medulla is the inner pale red

region that contains 12-16 renal
pyramids.

Renal pyramids are conical

structures that contain a large
number of kidney tubules.
 **The nephron is
(11.2) Excretion in Humans the basic functional
unit of a kidney.
Structure of a human kidney

Kidney tubules ( = nephrons)

are narrow tubules that are
richly supplied with blood
vessels.
Urine is formed in the kidney
tubules (nephrons).

The renal pelvis is the enlarged

portion of the ureter inside the
kidney. The pyramids project
into this funnel-like space.
 (11.2) Excretion in Humans

Structure of a kidney tubule (= nephron)

Bowman’s capsule fibrous capsule

A cup-like structure found at

the beginning of the kidney cortex
tubule

Proximal convoluted tubule medulla

A short, coiled tubule that
straightens out as it enters
the medulla renal
pelvis

Loop of Henle pyramid

The U-shaped portion of the
tubule in the medulla
 Urine from several distal
(11.2) Excretion in Humans convoluted tubules are
drained into a common
Note: The collecting duct is not considered part of a collecting duct which
nephron; one collecting duct is connected to several leads into the renal pelvis
Structure of a kidney tubule (= nephron)
nephrons. (and hence, to the
ureter).
Distal convoluted tubule fibrous capsule

As the tubule re-enters the

cortex, it coils again to cortex
form the distal convoluted
tubule.
medulla
Collecting duct
The tubule opens into a
collecting duct which renal
passes through the pelvis

medulla and opens into pyramid

the renal pelvis.
Video: How kidneys work
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TzwPmz5V6Xg&feature=related
 (11.2) Excretion in Humans
Blood circulation at the kidney tubule

1 Blood enters the 3

Bowman’
kidney via the renal s capsule 3 Arterioles branch into
artery. a mass of blood
glomerulus
capillaries
2 (glomerulus)
Renal 2 4
artery renal 4
artery Blood leaves
branches glomerulus and enters
into many 1 blood capillaries
arterioles 7
6 surrounding the
7 kidney tubule
Blood exits renal 5
the kidney vein
via the 5
renal vein Blood capillaries
6 unite to form venules
Venules join to
form renal vein.
 What you would learn
in this section…
(11.1) The Need for Excretion
(11.2) Excretion in Humans
(11.3) Urine Formation
(11.4) Osmoregulation
(11.5) Kidney Failure
 Note:
(11.3) Urine Formation renal corpuscle =
Malpighian corpuscle
=Bowman’s capsule +
glomerulus

Urine formation involves

two main processes within
the kidney tubule:
• Ultrafiltration (occurs at
the renal corpuscle)
• Selective reabsorption
(occurs at the renal
tubule)
 (11.3) Urine Formation

Ultrafiltration
The mechanical filtration that occurs at the renal corpuscle
is called ultrafiltration.
afferent arteriole
Ultrafiltration occurs (larger)
efferent arteriole
(smaller)
because:
• there is a high glomerulus

hydrostatic blood
Bowman’s
pressure at the capsule
glomerulus, and
• the basement
membrane around the filtrate

glomerular capillaries is
like a fine filter.
 (11.3) Urine Formation

Ultrafiltration
The two conditions required for ultrafiltration to take
place:
• Force: high hydrostatic pressure
• Filter: basement membrane around glomerular
blood capillaries is partially permeable and acts
as a filter
 ** Always state the size
(11.3) Urine Formation of molecules and relate
to permeability of
basement membrane of
Ultrafiltration
glomerulus during
ultrafiltration
What is in the filtrate?
afferent arteriole efferent arteriole
• Water (larger) (smaller)

• Small molecules such as glomerulus

glucose, amino acids,
mineral salts, urea. Bowman’s
capsule
What is not filtered out?
• Large molecules such
as plasma proteins and
red blood cells
 (11.3) Urine Formation

Selective reabsorption
• Allows useful substances to be
reabsorbed into bld capillaries
• > 80% of filtrate reabsorbed at
the proximal convoluted tubule
• In a healthy person, ALL glucose,
amino acids, and most salts are
selectively reabsorbed
 through diffusion and active
transport.
• Most of water in the filtrate is
reabsorbed here
 through osmosis.
 (11.3) Urine Formation

Selective reabsorption
• At the loop of Henle, some
water is reabsorbed from the
filtrate in the tubule.
• At the distal convoluted tubule,
some water and salts are
reabsorbed.
• At the collecting duct, some
water is reabsorbed.

• The remaining fluid in the tubule (containing

metabolic wastes like urea, excess water and
salts)passes out of the collecting duct into the
renal pelvis to form urine.
• The loop of Henle will be longer for mammals that
lived in desert habitat compared to those that lived in
water habitat
• allows for greater reabsorption of water which is
important to mammals living in desert habitat
 What you would learn
in this section…
(11.1) The Need for Excretion
(11.2) Excretion in Humans
(11.3) Urine Formation
(11.4) Osmoregulation
(11.5) Kidney Failure
 (11.4) Osmoregulation

• The water potential of blood plasma red blood cell

needs to be kept relatively constant.
• If there are large fluctuations in
dilute
the water potential, numerous concentrated
plasma
plasma
problems can occur.
• For example, if the blood plasma
is too concentrated, the red blood
cells (rbcs) would undergo crenated red burst red
blood cell blood cell
crenation.
• If the blood plasma is too dilute, the
RBCs would absorb water, expand
and be haemolysed .
 (11.4) Osmoregulation

• The regulation of the water potential of

blood plasma is called osmoregulation.

• The water potential of blood plasma is

controlled by anti-diuretic hormone
(ADH).

• ADH is produced by the hypothalamus pituitary

and released by the pituitary gland. gland
hypothalamus

• ADH increases reabsorption of water by

the kidney tubules.
 (11.4) Osmoregulation

• Since kidneys help to regulate the concentration of

water and salts in blood, they are called
osmoregulators.
• Osmoregulation maintains the concentration of
water and salts within an organism. It is a type of
homeostasis.
• As blood volume is controlled by removing excess
salts and water, blood pressure is also indirectly
regulated by osmoregulation.
• High blood pressure can
cause blood vessels in the
brain to burst, and this
would result in a stroke.
• To prevent this, doctors can
prescribe drugs called
antidiuretics
• Antidiuretcs work by
reducing the production of
ADH
(11.4) Osmoregulation

The mechanism of osmoregulation

• The amount of water reabsorbed

in the kidney tubules is controlled
by ADH.
• ADH secretion by the pituitary
gland depends on ‘instructions’
from the hypothalamus.
• The hypothalamus has receptors
that detect changes in blood
water potential.
(11.4) Osmoregulation

The mechanism of osmoregulation

• If there is excess water in the

blood, less ADH is secreted 
less water is reabsorbed. The
urine excreted is more dilute.
• If the body is dehydrated,
more ADH is secreted 
more water reabsorbed. The
urine excreted is more
concentrated.
 (11.4) Osmoregulation

Osmoregulation (excess water)

Pituitary gland
Water potential of hypothalamus secretes less ADH
plasma
into bloodstream
increases
ABOVE NORM
Cells of walls of collecting
Water potential
ducts become less
Large intake of of plasma
permeable to water 
water (e.g. drinking) returns to
less water reabsorbed
normal level
from collecting ducts into
• Larger volume of urine produced blood capillaries
• Urine produced more diluted
 (11.4) Osmoregulation

Osmoregulation (dehydration)

Pituitary gland
Water potential of hypothalamus secretes more ADH
plasma
into bloodstream
decreases
BELOW NORM
Cells of walls of collecting
Water potential
ducts become more
Loss of water (e.g. of plasma
permeable to water 
through sweating) returns to
more water reabsorbed
normal level
from collecting ducts into
• Smaller volume of urine produced blood capillaries
• Urine produced more concentrated
 What you would learn
in this section…
(11.1) The Need for Excretion
(11.2) Excretion in Humans
(11.3) Urine Formation
(11.4) Osmoregulation
(11.5) Kidney Failure
 (11.5) Kidney Failure

Kidney failure and dialysis

hemodialyser
(where filtering takes place) • Kidneys are excretory organs
and osmoregulators.
dialysis
machine
• Each person has two kidneys.
Therefore, when one kidney fails
to function, the person can still
lead a normal life.
• If both kidneys fail, the person
requires either a kidney
transplant or dialysis.
filtered blood blood flows
returning to body to dialyser • A dialysis machine mimics the
function of a kidney.
 (11.5) Kidney Failure
How dialysis works
1 artery
Blood is 2 Blood is pumped into the
drawn from a filtered dialysis machine through
vein in the blood a tubing
patient’s arm 1
6
vein
dialysis tubing 3 The tubing is bathed
6 The filtered used dialysis fluid in a dialysis fluid and
blood is the tubing is partially-
returned to a 3
2 permeable
vein in the
pump 5 4
patient’s arm 4 Small molecules
5 (e.g. urea) and
Larger molecules dialysis fresh
metabolic waste
(e.g. platelets and fluid dialysis products diffuse out
dialysis of the tubing
blood cells) remain fluid
machine
in the tubing
 (11.5) Kidney Failure

How dialysis works

1 The dialysis fluid has the
2 Patient’s blood same composition as
enters dialysis blood but it lacks the
machine protein nitrogenous waste.
molecule dialysis machine
partially permeable
membrane dialysis fluid
patient’s blood
2

1
dialysis fluid
urea essential red blood cell
molecule mineral salt
3 Blood flows in the direction opposite to
the flow of the dialysis fluid.
 (11.5) Kidney Failure Animation of kidney dialysis process:
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/human2/andial.html

How dialysis works

6 Filtered blood
is returned to
protein the patient
molecule dialysis machine
partially permeable
membrane dialysis fluid
patient’s blood filtered blood
5 6

dialysis fluid with dialysis fluid

waste products urea essential red blood cell
5 molecule mineral salt
Removal of 4 A concentration
metabolic 4 gradient is set up
waste products between dialysis
from the blood fluid and the blood.
 (11.5) Kidney Failure

Features of dialysis machine

• The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of
essential substances as healthy food
• The dialysis fluid does not contain metabolic waste
products
• The tubing in the machine is narrow and coiled to provide
a higher SA to V ratio to increase rate of diffusion
• The tubing in the machine is long to provide sufficient
time for diffusion
• The direction of the blood flow is opposite to the flow of
the dialysis fluid to create a steep concentration gradient
to increase rate of diffusion