Fundamentals of Turboexpanders

“Basic Theory and Design”

Edited Date: September 16, 2015
Presented By: Mr. James Simms
Simms Machinery International, Inc.
2357 “A” Street
Santa Maria, CA 93455
U.S.A.

About the Author In a Gas Processing Plant, the purpose of the

James (Jim) Simms has been involved with the Turboexpander is to efficiently perform two (2)
design, manufacture, and service of Turboexpanders distinctly different, but complimentary, functions in
and other Cryogenic Rotating Machinery since 1969. a single machine. The primary function is to
He worked in the Engineering Department of various efficiently generate refrigeration in the process gas
Turboexpander manufacturing companies until he stream. This is done by the Expansion Turbine end
founded Simms Machinery International, Inc. in efficiently extracting the potential heat energy from
1988. The company primarily focuses on LNG Boil-off the gas stream, causing it to cool dramatically. This
Gas Compressors aboard LNG Tankers (Ships). In extracted energy is converted to mechanical energy
1994 he, along with others, founded Gas Technology to rotate the Shaft to the Booster Compressor end of
Turbomachinery Services, Inc. to service the Turboexpander, which partially recompresses
Turboexpanders, primarily used in Gas Processing the residue gas stream. The Turboexpander
Plants. operates according to the thermodynamic and
aerodynamic laws of physics. When designed
Introduction/Description properly, the Turboexpander can yield very high
efficiencies at the "Design Point" and reasonable
The term "Turboexpander", Figure 1, is normally efficiencies at other, or "Off-Design", Points.
used to define an Expander/Compressor machine as
a single unit. It consists of two (2) primary Application
components; the Radial Inflow Expansion Turbine
and a Centrifugal (Booster) Compressor combined as The typical Turboexpander process installation is
an assembly. Its Wheels are connected on a single shown in Figure 2, Simplified Process Schematic.
Shaft. The Expansion Turbine is the power unit and High pressure, moderately cold gas flows into the
the Compressor is the driven unit. Expander section of the Turboexpander. The gas
flows through the Expander Variable Inlet Nozzles
Figure 1 (Guide Vanes) and then through the Wheel,
Turboexpander (Expander/Compressor) exhausting at a lower pressure and at a substantially
Assembly Cross-Section Drawing colder temperature. Gas flows from the Expander to
the Demethanizer, where condensate is removed.

It should be noted that the Expander Nozzles are

used to control the gas flow rate in order to maintain
the pressure in the Demethanizer. The Residue Gas
from the Demethanizer Tower flows through the
Feed Gas Heat Exchanger and then to the Booster
Compressor end of the Turboexpander. The
efficiency of the Booster Compressor is very
important, as it can improve the expansion process
for more refrigeration as well as more efficiently use
the power extracted by the Expander. While the
engineering process to properly design a high
efficiency Turboexpander is very complex, requiring change of energy, or Δh, with units of btu/lb, both in
computerized analytical tools, the basic initial sizing the Ideal Process (Isentropic, or 100% efficient) and
process can be simplified by using certain basic in the Actual Process, or real terms.
equations and assumptions.
Figure 3
Figure 2 Expansion Process
Typical Turboexpander Process Schematic
(Simplified)

Preliminary Size Calculations

The Turboexpander operation is best described as a

dynamic system which responds to the Process
Stream variations. To start the initial sizing design These have been designated Δh's and Δho,
process, a fixed set of Process Stream parameters, or respectively. The ratio of these is the definition of
"Design Point", must be established. This "Design the Isentropic efficiency, ηe, of the Expander
Point" is normally set by the plant process engineer's (i.e., ηe = Δho / Δh's ). For example, if
system analysis in the case of new plants. In the Δho = 34 btu/lb, and Δh's = 40 btu/lb, then:
case of a Turboexpander re-design in an existing ηe = 34 / 40 = .85 or 85%
plant, the actual operating condition will dictate the
new "Design Point". With the Δh's and ηe values known, we then only
The parameters required to size the Turboexpander need the gas mass flow rate, w, to calculate the
are: Horsepower developed by the Expander. Since the
mass flow rate is normally given by the process
 Gas Composition engineer, we now have enough information to
 Flow Rate calculate the Horsepower with the following
 Inlet Pressure formula:
 Inlet Temperature
HPExpander = (778 / 550) x Δh's x w x ηe
Normally, the Expander Outlet Pressure is 778 / 550 = 1.4145
determined by the performance of the Booster
Compressor's efficiency through a complex iterative (This is the constant value to change btu units into
analysis. For this simplified sizing exercise, we will Horsepower terms)
assume the value of the Expander Outlet Pressure.
We will assume the mass flow rate, w = 20
Energy Extraction lbs/second. So, if Δh's = 40 btu/lb, w = 20
lbs/second, and ηe = .85, then:
Where does the energy come from? With reference
to Figure 3, which shows the typical Expansion HPExpander = 1.4145 x 40 x 20 x .85 = 961.9
Process Graph, we see the process in terms of

2
Horsepower Balance rise, Δh', is lower than the actual Head Rise, Δho,
required to achieve the Discharge Pressure, the ratio
The HP developed by the Expander must be of Δh' / Δho = efficiency of the Compressor, or ηc.
absorbed in order to prevent over-speeding. The
Bearings and the Compressor absorb this power to
Figure 4
Compression Process
create a balance. The Horsepower Balance formula
is:

HPExpander = HPCompressor + HPBearings

Example
Let's assume that the Bearings consume a total of 30
Horsepower, which is subtracted from the Expander
Horsepower. If we rearrange the formula above,
then the available Horsepower to the Compressor is:

HPCompressor = HPExpander - HPBearings

= 961.9 - 30
= 931.9 Horsepower

How Does the Booster Compressor Use

Horsepower to Create Pressure?

The pressure rise through the Compressor is a

function of the adiabatic Δh', or Head Rise,
developed by the Compressor and its efficiency, ηc, We will assume a mass flow rate, w, through the
to satisfy the Horsepower balance formula. The Compressor, of 27.0 lbs/second and solve the
Horsepower formula for the Compressor is similar to formula:
the Expander, but slightly different as it is consuming
𝟗𝟑𝟏.𝟗 𝐱 .𝟕𝟓
power. The formula is: Δh'Adiabatic =
𝟏.𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝐱 𝟐𝟕.𝟎
𝟏.𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝐱 𝚫𝐡′𝐀𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐱 𝐰
HPCompressor = = 18.30 btu/lb
𝛈𝐂

The value of 1.4145 is, again, the constant to convert Discharge Pressure Calculation
the units into Horsepower, just the same as the
Expander formula. Δh'Adiabatic is the ideal Head Rise, Now, having calculated the Δh'Adiabatic, we can
or energy change, from the Inlet Pressure to the calculate the pressure rise through the Compressor
Discharge Pressure of the Compressor. The units are by the following formula:
btu/lb of gas flow. W is the symbol for mass flow
𝚫𝐡′ 𝛄 / 𝛄−𝟏
through the Compressor, and the units are Pout = 𝐏𝐢𝐧 × [𝟏 + ]
𝐂𝐩𝐓𝟏 𝐙
lbs/second.

The mass flow rate, w, for the Compressor, is usually Definition of Terms:
given by the process engineer. With the available Pout = Discharge Pressure, PSIA
Compressor Horsepower known, we can rearrange Pin = Inlet Pressure, PSIA
the Compressor Horsepower formula to calculate Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure
the Δh'Adiabatic, Head Rise, as follows: T1 = Inlet temperature, °R (°R = °F + 459.69)
Z = Compressibility Factor
𝐇𝐏𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐫 𝐱 𝛈𝐜 γ = Greek Symbol "Gamma", stands for the Ratio
Δh'Adiabatic = of specific heats
𝟏.𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝐱 𝐰

We start by assuming a reasonable efficiency, ηc, on

the Compressor, such as 75%. Figure 4 shows a
typical Compression Process in which the ideal head

3
To be accurate, the values of Cp, Z, and γ are best
derived by a good equation of state computer Co = √ 𝟐 × 𝐠 × 𝐉 × √𝚫𝐡′𝐬
program; however, for this exercise, we will assume
certain values for these (T1 = 60°F, Cp = .54, Z = .98, = √ 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 × 𝟕𝟕𝟖 × √𝟒𝟎
and γ = 1.3) and solve the above formula.
= √ 𝟓𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟑. 𝟐 × √𝟒𝟎
So, to repeat the formula for the Compressor if the
Inlet Pressure equals 145 PSIA, the Discharge
= 𝟐𝟐𝟑. 𝟖 × √𝟒𝟎
Pressure will be calculated:

𝚫𝐡′ 𝛄 / 𝛄−𝟏 = 1415 ft/sec

Pout = 𝐏𝐢𝐧 × [𝟏 + ]
𝐂𝐩𝐓𝟏 𝐙
Since the term U, Wheel Tip Speed, needs to be 0.7
𝟏𝟖.𝟑𝟎 𝟏.𝟑/.𝟑 of Co, then:
= 𝟏𝟒𝟓 × [𝟏 + ]
.𝟓𝟒 ×(𝟔𝟎+𝟒𝟓𝟗.𝟔𝟗)× .𝟗𝟖
U = .7 x Co
4.333
= 145 x [ 1.0665 ]
= .7 x 1415
= 145 x 1.322
= 990 ft/sec
= 191.7 PSIA
Definition of Terms:
How is the Turboexpander Design Speed U = Tip Speed of Wheel, ft/sec
Determined? Co = Spouting Velocity, ft/sec
g = 32.2 ft/sec2
This is done by using the term Specific Speed, or Ns, J = 778 ft-lb/btu
of the Expander Wheel:
The term, U, is the peripheral velocity of the
𝐍 𝐱 √𝐀𝐂𝐅𝐒𝟐 Expander Wheel (tip speed) which is calculated by:
Ns = (𝟕𝟕𝟖 𝐱 𝚫𝐡′𝐒 ).𝟕𝟓
𝐃𝐢𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 (𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐡𝐞𝐬) 𝐱 𝐑𝐏𝐌
U =
From earlier pages, Δh's = 40 btu/lb 𝟐𝟐𝟗.𝟐
Assume a Specific Speed, Ns = 75 for good efficiency
Assume, ACFS2 = 25.0 (ACFS2 is the Actual Cubic So, to rearrange the formula to solve for the Wheel
Feet per Second of volumetric flow at the outlet of Diameter:
the Expander).
𝐔 × 𝟐𝟐𝟗.𝟐
Rearrange the formula and calculate the speed, N: Diameter =
𝐑𝐏𝐌

𝐍𝐬 × (𝟕𝟕𝟖 × 𝚫𝐡′𝐒 ).𝟕𝟓 𝟗𝟗𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐𝟗.𝟐

N= =
√𝐀𝐂𝐅𝐒𝟐 𝟑𝟓,𝟏𝟒𝟔

𝟕𝟓 × (𝟕𝟕𝟖 × 𝟒𝟎).𝟕𝟓 = 6.46 inches

=
√𝟐𝟓
How to Approximate the Compressor Wheel
𝟕𝟓 ×𝟐𝟑𝟒𝟑
=
𝟓
Diameter

= 35,146 RPM The following formula can be used to approximate

the Compressor Wheel Diameter:
How to Approximate the Expander Wheel
Diameter 𝑼𝟐 × 𝚿
Δh'Adiabatic =
𝐠×𝐉

First, for good efficiency, the term U/Co should equal

From previous pages, we calculated the Compressor
about 0.7. The Co term is known as the spouting
Δh'Adiabatic to equal 18.30 btu/lb. Let the head
velocity of the gas from the Nozzles into the
Expander Wheel. The formula is:

4
coefficient, Ψ, be equal to .4 and rearrange the Turboexpander Controls, with reference to the
formula to solve for U: Turboexpander system schematic drawing (Figures
5 & 6):
2 𝜟𝒉′ × 𝒈 × 𝑱
U =
.𝟒 The Turboexpander system pressure basically floats
with the Compressor suction pressure. This is
(𝜟𝒉′ × 𝒈 × 𝑱)
U = √ achieved by venting the pressurized oil Reservoir
.𝟒
through a De-misting Pad back to the Compressor
Suction.
(𝟏𝟖.𝟑𝟎 𝑿 𝟑𝟐.𝟐 𝑿 𝟕𝟕𝟖)
U = √
.𝟒

Figure 5
U = √𝟏, 𝟏𝟒𝟔, 𝟏𝟏𝟎. 𝟕
P & ID 1
U = 1070.6 ft/sec

Now calculate the Compressor Wheel

Diameter from the equation:

𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 𝐃𝐢𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐱 𝐑𝐏𝐌

U =
𝟐𝟐𝟗.𝟐

From the Expander analysis, the design

speed was calculated to be 35,146 RPM.
So rearranging and solving the above
formula:

Compressor Wheel diameter = dC

𝐔 × 𝟐𝟐𝟗. 𝟐
𝐝𝐜 =
𝐑𝐏𝐌

𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟐𝟐𝟗. 𝟐
𝐝𝐂 =
𝟑𝟓, 𝟏𝟒𝟔
dC = 6.98 inches Figure 6
P & ID 2
** Caution Note**:
While the above method does give the
steps necessary to do the initial rough
sizing of the Expander and Compressor
Wheels, it is vastly over simplified. In the
above, certain values were assumed for
specific speed, efficiency, head coefficient,
etc. These assumptions were used for
ease of demonstrating the formulas only.
These assumptions MUST NOT be used as
"rule of thumb" values, as they may give
false results in an actual case. Any actual
design analysis should be performed by an
experienced Turboexpander Design
Engineer.

5
Lube Oil System Thrust Oil, and Seal Gas Differential Pressure
Switches. A first-out Annunciator System provides
The Lube Oil Pressure supplied to the Bearings is an indication of the initial cause of a shut-down.
controlled at a pressure higher than the Reservoir,
typically this pressure is 150 PSID controlled by a The Automatic Thrust Equalizer System vents
Differential Pressure Regulating Valve relieving pressure from behind the Compressor Wheel to try
excess oil to the Reservoir. to equalize the oil pressure measured at each Thrust
Dual, Electric Motor Driven, Lube Oil Pumps (one Bearing.
Main and one Standby) take suction from the
Reservoir providing oil through the Cooler or
bypassing the Cooler via the Temperature Control Description of Thrust Balance System
Valve as required to maintain a preset oil supply
temperature to the Bearings. The oil is then filtered The purpose of this system is to control the Axial
by one of the Dual Filters. At this point the oil Thrust of the Expander/Compressor Rotor within
pressure regulates to the proper Differential safe load limits, in either direction, on the Thrust
Pressure. An Accumulator is installed to store oil for Bearings.
emergency coast down in case of electrical power
outage. The oil then travels to the Bearings. Some The original version (Figure 7) operates in the
systems have an oil flow rate measuring device in following manner. The oil pressure at the Thrust
the oil supply line to the Bearings. Face of each Bearing is measured and connected to
two opposite ends of a Piston Chamber. A Piston
Shaft Sealing System Shaft is connected with an Internal Seal to a Gate
Valve that is connected between the pressure port
The Shaft Seals are Labyrinth type using Seal (Buffer) behind the Compressor Wheel and the suction of the
Gas to prevent cold gas migration into the Bearing Compressor.
Housing and prevent oil leakage into the process
stream.
Figure 7
The Seal Gas system typically uses warm process gas Original Automatic Thrust Equalization Design
that has been filtered. The pressure to the Labyrinth
Seals is maintained at a Differential Pressure of
typical 50 PSID above the pressure behind the
Expander Wheel. This is accomplished by use of a
Differential Pressure Regulator sensing and
floating with the Expander Back Wheel Pressure.

The small amount of Seal Gas going across the

Seal towards the Bearing Housing mixes with the
oil and drains to the Reservoir. In the Reservoir,
this separates from the oil and then is vented
through the De-misting Pad out into the Booster
Compressor Suction. Basically, the
Turboexpander System Pressure automatically
floats with the process pressure via the
Compressor Suction.

For control of the Turboexpander at start-up, a

local Hand Indicating Controller (HIC) is provided
to adjust the Expander variable Nozzles to control
the Gas Flow (and Expander Speed) during start-
up. The GTS improved version (Figure 8) operates in a
similar manner as the original system, but with the
Primary safety instrumentation includes Speed addition of a constant feed oil supply for improved
Probe, Vibration Probe, Bearing Temperature RTDs, response to Thrust variations. The Gate Valve is
6
replaced by a "balanced piston" Spool Valve, which is vary in intensity from an audible rattle to a violent
less prone to sticking (less resistance) than the Gate shock. Intense surges are capable of causing
Valve, and therefore more responsive. The Spool complete destruction of the components in the
Valve is connected between the pressure vent port Compressor such as Blades, Bearings, and Seals. An
behind the Compressor Wheel and the suction of the Anti-Surge Control system is therefore
Compressor, just as the original system. recommended to provide positive protection against
surging or cycling.

Figure 8 Flow Relation in the Compressor

Improved Automatic Thrust Equalization
Design The performance map of the Compressor, typically
supplied by the Compressor manufacturer, is a plot
of Pressure increase (head) vs. Capacity (flow) over
the full range of operating conditions.
At any given Compressor speed, a point of
maximum discharge pressure is reached as the flow
is reduced. This is indicated at points A, B, C, D, E,
and F in Figure 9 below. The line connecting these
points describes the surge limit line, which
separates the region of safe operation from the
surge area.

Figure 9
Performance Map of the Compressor

The Thrust balancing is accomplished by maintaining

or decreasing the pressure behind the Compressor
Wheel. This is accomplished when the Thrust force
(oil pressure) on the Compressor Thrust Bearing is
increased, which causes the Piston to slowly open
the Spool Valve, thereby reducing the pressure in
the area behind the Compressor Wheel causing the
load on the Compressor Thrust Bearing to reduce.
The opposite occurs when the load is increased
toward the Expander Thrust Bearing. In turn, the
Spool Valve will tend to close. With the GTS version,
the end of the Thrust Equalizing Valve can be viewed
and verified as to which direction the Thrust Valve is
in.

Description of Surge Control System

As flow is reduced, the pressure in the Compressor
The Surge Condition tends to be lower than the discharge pressure and a
The phenomenon of “surge” in an axial or centrifugal momentary reversal of flow occurs. This reversal
Compressor occurs when the flow is reduced then tends to lower the pressure at the discharge,
sufficiently to cause a momentary reversal of flow. allowing for normal compression until the cycle
This reversal tends to lower the pressure in the repeats itself.
discharge line. Normal compression resumes, and
the cycle is repeated. This cycling, or surging, can
7
Surge Control A typical anti-Surge control system block diagram is
shown on the attached sketch, Figure 11. In
The most common method of Surge Control uses the operation, the Inlet Flow is measured differentially
Compressor ∆P to represent “head” and the through an Orifice plate using a DP Transmitter, with
differential pressure across an Inlet orifice (called its output connected to a Ratio Station (multiplier)
“h”) to represent capacity. The function of the Surge and then transmitted as a set point to the Controller
Control system is to keep the ratio of ∆P/h from (PID). The Inlet and Discharge pressures of the
exceeding the slope of the surge line. Compressor are also measured using a DP
Transmitter and transmitted as the Process variable
To provide some factor of safety, a control line (Set to the Controller.
Point) should be established to the right of the surge
line, as shown in Figure 10 below. The output of the Controller operates a bypass valve
that recycles the gas back to the Inlet of the
Figure 10 Compressor. In general, when the two (2) signals
Surge Control become equal within the bounds of the Proportional
Band range, the Controller will output a signal to
open the Bypass (Recirculation) Valve. If the
Flow rate is too low (i.e., near surge) then the
Bypass Valve should open and allow additional
flow to re-circulate back to the Compressor as
necessary. In normal operation, the Bypass Valve
is closed to prevent pressure losses and it opens
only to prevent surge.

Figure 11
Anti-Surge Control System