Technical Handbook Welding for maintenance and repair 2.732 923.02 usTABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword Safety Fundamentals 1.1. Loads on structural elements 2 1.2 Types of loading 2 1.3 Material behaviour under different loads 1.4 Notches in components 1.4.1 Mechanical notches oe 5 1.42 Metallurgical notches. 6 1.43 Shape-induced notches. 6 1.44 Notch effects 8 1.45 Practical experience 9 4.5. Avoiding notches 1.54 Grinding drag lines 10 1.5.2 Grinding tools 10 153 Runoff tabs. "1 1.54 Attaching auxiliary elements 2 1.85 ENd8 Of NDS wr sosnnnnnnnnnnn so “ susnanenes 18 1.5.6 Undisturbed flow of forces. 13 1.5.7 Ribs and stifeners... ; ; : “ 4 1.5.8 Welding technique. 5 1.59 Welding of ‘tempering beads" 16 1.5.10 Buffering of weld edges: 16 1.5.11 Welding sequence. 7 2. Planning of repair and reinforcing work for steel components 2.1 Causes of damage 18 22 Preparatory measures... sossnnnnnonnnninnnnnnnnnnnn snes 18 2.3. Scope of repair work 23.1 Scrapping of components 19 232 Temporary repair 19 233 Permanent repair 2 2.4 Precautionary examinations ...unnm sn stn 22 2.5 Detection of cracks and other defects 2.5.1. Examination for surface cracks witn the dye-penetration test 22 25.2 Examination for surface cracks with the magnetic powder test 22 253 Ultrasonic testing 22 Repair welding techniques 3.1. Gouging out and welding of cracks 23 3.2 Cracks in hub connections 82.1 Cracking along the center of the seam 25 822 Sharp, exactly radial crack along the unchamfered edge .. 26 3.3 Welding on of a metal cylinder by the back-step technique. 27 33.1 Working sequence. 27 3.4 Cracks in box-type sections. 29TABLE OF CONTENTS ‘3.4.1 Opening of box-type sections 3.4.2 Removing parts of a chord plate by flame-cutting 3.4.3 Backing strips 3.5 Recommended groove shapes for manual walding with electrodes 85.1 Butt joints 352 — Toints, 3,6 WORKING SEQUENCE FOR WELD SEAMS 36.1 Butt welds 3.6.1.1 V-butt weld. 3.6.1.2 Double-V butt weld 3.6.1.3. V-butt weld with backing strip 362 — Toint. oo o 2.6.2.1 T joints (fig. 52), accessible from 2 sides 3.6.2.2 Toints with backing stip (fi. 54), accessible from 1 side 3.7 Closing of working openings, renewal of component areas. 37.1 Closing a working opening 87.2 Closing a web-plate opening 37.3 Replacing a chord-plate section 8.7.3.1 Salient chord plate... 8.7.3.2 Recessed chord plate . a 3.7.3.3 Possible causes of damage to chord plates 3.7.3.4 Repair of a boom with a salient chord Reinforcing of steel components 4.1. Reinforcing plates 4.1.4 Dimensions 41.2 Shapes of reinforcing plates .... 44.3 Welding 8018... 4.4.4 Fitting of reinforcing plates 4.15 Weld seams of T-oints 42 Shaping plates for repairs 4.3 Reinforcing by shape improvements 43.1 — Endof ribs 432 Open sections/closed sections 43:3. Reinforcing by build-up welding... 4.3.4 Improvement of curved sections inribs Materials, filler metals for welding 5.1 Materials in welded components 5.1.1 Component materials 5.2. Filler metals for welded components dependng on partner materials, ‘and welding techniques. 8 888 eegeeee BiFERBB BRS286 Bags 61TABLE OF CONTENTS Heat treatment of materials 64 62 63 64 65 66 67 Cold bending of plates Preheating for tacking, welding, gouging and flame-cutting ... Hot bending of plates Hot straightening of plates. Stress-telief annealing of steel components, Stress-relieving of steel components 65.1 Warming of components 65.2 — Peening of weld seams 65.2.1 Method of pening, 65.22 — Peening tools Treatment of filler metals. Temperature monitoring Build-up welding 84 82 83 ‘Addition of missing / worn-out material 8.1.1 Build-up welding in drill holes 8.1.2 Build-up welding on worn-out threeds Correcting of component shapes to improve the flow of forces. Build-up welding as a protection against wear Wear protection (hard-tacing) ot 92 as 94 a5 26 ez 98 99 Fundamentals . Build-up welding of wear protection layers, 9.2.1 Build-up welding patterns. 9.2.2 — Special hints Filler metals 93.1 Forbutfer layers 93.2 — Forhard-facing layers Repair of build-up welds 9.4.1 State of wear a 9.42 Identification of butfer and har-facng layers Repair of cracks in build-up welds. Welding on wear-resistant steel plates or steel strips 9.6.1 Arrangement of plates’strips . 96.2 Bending of strips 9.6.3 Working instructions 9.64 Filler metals Welding of plates or strips with wear-esistart coatings 9.7.1 Working instructions Welding of wear-resistant studs 9.8.1. Working instructions o Welding cutting edges onto digging tools of excavators 9.9.1 Working sequence. 9.9.2 Welding sequence (fig. 39) and filer metals BEBB 69 69 69 70 mn a” 74 75 75 28g ae siaa BEER 88TABLE OF CONTENTS 10. Repair of cast-iron components by welding 10.1 Spheroidal-graphite cast iron 10.1.1 Hotwelding 9 10.1.2 Cold welding 9 102 Flaky-graphite cast iron 102.1 Hotweldingn 10.2.2 Cold welding 10.2.3 Repair of components with the "interlock" technique. 11. Touching up paint coatings in repair areas ‘Appendix Comparison: old designation - new designation... Part nos. for filler metals. Conversion from foot (FuB) and inch (Zoll) to metric measure. Conversion for units of length ‘Temperature units and conversion formulas Hardness - strength comparisen ...... 888GENERAL Foreword In spite of proper design, perfect stress analysis, ‘meticulous manufacturing, attentive maintenance and responsible operation, damage to parts of building machines and mobile industrial handling equipment cannot always be completely avoided. Normal wear in areas subject to mecanical or abrasive action must always be reckoned with, Experience in the early detection of damage and the causes thereof, the choice of appropriate repair mea- sures and consistent, workmanlike execution contri- bute to @ high availability of construction machines. Bofore beginning with welding, gouging, hot and cold bending and heat treatments, the person in charge of the repair must be familiar with the material of the ‘component. ‘The present Technical Handbook has been compiled from many useful hints supplied by welding experts, as well as from experience gathered in the field of welding. They contribute to the proper planning and execution of repair and reinforcing work. It is taken for granted that the personnel in charge of this work possesses the required expert knowledge. Moreover, itis important to take the particulars of the respective case of damage into consideration. This latest edition of the Technical Handbook "Weld- ing for maintenance and repair" SN 2 114 500.00 is a revised and updated version and takes account of EN standards. Some sections have been supplemen- ted or added, For this reason, only the instructions in this edition should be observed for welding work. Safety Always observe the accident prevention rules and safety regulations. Work on recipients containing or having con- tained substances + that are combustible or susceptible to stimu- late combustion, + that may be the cause of explosions and + which develop noxious gases, fumes, mists or dusts during handling must only be carried out under expert supervi sion and by experienced and specially qualified persons. Depressurize all circuits and components (e.g. Pipelines, coolers, hydraulic oil tank, com- pressed-air receivers) before opening them. For fitting and removing of working equipment or of components thereof, or for fitting and remov- ing of units + make sure that the machine and its equipment are secured against unintentional and un- authorized starting. Place the working equip- ment on the ground so that it cannot move when mechanical or hydraulical connections are opened or released. + make sure that equipment or components to be fitted, removed or brought into another po- sition are secured against unintentional mov- ing, sliding or dropping by means of lifting tackle or suitable suspensions and supports. Persons working at a considerable height must be equipped with a safety hamess to prevent them from falling. If for the execution of work - helpers, such as marshallers, are needed, it is essential to fix the responsibilities of the individual helpers before- hand and to observe these responsibilities during the work in order to avoid any conflict of com- petence in safety matters. Make sure that all tools, lif gear, supports and other auxi a safe and reliable state of operation. 19 appliances, sling For further hints see para. 2.2 "Preparatory mea- sures". Page 1FUNDAMENTALS 1. Fundamentals 1 Structural elements may be subject to different loads. Forces practically never act as individual forces but ‘mostly in combination (fig. 1) Compression Torsion Y Bending A For Loads on structural elements produced by forces act- ing simultaneously and from different directions are difficult to assess by computation, Modem computing methods nevertheless permit the determination of stress magnitudes and concentra tions 12 Types of loading Loads (tension and compression forces) may act Upon the structural element as static or mainly static (fig. 2), pulsating (fig. 3) or alternating loads (fig. 4) Pulsating and alternating loads may occur elther as Continuous or as shock loads. rae @Q Tension Q Compression +F Fas Fad Page 2FUNDAMENTALS The following illustrations (figs. 5 and 6) give an example of different types of loads acting on the boom of an excavator. The boom is stressed for tension. Figs ting Fig.6 + During the “digging” cycle, the boom stretches ‘out. The lower chord plate is subject to tension land the upper chord plate to compression. + During the "iting” cycle, the boom is compressed. Now, the upper chord plate is subject to tension land the lower chord plate to compression This means that the loads act alternately on the boom, Page 3FUNDAMENTALS 13 Material behaviour under different loads The mechanical stresses admissible with regard to the operating safety of a structural element (Nimme) vary for the same material under static and alternating loads (fg. 7). “EREERT Renge ot TOADERS 300 H 200 et % i 100 Example: atected ial 7 CZ) Ww Materia EN 10025 $9851269 Fig? ‘The admissible mechanical stresses are clearly below the values for tensile strength indicated in the stan- dards. The example shows a rolled steel EN 10025 - '$355J2G3, with thicknesses > 3 mm < 100 mm. ‘The reason for this material behaviour lies in the gradual weakening of the cohesive forces along the {grain boundaries, and, at a later stage, in the occur- Fence and increase of disturbances in the miorostruc- ture (fig. 8) F<—_—______>F Fas 11 Shows an idealized material microstructure under alternating load. The material experiences elastic deformation along the sliding planes at the grain boundaries. The sliding planes present no distur- banees. 2 Permanent elastic deformation leads to shifting ‘of material grains along the sliding planes where the first disturbances appear. 3 The disturbed areas widen as the frequency of elastic deformation increases, Page 4FUNDAMENTALS 14 Notches in components ‘All areas where the ideal flow of forces in a compo: rent is disturbed are qualified as notches. From their occurrence and their effect on the compo- nent 3 different types of notches have to be consi- dered mechanical notches metallurgical notches shape-induced notches 4.4.1 Mechanical notches Mechanical notches may occur during welding in the wold coam (fig. 9) 1 \ 1 / Figo Undercut Incomplete joint penetration Porosities in the weld deposit Incomplete fusion Grinding drag lines, Drop-through at the root Underbead crack ‘These notches may, however, also have other me- chanical causes (fig. 10 and 11), such as: steel stamping figures, chisel marks, marking tool lines, damage by ling chains, Fig 10 Fiat 11 Steel stamping figures 2 Chisel marks 3 Marking tool lines 4 Notches due to lifting chains Page 5FUNDAMENTALS Mechanical notches lead to stress concentrations (fig. 12), Fig 12 2 Inadequate penetration of root 4 Incomplete fusion These, in turn, lead to an enlargement of the notches. ‘This procedure may repeat itself and eventually lead to fracturing of the component. Mechanical notches are mainly produced during the ‘manufacture, but later on also during the ulilization of the machine (traces resulting from use). Mechanical notches can be detected by visual in- sspection or by non-destructive testing and then be repaired. 1.4.2. Metallurgical notches Metallurgical notches are caused by thermal influence fon the material; ie. always at or around weld depos- its (fig. 13). ‘The heat applied by welding leads to zones present- ing different metallurgical and mechano-technological properties depending on their distance to the heat source. Hardness Fig. 18 Due to their properties, these areas, however small they may be, show a different behaviour under load- ing which, in tum, leads to elongation impediments and material constraints. The occurrence of metallurgical notches can be kept to an acceptably low level by applying optimized welding and heat-treatment techniques. ‘The effect of existing metallurgical notches, e.g those produced by improper welding, can also be mitigated by a stress-relieving and annealing proce- dure. 1.43 Shape-induced notches Shape-induced notches depend on the structural de- sign and lead to stress concentrations caused by the diversion of lines of forces (fia. 14) In many cases, shape-induced notches are moreover located in heat affected zones with metallurgical notches. Shape-induced notches can be largely reduced by choosing an appropriate design. For all practical pur- poses, they have to be reduced to such an extent that the negative influence exerted by them on the endurance strength of the structural element remains insignificant. Fig 14 1 + 2 Hardness distribution curve Shape-induced notches can be subsequently eliminated by changes in shape. Page 6FUNDAMENTALS Examples (fig. 15) a + b: inadequately executed butt-weld joints be- tween structural elements of different thicknesses. ¢: better joint. For relatively small thickness variations of the two plates, the joint such as realized in example c) can be sufficient. ‘An ideal and yet cost-saving solution for the distribu- tion of forces is the butt-weld joint where the plate thickness difference is reduced by chamfering in a 1:4 ratio (fig. 16). Fig. 15 Fig 16 ‘The forces should be able to flow as disturbance-tree as possible through the part of the structural element that can be analysed, Lines of forces should not, however, traverse auxil- lary elements (fig. 17) aL, es Pat? The welds used for fastening such auxiliary elements are mostly overestimated as they cannot absorb the forces prevailing in components Page?FUNDAMENTALS 144 Notch effects Depending on their shape, notches have different notch or influencing factors. The influence of notch factors on the fatigue strength of a component is shown in the graph (fig. 18) Possible notches (mechanical and metallurgical) in the seams of butt-weld joints: a Desciption Nimm2 500 400 300 240 200 adm. 6 L Unaffected material; no weld seam Oss] w idea waldo, root pass gouge lsrface leveled, 0 _|sestiueton tes tested, sess relief annealed, preheated for welding Gt required) racic weldsag root pas gouged 1 [siete epeied preheated fr welding it reauired) oot ps eared and Cow] 2 [eee Welded on backing strip ct para: 36.13). 100 i Uf 1 +f 0 “1 : aaa Location and shape of curves W, ©, 1, 2, 3 and 4 refer to: material no. of load cycles: Fig 18 EN 10025: $3851263, 2° 10° (2 million) ite. of high fatigue strength ‘group of stress intensities: small, medium and high stresses with approx. the same frequency Welded on backing stip (ct para. 243) [seamwelded from one side foot pass detective cr + For a notch factor of "O*, practically the only effects to be expected are from metallurgical notches, Page 8FUNDAMENTALS 1.45 Practical experience In order to lower the weight of components, de~ signers often resort to materials with higher strength values and to plates of lower thicknesses with no cchanges to the shape of the component. In this respect it should not be overlooked, however, that the stabilty of the structural element only de- pends on the geometrical dimensions and the ‘modulus of elasticity E of the material. E is basically the same for an S690 and an S355J2G3. ‘This means that a component consisting of thinner plates is subject to stronger deformations and thus loses some of its service properties. Moreover, the effects of notches on the strength of the materials are increased, High-strength fine-grained structural steels such as ‘$6900 offer advantages over ordinary fine-grained structural steel $355J2G3 only in cases of static or predominantly static loading and reduced notching (fig. 19), With the strength of the material increasing, the sus- ceptibity of structural steel elements to notching be- comes greater. For machines subject to alternating loads and ‘equipped with notched structural steel elements it is therefore recommended to use an S355J2G3. In this context, notches resulting from marks left by usage have to be considered as well Nimme 500 s2ssi263 —— ry rat 400 300 ‘ 26m. Fig 19 Location and shape of curves W, O and 4 refer to: material: 183551263, $6900 no. of load cycles: 2° 10° (2 milion) ‘group of stress intensities: small, medium and high stresses with approx. the same frequency Page 9FUNDAMENTALS 15 Avoiding notches If notches in a component are avoided altogether or if their acuity (notch factor) is reduced, the admissible stresses _G (Nim) can be increased. In such case, the service life approaches the compo- rnent's fatigue strength and damage can be largely avoided. 1.5.1 Grinding drag lines. Grinding drag lines transverse to the main direction of load are dangerous mechanical notches. Drag lines parallel to the direction of loading (fig. 20) should therefore be avoided during grinding. Fig.20 This rule cannot be observed if grinding wheels are used for the work. Under these circumstances, man- ual reworking with emery paper may be required. Ivis therefore recommended to use grinding stones at least for the finishing pass, 15.2 Grinding tools Grinding wheel on angle grinder (fig. 21) Only suitable for the rough removal of material Not suitable for low-notch finish with controlled direction of drag lines. 0-150 Figat Grinding stone (fig. 22) for finishing, Suitable for grinding of weld surfaces, weld fends and plate edges. Should be used at least 0-100 [= Fig 22 Page 10FUNDAMENTALS Grinding stone (fig. 23): Suitable for grinding in component areas of difficult access. 153 Run-offtabs Mechanical stresses reach their highest value at the ledges of components. Defects in the weld which are caused, for instance, by arc strikes or end-of-weld craters in edge zones should be avoided. The welding groove must be completely fled along the edges of components Fig. 23 Steel milling cutter (fig. 24): Suitable for rounding off small radi . Fig.28 For this purpose, the weld seam has to be extended by ca. 50 mm using run-off tabs (fig. 25). In this case, arc strikes and end-of-weld craters are located in the extended part of the groove. The cross-section of the run-off tabs used depends on the shape of the welding groove. After welding, the run-off sections are to be removed by flame-cutting and the surfaces to be finished by proper grinding, For such work, the grinding instructions given under 1.5. 1 should be followed, Page 11FUNDAMENTALS 1.5.4 Attaching auxiliary elements For the fastening of auxiliary elements no welding should be carried out in the edge zones of structural elements subject to high stresses. ‘The welds should end at a well-defined distance from the edge of the component ‘Arc strikes and end-of-weld craters should be located as far away from the component edge as possible (figs. 26 und 27). 220, f ru To protect the base element it may be required to work out alternative methods of fastening (fig. 28). Fig. 26 Fig.27 Fig 28 Examples: + Fastening of pipe clamps on a very small base ‘element. + Stirups for pipes, lamps, cables and similar fix: tures fastened without welding on the highly stressed bottom chord, Page 12FUNDAMENTALS 155 Ends of ribs The ends of ribs on highly stressed structural le- ments must taper off "gently" and be surrounded by a boxing weld, 15.6 Undisturbed flow of forces ‘Auxiliary elements - in this case a crane eye - must be shaped in such a way that the lines of force are not disturbed or even interrupted Fig. 29 ‘The welder must position himself and the component in such a way that the boxing weld can be carried ‘out without arc strikes and end-of.wweld craters. ‘The weld interface areas must be absolutely free from notches. This can only be achieved by grinding (fig. 20), Fig 90 Interruptions in the flow of forces produce stress concentrations and lead to cracks (fig. 31). Fig.31 Recommendation: Cut off the eyes after assembly. Grind the surfaces smooth and clean, Page 13FUNDAMENTALS 1.5.7 Ribs and stiffeners Ribs, stiffeners and similar parts on components must bbe welded with endless seams if the components are ‘subject to pulsating or alternating loads (fig. 32). Fig 82 Interruptions in the weld seams are not recommend- ed, even if they faclitate the assembly of the compo- nent (fig. 33) Tri-directional states of stresses in weld-seam cross- ings are considerably less dangerous for the structural elements than defective or even missing boxing welds in the gaps. They represent potential starting points for fatigue fractures. Too large gaps ‘may lead to damage by *softening-up* the component comer, even if the weld is otherwise faultless. Fig 99 Page 14FUNDAMENTALS 45.8 Welding technique The effects of metallurgical notches can be consider- ably alleviated by applying a proper handling tech- nique during welding, When repairing components by welding, the stringer bead technique must be used (Nig. 34), Fig. 34 ‘The advantages of the stringer bead technique are: + Reduced heat input (joule/om) per welding bead. The heat-affected zone (HAZ) in the base material remains very narrow, resulting in a metallurgical notch with minimum notch action Heat input: (J/em) = Lx U x 60 surrent intensity (A) U= voltage (V) v= welding velocity (om/min) + Each welding bead is tempered by the overweld- ing with the next bead + The weld pool can be well controlled, with {good penetration at the weld edges, avoidance of weld pool pre-flow (cold welding), avoidance of poor fusion. Maximum bead or pass widths ‘Solid wire: Wire O width 08 80 1,0 10,0 12 120 16 160 Food electrodes: Rod width 32 80 40 100 5S 120 ‘The weld start points for multipass welding must run in terraces fig. 35) or cascades (fig. 96). This is essential if faults due to are strikes or end craters are to be avoided on one line in the various passes. ustrations: Fig.95 Fig 96 Page 15FUNDAMENTALS 4.5.9 Welding of “tempering beads” ‘The welding of ‘tempering beads" provides a sub- stantial improvement in the mechanical-technological characteristics of the weld metal both in the cover ppass and in the heat-atfected zone (HAZ) close to the surface. Fig 37 Explanations of Fig. 37: + Beads 6 and 7 are the “tempering beads’. + The welding of beads 6 and 7 re-heats the weld metal of beads 1 and 3/ 4 and 2 respectively. The metal is tempered. + In this tempered weld metal, an ideal material structure with improved expansion and toughness characteristics is induced with a negligible loss of strength. + It necessaty, the cover pass can be ground down, 1.5.10 Buffering of weld edges ‘The formation of heat-affected zones (HAZ) is vital to the durability of the weld, especially when welding materials with a high carbon equivalent. ‘The aim must be: + a narrow heat-affected zone (HAZ), +2 minimum reduction in the strength of the ma- terial and of the heat-atfected zone (HAZ), + a slight increase in hardness at the transition between the heat-affected zone and the base ma- torial This alm Is largely achleved by so-called buttering of the weld edges prior to weld- joining For buffering purposes, welding is done with the low- est possible heat input (diem). ‘The following details must be observed when buf- fering: + Weld the buffering with rod electrodes of the type suited to the base material + Diameter of rod electrodes: 3.2 mm. + Preheat the base material, depending on type. + Weld in stringer bead technique. + Check the inter-pass temperature of the materials accordingly. + I run-off tabs are present at the weld ends: butfer beyond the start point as far as the end of the run-off tabs. + Clean the finished buffering thoroughly before ‘overwelding. (Slag residues on the contact line from one bead to the next) + Start the weld-joining without intermediate cooling Of the component. When 2 separate components or fragments are to be joined by welding, buffering should be done prior to assembly in the most favourable welding position for both parts. ‘Assembly of the warm parts must be scheduled be- fore the heating, e.g. with an appropriate device. Page 16FUNDAMENTALS 4.5.11 Welding sequence Definition: ‘Stipulating in which direction a joint is to be welded and in what sequence several joints are to be weld- ed Explanation of drawing: Sequence: 110 _ stort End Bre strike End crater Prosetting the wolding sequence allows the following to be determined + The component must be kept as stress-relieved as possible. Delays due to the effect of welding stresses must be accepted. + The component must be kept as dimensionally stable as possible, Intrinsic stresses in the compo- nent, resulting from the welding, must be accept- ed When repairing components by welding them, it will generally be necessary to keep the component di- ‘mensionally stable. When welding weld crossings, the welding sequence drawn below must be observed (fig. 38). ~ 1 i 1 Yy < 2 = ——— TNS Fig. 98 To avoid defects and thus to prevent mechanical notches, weld crossings in the edge zone of compo- nents must not have any arc strikes or end craters. Page 17PLANNING OF REPAIR AND REINFORCING WORK 2. Planning of repair and reinforcing work for steel components In planning the repair and reinforcement of steel ‘components, the first step should be to determine the precise extent and the causes of damage and then to fix and to carry out the appropriate measures. Reinforcement without planning leads to new da- mage. 21 Causes of damage ‘The causes of damage may be manifold + Dimensioning errors Incorrect estimation of the potential stresses and load cases. Dimensioning and design errors. Unsuitable construction materials. + Manufacturing errors Mechanical and metallurgical notches. Measuring errors. Mixing up of materials. Material defects. + Wrong operation of the machine Wrong handling due to lack of experience. Wrong use due to an overestimation of the ma- chine’s capabilities. Using the machine for activities for which itis has not been designed. + Accidents Accidents during transpor, relocation or operation, e.g. accidents caused by falling rocks when work: ing in quartes. 2.2 Preparatory measures To restore the machine's availabilty independent of the cause of damage, it is essential to fix the appro- priate working procedure. Important prerequisites for the execution of repair and reinforcing work + Repair, reconstruction or reinforcing work on structural steel elements of construction machines may be supervised only by experts with sufficient experience in the design and construction of dy- rnamically stressed components, In cases of doubt, please address the after-sales service which can refer the problem to the respec- tive specialized departments, if required. In practice, repair, reconstruction or reinforcing work may only be carried out by experienced welders. A welder holding a certificate in accor- dance with EN 287-1 135 P BW WO3 120 PC SS mk already fulfils the basic qualification require- ments, Ht possible, welding is to be done in a workshop which is equipped with the necessary tools and liting gear. It welding work has to be carried out on site, the ‘component must be protected against atmospher- ic Influences such as rain, snow, dew, wind, etc. This can be achieved, for exampie, by’a tarpaulin Used as a working tent. Cleanliness at the place of work is of utmost importance, When dismantling the component, all built-on parts, particularly those with articulations, must be Femoved from the component. (Example: Tri-Power pin and linkage). Hose and pipe connections opened in dismantling the component as well as open holes and casings should be closed carefully in order to prevent the penetration of dirt ‘The component to be repaired is to be cleaned properly, particularly those parts of the component ‘on which work is to be carried out, Weld grooves and surfaces for filet welds must be completely cleaned down to the bare metal Paint coatings and priming coats must not be welded over. Lubricants must be completely removed from bearings in order to prevent them from liquetying Under the effect of heat and flowing into the weld Machined surfaces, pins, bearings, piston rods, electrical components, etc. must be protected against weld splashes and grinding dust by cover- ing them with non-combustible material. Before carrying out welding on assemblies ‘containing electronic components, all connectors must be unplugged. Example: In hydraulic excavators equipped with the PCS system, all connectors must be un- plugged from the load-limit regulator (PCS box) Prior to welding on components remaining on the machine, the starter batteries must be disconnect ‘ed. Disconnect first the negative and then the positive terminal! After the work, reconnect first the positive and then the negative terminal Before welding, the type and the properties of the material involved must be determined. Use only those weld filer metals that are suitable for the base metal concerned. Page 18PLANNING OF REPAIR AND REINFORCING WORK 2.3 Scope of repair work ‘The most suitable procedure to be followed in a case cof damage is shown in the diagram below. Alter damage has been reported, one of the 3 follow- ing decisions is to be taken (fig. 1). 23.2 Temporary repair ‘The component must be repaired immediately in or- der to maintain the machine's availabilty, e.g. be- cause the machine is used for a job with fixed time limits (ig. 2) In spite of being a matter of urgency, temporary repairs must nevertheless be performed ‘carefully in order to avoid new damage. Damage £ 1 Serap Temporary repair] Permanent repaid Figt 2.3.1 Scrapping of components ‘The damage has reached such an advanced stage that a proper repair is either technically no longer feasible or linked with extremely high costs. ‘The limit for this decision is not a fixed one. Whereas at home and in most industrialized countries the de- Cision to scrap is taken relatively early, it may be necessary in other countries to carry out the repair because the procurement of a new par is dificult for various reasons and sometimes even impossible. The reasons for this situation may lie, for example, in the lack of foreign exchange, in high customs ‘duties, long delivery periods and extended standstill periods for the machine. Relatively low wage costs can also bbe a reason in favour of the repair. T L Tang Eee Fig? Page 19PLANNING OF REPAIR AND REINFORCING WORK The following rules must be observed: + Cracks must be stopped by diling when they are siil relatively short (fig. 3) ‘This measure ensures a reduction in the crack propagation speed. It does not, however, constitute a repair EZAATTTAVZZA 4 ¢ Fig.9 Itis particularly important to find the actual end of the crack Depending on their starting point, cracks may tra- verse the component along curved lines (fig. 4). . UZZAISSS DS ZTE Mezza LI RAYNE 4 Fig A+B correctly stopped by ailing © incorrectly stopped by dling One possibilty of finding the end of a crack consists in non-destructive testing for cracks by means of one of the well-known methods such as ultrasonic testing, dye-penetration test, magnetic powder test or X-ray testing After driling, the stopper hole can be examined for persisting cracks + Long cracks should be immediately gouged out ‘and welded, even if the marginal conditions are unfavourable, ‘The area of damage must be subjected to permanent inspection. In case of a failure of the repair weld, the measure described has to be repeated. + Do not weld reinforcing elements onto damaged areas. They not only make no sense, but more- ‘over cover up the area of damage and make permanent checking impossible. Another possibilty is that the area of damage may widen and thus make proper repair at a later time impossible. Page 20PLANNING OF REPAIR AND REINFORCING WORK 23.3 Permanent repair r tL T Figs Ita decision in favour of a permanent repair of the damaged component is taken (fig. 5), the following rules are to be observed: + The cause of damage must be determined and eliminated if it can be traced back to design or manufacturing deficiencies. To determine the cause of damage, the following simple measures will often be sufficient: Personal experience and comparison with damage patterns in similar components. Visual inspection of the area of damage with the aim of finding the causes for the crack starting point, such as mechanical notches, missing weld seams, insufficient root penetra. tion, ete. Visual appraisal of the fractured surfaces with the aim of finding the crack starting point by means of the bench marks. Moreover, the structure of the fractured sur- face allows conclusions to be drawn with re- gard to material quality. = A simple examination of the material consists in comparing its hardness to that of known materials - The wall thickness of sheets, cast-stes! or forged pieces can be controlled and compared to the dimensions contained in the drawings. = In case of persisting doubt, the component can be subjected to a new analysis carried out by neutral institution. = In difficult cases, itis advisable to make use of the services of a laboratory if, for example, precise material analyses, hardness curves and an appraisal of the material's microstruc- ture and surface are required. In certain cases, the expertise of an indepen- dent laboratory may also be required In order to clear up liability matters, ‘A workmanlike repair giving a high fatigue strength expectancy must be properly planned land carefully executed on the workshop level In each phase of the work, all advantages at hand should be made use of. Even so-called “trivial matters" may be of decisive importance for the success of a repair. ‘The repair work must be subject to supervision land the phases in which inspections are to take place be determined beforehand. It is advisable to explain the theoretical reasons for the repair measure to the craftsman carrying ‘out the work as he will then develop a feeling of responsibility for a successful achieverent of the repair. In case of damage caused by design fallures or ‘overloading, it may be necessary to reinforce the ‘component after the repair. Important note: The reinforcement planned must make sense and its positive effects be justified by means of an analysis. Badly planned reinforcing measures are useless, ‘expensive, do not offer real safety, increase the weight of the component and may impede its functions. Moreover, they do not look very nice. Page 21PLANNING OF REPAIR AND REINFORCING WORK 2.4 Precautionary examinations In the field of medical treatment, precautionary ex- aminations are standard practice. Doctors teach us that a disease, if discovered in its early stage, can be cured by a simple operation, whereas in an advanced stage, help often comes too late. ‘The regular inspection of construction machines, for example, is also a kind of precautionary examination and part of the VBG guideline 40, Inspection procedure and follow-up measures: + Cleaning of the machine. + Visual ingpection of ertical component areas, Ne- cording of all findings, + Contacting the manufacturer for a discussion of the inspection results, + Planning and execution of necessary repairs. + Stockpiling of damage-prone components. + Stockpiling of wearing parts. 2.5 Detection of cracks and other defects Cracks and other defects in plates, forged and cast- steel parts can be detected with the help of test procedures: 2.5.1 Examination for surface cracks with the ‘dye-penetration test ‘The dye-penetration test is the simplest procedure to detect cracks in the surface of the material Carefully clean the area to be tested 2. Spray red penetration fluid (PIN 73171489) onto the area and allow it to take effect for 5 to 10 minutes. 3. Remove red penetration fluid with a special cleaner (PIN 73171491). ‘4. Spray white developer (PIN 73171492) onto the area. ‘Any cracks then become visible as small, red 125 on a white background. The extent of bleeding” and the waiting time allow conclusions to be drawn as to the depth of the crack. Wipe off the developer with a cleaning cloth. 2.5.2 Examination for surface cracks with the magnetic powder test ‘The magnetic powder test is suitable for the detection of cracks on the surface of the material and for cracks not deeper than 2 mm below the surface. ‘Tho component is first magnotizod and then sprayed with a liquid containing very fine iron particles (as fine as dust). The iron particles settle along the cracks land make them visible. 2.5.3 Ultrasonic testing ‘The ultrasonic test can be used for the detection of defects inside materials of more then 10 mm thick- ness and in weld deposits Ultrasonic testing can only be performed by qualified testers. Qualification: Certificates U 1 and U 2 of the "Deutsche Gesellschaft zur zer- storungstreien Prifung" (OGZFP)* * (German Society for Non-Destructive Testing) Page 22REPAIR WELDING TECHNIQUES 3. Repair welding techniques ‘The repair of a structural component by welding re- uires working methods which do not have to be applied when the steel component is manufactured, Many of the methods represented have been deve- oped on the basis of numerous individual exper- ences and are field-proven, 3.1. Gouging out and welding of cracks ‘The method best sulted for gouging out of cracks Is the so-called "ARC-AIR procedure" (fig. 1) Fiat ‘An arc is struck between a carbon electrode and the ‘material to be removed, and a jet of compressed air directed towards the arc blows away the molten base metal For part nos. of "ARC-AIR carbon electrodes" see Appendix. Another gouging method consists in gouging with ‘oxy-gas or with grooving electrodes, Itis important to start gouging at the end of the crack and to proceed towards the edge of the component, Proceeding in reverse order may enlarge the crack due to thermal effects, It can be taken for granted that the crack has already progressed along the grain boundaries of the material where it cannot yet be detected visually or by other test procedures (fig. 2) Gouging should therefore not start at the end of the crack but shortly before the crack begins. For gouging, preheat the cracked area (c. 6.1) After thermal gouging, the weld groove is to be re- worked by grinding The surfaces must be cleaned down to the bare metal A Visible crack BB Damage at the grain boundaries It the crack is accessible from both sides in out- of-position work, gouging should first start on the lower side (fig. 3) with the depth of the groove being approx. 1/3 of the material thickness. ) Fas Weld this side first The crack is then gouged out from the more easily accessible upper side down to the seam already welded from the lower side. {As a final step, the weld is finished on the upper side (fig. 4), Page 23REPAIR WELDING TECHNIQUES Y/ SQ So-called "weld-pool backing strips* should not be used if welding from both sides is possible, as a backing strip in the root area of the weld represents ‘a mechanical notch (shape-induced notch). Ramified cracks Ramified cracks should be gouged out and welded step by step (fig. 5). SS CP { Figs If this procedure is not respected, it may happen that areas of material between the cracks break away and that the gaps thus produced cannot be closed, The same applies to long cracks where gouging out and welding should equally be done step by step. (fig. 6). ;-—_1 __. en) pebbled attest 131 Tt {ua "sand wl oe sat te! 131 Fa During cooling of the partial welds, the surrounding cold areas prevent excessive welding shrinkage and distortion of the component, Page 24