The Cardiovascular System

 A closed system of the heart and blood vessels

 The heart pumps blood
 Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts of the body
 Functions of the cardiovascular system
 Transport oxygen, nutrients, cell wastes, hormones to and from cells


Pulmonary circulation

-Blood flows from the right side of the heart to the lungs and back to the left side of the heart

 Blood is pumped out of right side through the pulmonary trunk, which splits into pulmonary arteries and takes oxygen-poor blood to lungs
 Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart from the lungs via pulmonary veins

Chambers and Associated Great Vessels

-Interatrial septum

 Separates the two atria longitudinally

-Interventricular septum

 Separates the two ventricles longitudinally

-Heart functions as a double pump

 Arteries carry blood away from the heart

 Veins carry blood toward the heart

-Double pump

 Right side works as the pulmonary circuit pump

 Left side works as the systemic circuit pump

Heart Valves

 Allow blood to flow in only one direction, to prevent backflow

-Atrioventricular (AV) valves—between atria and ventricles

 Left AV valve: bicuspid (mitral) valve

 Right AV valve: tricuspid valve

-Semilunar valves—between ventricle and artery

 Pulmonary semilunar valve

  Aortic semilunar valve

 Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the myocardium

Cardiac Circulation

 Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the myocardium

 The heart has its own nourishing circulatory system consisting of:

-Coronary arteries—branch from the aorta to supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood

-Cardiac veins—drain the myocardium of blood

-Coronary sinus—a large vein on the posterior of the heart; receives blood from cardiac veins

 Blood empties into the right atrium via the coronary sinus

Blood Vessels

 Blood vessels form a closed vascular system that transports blood to the tissues and back to the heart

-Vessels that carry blood away from the heart

 Arteries and arterioles

-Vessels that play a role in exchanges between tissues and blood

 Capillary beds

-Vessels that return blood toward the heart

 Venules and veins

Gross Anatomy Of Blood Vessels

 Major arteries of systemic circulation

-Aorta

 Largest artery in the body

 Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
 Regions

-Ascending aorta—leaves the left ventricle

-Aortic arch—arches to the left

-Thoracic aorta—travels downward through the thorax

-Abdominal aorta—passes through the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity

-Arterial branches of the ascending aorta

 Right and left coronary arteries serve the heart

Physiology of Circulation

 Vital signs

-Measurements of arterial pulse, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and body temperature

 Arterial pulse

-Alternate expansion and recoil of a blood vessel wall (the pressure wave) that occurs as the heart beats

-Monitored at pressure points in superficial arteries, where pulse is easily palpated

-Pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per minute at rest, in a healthy person

Blood pressure
-The pressure the blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessels

-The force that causes blood to continue to flow in the blood vessels

Developmental Aspects of the Cardiovascular System

 In an embryo
-The heart develops as a simple tube and pumps blood by week 4 of pregnancy
-The heart becomes a four-chambered organ capable of acting as a double pump over the next 3 weeks

 Umbilical cord
-Carries nutrients and oxygen from maternal blood to fetal blood
-Fetal wastes move from fetal blood to maternal blood
-Houses:
 One umbilical vein, which carries nutrient- and oxygen-rich blood to the fetus
 Two umbilical arteries, which carry wastes and carbon dioxide–rich blood from the fetus to placenta
Blood
 Blood transports everything that must be carried from one place to another, such as:
-Nutrients
-Wastes
-Hormones
-Body heat
Components of Blood
 Blood is the only fluid tissue, a type of connective tissue, in the human body
 Components of blood
 Formed elements (living cells)
 Plasma (nonliving fluid matrix)

 When blood is separated:

-Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45 percent of blood, a percentage known as the hematocrit)
-Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1 percent of blood)
 Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between the erythrocytes and plasma
-Plasma rises to the top (55 percent of blood)
Plasma

 90 percent water
 Straw-colored fluid
 Includes many dissolved substances

Nutrients

Respiratory gases

Hormones

Plasma proteins

Waste products

Plasma proteins

-Most abundant solutes in plasma

-Most are made by the liver

-Include:

 Albumin—an important blood buffer and contributes to osmotic pressure

 Clotting proteins—help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
 Antibodies—help protect the body from pathogens
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Organs of the Respiratory System

 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs—alveoli

Functional Anatomy of the RespiratorySystem

 Gas exchanges between the blood and external environment occur only

in the alveoli of the lungs

 Upper respiratory tract includes passageways from the nose to larynx

 Lower respiratory tract includespassageways from trachea to alveoli

-Passageways to the lungs purify, humidify, and warm the incoming air
The Nose

 The only externally visible part of the respiratory system

-Nostrils (nares) are the route through which air enters the nose

-Nasal cavity is the interior of the nose

-Nasal septum divides the nasal cavity

 Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface

 The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa, which

-Moistens air

-Traps incoming foreign particles

-Enzymes in the mucus destroy bacteria chemically

The Pharynx
 Commonly called the throat
 Muscular passageway from nasal cavity to larynx
-Continuous with the posterior nasal aperture
 Three regions of the pharynx
1. Nasopharynx—superior region behind nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx—middle region behind mouth
3. Laryngopharynx—inferior region attached to larynx

 Oropharynx and laryngopharynx serve as common passageway for air and food

Epiglottis routes food into the posterior tube, the esophagus

 Pharyngotympanic tubes open into the nasopharynx

 Drain the middle ear

 Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue that play a role in protecting the body from infection

-Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid), a single tonsil, is located in the nasopharynx

-Palatine tonsils (2) are located in the oropharynx at the end of the soft palate

-Lingual tonsils (2) are found at the base of the tongue

The Larynx
 Commonly called the voice box
 Functions
 Routes air and food into proper channels
 Plays a role in speech
 Located inferior to the pharynx
 Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages
 Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple) is the largest

Epiglottis

-Spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage

-Protects the superior opening of the larynx

-Routes food to the posteriorly situated esophagus and routes air toward the trachea

-During swallowing, the epiglottis rises and forms a lid over the opening of the larynx

 Vocal folds (true vocal cords)

-Vibrate with expelled air

-Allow us to speak

 The glottis includes the vocal cords and the opening between the vocal cords
The Trachea

 Commonly called the windpipe

 4-inch-long tube that connects to the larynx
 Walls are reinforced with C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage, which keep the trachea patent (open)
 Lined with ciliated mucosa

-Cilia beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air

-Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs

The Main Bronchi

 Formed by division of the trachea

 Each bronchus enters the lung at the hilum (medial depression)
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than left
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches

The Lungs

 Occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the central

mediastinum
 Apex of each lung is near the clavicle (superior portion)
 Base rests on the diaphragm
 Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures

-Left lung—two lobes

-Right lung—three lobes

Respiratory Zone Structures and the Respiratory Membrane

 Terminal bronchioles lead into respiratory zone structures and terminate in alveoli

Respiratory zone includes the:

-Respiratory bronchioles

-Alveolar ducts

-Alveolar sacs

-Alveoli (air sacs)—the only site of gas exchange

 Conducting zone structures include all other passageways

 Alveoli

-Simple squamous epithelial cells largely compose the walls

-Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs

 Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli

 Respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier)

-On one side of the membrane is air, and on the other side is blood flowing past

-Formed by alveolar and capillary walls

 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion

-Oxygen enters the blood

-Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli

Respiratory Physiology
 Functions of the respiratory system
 Supply the body with oxygen
 Dispose of carbon dioxide
 Respiration includes four distinct events (discussed next)
 Pulmonary ventilation
 External respiration
 Respiratory gas transport
 Internal respiration

 Four events of respiration

1. Pulmonary ventilation—moving air into and out of the lungs (commonly called breathing)
2. External respiration—gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli
 Oxygen is loaded into the blood
 Carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood

Mechanics of Breathing

 Pulmonary ventilation

-Mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity

-Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases to equalize pressure

 Two phases of pulmonary ventilation

-Inspiration = inhalation

 Flow of air into lungs

-Expiration = exhalation

 Air leaving lungs

Inspiration (inhalation)

-Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract

-Intrapulmonary volume increases

-Gas pressure decreases

-Air flows into the lungs until intrapulmonary pressure equals atmospheric pressure

Expiration (exhalation)

-Largely a passive process that depends on natural lung elasticity

-Intrapulmonary volume decreases

-Gas pressure increases

-Gases passively flow out to equalize the pressure

-Forced expiration can occur mostly by contraction of internal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 Factors affecting respiratory capacity

Size

Sex

Age

Physical condition

 Tidal volume (TV)

-Normal quiet breathing

-500 ml of air is moved in/out of lungs with each breath

 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
 Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume
 Usually around 3,100 ml
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
 Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a tidal expiration
 Approximately 1,200 ml
 Residual volume
 Air remaining in lung after expiration
 Cannot be voluntarily exhaled
 Allows gas exchange to go on continuously, even between breaths, and helps keep alveoli open (inflated)
 About 1,200 ml