2015S1 PH1012: Physics A

Propulsion

Dr Ho Shen Yong
Lecturer, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences
Nanyang Technological University

Week 5 & 6

"Heavier than air flying machines are impossible."

Lord William Thomson Kelvin (1824-1907)

"I think there is a world market for maybe five computers."

Thomas Watson, chairman of IBM, 1943

Outline

𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡

𝑑𝑚
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣
𝑑𝑡

1
How does a helicopter hover over a point in air?

Some observations:

1. There is an upward force FT on the helicopter that is equal to its weight.

2. This upward force FT is related to the rotor blades because if it is not turning,
the helicopter will fall.
3. So what is the reaction pair to the force FT? See the picture above for clues.

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2
A more visual approach

It actually involves the rotor blades pushing air downwards. But air is hard to see
and visualize. Let us study something more concrete before returning to the
helicopter.

Consider a man on ice skates on ice. He has an assistant next to him who is always
moving at the same speed as him and passing him the balls to him to throw. If he
starts from rest and throws an iron ball forward, we can expect him to acquire a
momentum in the opposite direction (by conservation of momentum). If he keeps
throwing iron balls in the same direction at a constant velocity (relative to him),
we can expect his momentum p to progressively increase over time. Thus, we can
work out the average force acting on him since

𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡

If he throws the ball at a higher velocity, we

expect his change in momentum to be larger.
If he throws many iron balls per unit time,
his gain in momentum will also be large.

Thus, the two important factors that

determines the magnitude of this average
𝑝 force, 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 :

1.

2.

Hence, we can write

𝑑𝑚
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑣 is the velocity of the propelled fluid
𝑑𝑚
(air in the case of the helicopter) and is
Variation of momentum
𝑡 the mass flow rate of the fluid.
𝑑𝑡

of man with time

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3
Calculation: helicopter hovering over a point in air.

Returning to our helicopter question. Instead of throwing iron balls, the rotor
blades of the helicopter are `throwing' air downwards to lift itself upwards. (I find
it hard to imagine this too but let's see the numbers.) Consider a helicopter with
rotors blades of length 7 m and can produce a downstream airspeed of 20 m/s.
Assuming that the density of air is 1.21 kg m-3 , compute the upward force FT
produced by the rotor blades.

Volume of air swept out by

rotor blades every second.

Some help for visualizing flow rate… (travellator/conveyor belt)

Consider a conveyor belt transporting sugar
cubes from one end of the belt to the another
v
and the belt is moving at 1.5 m/s. If there are
26 cubes per m on the belt, at what rate are the
cubes falling off the edge?
edge

4
Other Daily Examples
1. Swimming - (why do you have to keep your fingers
together to swim effectively?)

2. Rowing

3. Air Resistance
Which car is good for racing? 𝐹𝐷 = 12𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝐴𝑣2

Giancoli pg 237 Example 9-19

You are designing a conveyor system for a gravel yard. A hopper drops gravel at a
rate of 75.0 kg/s onto a conveyor belt that moves at a constant speed v = 2.20
m/s. Determine the additional force (over and above internal friction) needed to
keep the conveyor belt moving as gravel falls on it.

5
Sneak Preview: Thermal Physics - Kinetic Theory of Gases

We will now adapt the approach used in deriving the thrust force for the
helicopter for a different situation. This is for deriving microscopic properties of
gases later in the topic of thermal physics. Now, the man we had previously is no
longer on skates and he is standing firmly on ground. He is throwing little 0.02 kg
iron balls at 2 m/s horizontally towards at a circular disc which is free to slide
(frictionless) within a hollow cylinder placed horizontally. (We note here that
because the disc is only free to move in the horizontal direction, we can ignore the
vertical component of the iron ball) In this case, the iron balls bounce back at the
same speed in the opposite direction, i.e. -2 m/s. If he throws 100 such iron balls
in a minute, what is the average horizontal force Favg required to prevent the disc
from sliding?

If the cross sectional area of the circular disc is A, we can compute the average
pressure Pavg acting on the circular disc.

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6
Systems with variable mass [Non-examinable]

Rockets in Space

We have learnt how to propel ourselves forward. However, if we want to go to

outer space, we have a problem - there is no air in space and there is nothing
else to `push' backwards like in swimming. Therefore, one needs to bring along
some mass (such as liquified air) to propel the rocket

We use our man throwing iron balls again to help in our analysis. Now he is in a
sledge on ice filled with iron balls of mass. We will ignore friction. As before,
when he throws the iron balls at a constant rate in one direction always with
the same velocity (relative to him), he gains momentum in the opposite
direction. However, there is one complication in the analysis: the mass of the
sledge+man is not constant. Therefore, acceleration will not be constant and
velocity will not increase at a constant rate.

Systems with variable mass

We now consider a system whereby the mass varies with time. In the most
general case, we consider Newton’s second law:
𝑑𝑃
∑𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
where 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 is the net external force acting on the system and 𝑃 is the total
momentum. The change in momentum of the system is given by
Δ𝑃 = 𝑃𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 .

7
Rockets [Non-examinable]

𝑡 𝑡 + ∆𝑡
We will derive the change in momentum in the most general case (in the
presence of a non-zero net external force):
Δ𝑃 = 𝑃𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
[dropping from this point for simplicity]
Δ𝑝 = 𝑚 − ∆𝑚 𝑣 + ∆𝑣 + ∆𝑚 𝑣 − 𝑢 − 𝑚𝑣
Δ𝑝 = 𝑚∆𝑣 − ∆𝑚∆𝑣 − ∆𝑚 × 𝑢

If the change in mass ∆𝑚 and velocity ∆𝑣 happens over a very small period of
time ∆𝑡, we divide throughout by ∆𝑡 and take the limits lim ,
∆𝑡→0

Δ𝑝 = 𝑚 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑡 − ∆𝑚 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑣 − ∆𝑚 ∆𝑡 × 𝑢
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = =𝑚 −0−𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

If the rocket is far away from any planets etc, the net external force is zero [the
𝑑𝑚
rocket and its exhaust form a closed system]. In the above equation 𝑢 refers
𝑑𝑡
to the force on the exhaust, the reaction pair on the rocket (in the opposite
direction) should pick up negative sign. So rearranging the equation, we get

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝑚 = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

commonly known as the 0 in free space

rocket equation. We note here that the mass of the rocket m is not constant.

8
Rockets in Space 3 [Non-examinable]

The rocket equation (in free space)

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝑚 = −𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Solving the equation, we see how the mass of the rocket depends on time:
𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝑣 = −𝑢
𝑚
𝑣𝑓 𝑚 𝑑𝑚
𝑣
𝑑𝑣 = −𝑢 𝑚 𝑓
𝑖 𝑖 𝑚
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 = −𝑢 𝑙𝑛(𝑚𝑓 ) − 𝑙𝑛(𝑚𝑖 )
𝑚𝑖
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑢 ln( )
𝑚𝑓
Remarks:

1. The initial mass 𝑚𝑖 is always larger than the final mass 𝑚𝑓 because fuel is
burnt.
2. If we have a large final velocity 𝑣𝑓 when we burn out all the fuel, we need
to eject the fuel at a large velocity 𝑢 and design the rocket such that a large
𝑚
percentage of the rocket's mass is to be burnt out, i.e. large 𝑖 ratio.
𝑚𝑓
3. Note that while the gain in velocity is always the same for the same
𝑚
𝑢ln( 𝑖 ) but the gain in kinetic energy is also dependent on the initial
𝑚𝑓
velocity 𝑣𝑖 .

Rockets from Earth [Non-examinable]

Now if we are launching the rocket from Earth, there is an external force acting
on the rocket -- its weight mg. So now, we have to modify the rocket equation,
(launching from Earth)
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(Launching from Earth) The derivation for the
launching for Earth case is similar (so we will skip
it) but the solution only requires a minor
adjustment:
𝑚𝑖
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑢 ln − 𝑔𝑡
𝑚𝑓
9
Giancoli pg 238 Example 9-20: Rocket propulsion. [Non-examinable]
A fully fueled rocket has a mass of 21,000 kg, of which 15,000 kg is fuel. The
burned fuel is spewed out the rear at a rate of 190 kg/s with a speed of 2800 m/s
relative to the rocket. If the rocket is fired vertically upward calculate: (a) the
thrust of the rocket; (b) the net force on the rocket at blastoff, and just before
burnout (when all the fuel has been used up); (c) the rocket’s velocity as a
function of time, and (d) its final velocity at burnout. Ignore air resistance and
assume the acceleration due to gravity is constant at g = 9.80 m/s2.

𝑑𝑀 m kg
a) 𝐹𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑡
= −2800 s
−190 s
= 5.3 × 105 𝑁 .

b) Weight of the rocket at blastoff,

𝑚
𝑊𝐼 = 𝑀𝐼 𝑔 = 2.4 × 104 𝑘𝑔 9.80 = 2.1 × 105 𝑁
𝑠2

Weight of the rocket at burnt out,

𝑚
𝑊𝐹 = 𝑀𝐹 𝑔 = 6.0 × 103 𝑘𝑔 9.80 = 5.9 × 104 𝑁
𝑠2

At Blast off: 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡, 𝐼 = 𝐹𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 − 𝑊𝐼 = 3.2 × 105 𝑁 𝑢

Vel of rocket
At Burnt out: 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡, 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 − 𝑊𝐹 = 4.7 × 105 𝑁 to gas

c) Referring Rockets from Earth on pg 9,

𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑀
𝑀 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑀𝑔 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑡 Vel of gas
to rocket
Solving, we get
𝑚𝑖
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑢 ln − 𝑔𝑡
𝑚𝑓

[Note, 𝑢 = −𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 .]

d) Time required for burn out 15 000kg at 190kg/s,

15000
𝑡= = 79 𝑠.
190
If we take 𝑣𝑖 = 0, then
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 = −9.8 𝑠2 × 79𝑠 + (2800 𝑠 )(ln 6000/15000) = 2700 𝑚/𝑠

10
 2015S1 PH1012: Physics A
Static Equilibrium

Dr Ho Shen Yong
Lecturer, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences
Nanyang Technological University

Week 6
Giancoli Chap 12.1-12.3, 12.6

"We are what we repeatedly do; excellence, then, is not an act but a habit."
- Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC)

Example of Systems in Equilibrium

Outline
Conditions for Equilibrium

Translational Equilibrium:
∑𝐹 = 0
Giancoli pg 314 Fig 12.6:
See-saw Physics

Rotational Equilibrium:
∑𝜏 = ∑𝑅𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

Giancoli pg316 Fig 12.9

Giancoli Fig 10.14: Torque Giancoli pg 324 Fig 12.25:

A truss bridge 11
1. Torque: Giancoli pg 314 Example 12-3 (seesaw)

A board of mass M = 2.0 kg serves as a seesaw for two children. Child A has a
mass of 30 kg and sits 2.5 m from the pivot point, P (his center of gravity is
2.5 m from the pivot). At what distance x from the pivot must child B, of
mass 25 kg, place herself to balance the seesaw? Assume the board is
uniform and centered over the pivot.

Giancoli pg 314 Fig 12.6:

See-saw Physics

Definition of Torque: Giancoli pg 256-7

Torque is the product of force with the perpendicular distance from the axis
of rotation to the line which the force acts (lever arm / moment arm).

Giancoli pg 257 Fig 10.14:

Two perspectives of the definition of torque
12
1.2 Conditions for Equilibrium

Translational Equilibrium
The vector sum of forces acting on an object is zero.

Rotational Equilibrium
The net torque on the object about any pivot is zero.

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1.2 Example on Equilibrium: Giancoli pg 331 Example 12-13

How close to the edge of the 24.0-kg table shown in the figure can a 66.0-kg
person sit without tipping it over?

13
1.2 Example on Equilibrium: Giancoli pg 316 Example 12-5

A uniform beam, 2.20 m long with mass m = 25.0 kg, is mounted by a small
hinge on a wall. The beam is held in a horizontal position by a cable that
makes an angle θ = 30.0°. The beam supports a sign of mass M = 28.0 kg
suspended from its end. Determine the components of the force 𝐹 𝐻 that
the (smooth) hinge exerts on the beam, and the tension 𝐹 𝑇 in the
supporting cable.

Giancoli pg316 Fig 12.9

14
1.3 Cross Product and Torque as vector (Giancoli pg 289-290)
The vector cross product between two vectors 𝐀 and 𝐁 is defined as:

The direction of the cross product is defined by a right-hand rule:

In a given coordinate system where
𝐀 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 and
𝐁 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘, the
components of the cross product can
be written as

Giancoli pg 289 Fig 11.7

We note some properties of cross product:

Giancoli pg 290 Fig 11.8

Torque as a cross product of two vectors

For a particle, the torque can be defined around a point O:

Here, 𝑟 is the position vector from the particle

relative to O. Suppose the vector 𝑟 is in the xz
plane, and is given by 𝑟 = 1.2 𝑚 i + 1.2𝑚 𝑘.
Calculate the torque vector 𝜏 if 𝐹 = 150𝑁 𝑖.

Giancoli pg 290 Fig 11.11:

15
2. Engineering Applications: Trusses and Bridges (Giancoli pg 324-5 )

A beam sags, either under

its own weight or when loaded

Giancoli pg 322 Fig 12.21:

Bending a beam

How can we support a long span of beam so that it doesn’t sag?

Giancoli pg 324 Fig 12.25:

A truss bridge Giancoli pg 324 Fig 12.26:
A roof truss
.
A truss is a framework of rods or struts joined together (usually in triangles)
at their ends by pins or rivets. The place where the struts are joined by a pin
is known as the joint. This is one of the ways to span wide spaces. Each truss
member is under either tension or compression; if the mass is small, these
forces act along the strut.

Giancoli pg 324 Fig 12.27

Forces acting on a strut
16
2. Engineering Applications: Trusses and Bridges (Giancoli pg 324-5 )
Example 12-11: A truss bridge.
Determine the tension or compression in each of the struts of the truss
bridge shown. The bridge is 64 m long and supports a uniform level
concrete roadway whose total mass is 1.40 x 106 kg. Use the method of
joints, which involves (1) drawing a free-body diagram of the truss as a
whole, and (2) drawing a free-body diagram for each of the pins (joints),
one by one, and setting Σ 𝐹 = 0 for each pin. Ignore the mass of the
struts. Assume all triangles are equilateral.

From symmetry, we see that each end supports

half the weight of the bridge:
𝑀𝑔
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 =
2

𝐹𝐴𝐵 means the force exerted by the strut AB.

𝐹𝐴𝐶 means the force exerted by the strut AC.

At pin A,
∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝐴𝐶 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 cos 60∘ = 0
∑𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 sin 60∘ = 0
Thus,
1
𝐹𝐴𝐵 =
𝐹1
= 2 𝑀𝑔 = 1 𝑀𝑔
sin 60∘ 1 3 3
2
And
1
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 𝐹𝐴𝐵 cos 60∘ = 𝑀𝑔
2 3
At Pin B,
∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝐵𝐴 cos 60∘ + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 cos 60∘ − 𝐹𝐵𝐷 = 0
∑𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝐵𝐴 − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 sin 60∘ = 0
Thus, 𝐹𝐵𝐴 = 𝐹𝐴𝐵 , we have

1
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 𝑀𝑔
3
1
And 𝐹𝐵𝐷 = 𝐹𝐴𝐵 cos 60∘ + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 cos 60∘ = 𝑀𝑔.
3

17
2. Engineering Applications: Trusses and Bridges

Giancoli Figure 12.30

Giancoli Figure 12.34

18
 2015S1 PH1012: Physics A
Work, Energy and Power 1

Dr Ho Shen Yong
Lecturer, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences
Nanyang Technological University

Week 6
Giancoli 7.1-7.4, 8.1-8.4

"Long-range goals keep you from being frustrated by short-term failures."

- James Cash Penney (1875 – 1971)

Outline 1 𝑝2
2
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣 =
2 2𝑚
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

Work done: 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑 = 𝐹 . 𝑑

Giancoli pg 164 Fig 7.1:

A person pulling a crate along the floor

1 1
Work-energy theorem: 𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑
2 2

Applying conservation of energy:

K. E.𝑖 + P. E.𝑖 = K. E.𝑓 + P. E.𝑓 + 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 (𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦)

Gravitational PE (constant g) = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

1
Elastic PE = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
Gravitational PE (non-constant g) = −
𝑟
19
 Energy and kinetic energy

Let us consider what happens when we apply a force 𝐹 on an object of mass m

over a distance 𝑑. So here we can conclude that the object will have an
acceleration
𝑎 = 𝐹/𝑚

If the object has an initial velocity 𝑣𝑖 and final velocity 𝑣𝑓 , we can write

𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑖2 + 2𝑎𝑑

𝐹
𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2 = 2 𝑑
𝑚

Rearranging, we have
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 = 𝐹𝑑
2 2
1
The quantity 𝐹𝑑 is known as work done and the quantity 2 𝑚𝑣 2 is known as
(translational) kinetic energy. We use the intuitive way to define energy at the
moment – “the ability to do work”. A car (of mass 1200 kg) moving at 20 m/s
accelerates to 30 m/s.

What is the kinetic energy of the car when it is travelling at 20 m/s?

What is the change in kinetic energy of the car? What is the work done by the
engine to cause this change?

If the distance for this change is 20 m, what is average force exerted by the engine
to cause this change in velocity?

20
Two Analysis of a Baseball Pitch

Force displacement

time

Giancoli pg 163:
Baseball pitch about to accelerate the baseball to high velocity by applying a force on it

By the time the baseball (mass 𝑚) leaves the hand of the pitcher, it would have
acquired a velocity 𝑣. The gain in momentum of the ball is 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 and the
1 𝑝2
gain in kinetic energy is 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 (= 2𝑚).

Earlier, we learnt that the gain in momentum can be analyzed using the
impulse-momentum relation
𝐽= 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
The quantity of interest here is impulse which is the product of force and time.
If we do not have information on the variation of force with time but instead
have knowledge of how force varies with distance, we can also analyze the
pitching of the baseball, but using kinetic energy and work done 𝑊 (given by
the product of force with displacement along the direction of the force). We
will learn about work-energy corresponding to these physical quantities
𝑊= 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
We will find that this is a very useful principle in the analysis of motions,
especially when acceleration is not constant .

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21
Work done by a constant force

Giancoli pg 164 Fig 7.1:

A person pulling a crate along the floor
The work done by a constant force applied by the lady is defined as the distance
moved multiplied by the component of the force in the direction of
displacement:
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑
Notes: = 𝐹 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐹 . 𝑑
1. Work done is a scalar and it has units 𝑁𝑚 or Joules 𝐽.
2. From the definition of work done, we see that when 90° < 𝜃 < 270°, cos 𝜃 is
negative and 𝑊 is negative.

We see that when 𝜃 = 0, we get the familiar 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑. We can regard the term
𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 as resolving the force along the direction of displacement.

3. Intuitively, we see

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4. When 𝜃 = 90°, 𝑊 = 0. So no work is done when the force exerted on the

object is perpendicular to its displacement. A classic example is that no work is
done by the centripetal force when an object moves in uniform circular motion.
This will be discussed later in detail.

𝑊>0 𝑊<0

K.E. of object increases K.E. of object decreases

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Work done as a scalar product of force and displacement

The scalar product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 is defined as

𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
Thus, for work done, we can write
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐹 . 𝑑

Work done as a scalar product of force and displacement

The scalar product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 is defined as

𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
Thus, for work done, we can write
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐹 . 𝑑
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘 . 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
= 𝐹𝑥 𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑦 + 𝐹𝑧 𝑧
since 𝑖. 𝑖 = 𝑗. 𝑗 = 𝑘 . 𝑘 = 1 and 𝑖. 𝑗 = 𝑗. 𝑘 = 𝑘 . 𝑖 = 0.

Giancoli pg 168 Example 7-4

The force shown has magnitude FP = 20 N and makes an angle of 30° to the
ground. Calculate the work done by this force, using the dot product, when the
wagon is dragged 100 m along the ground.

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Giancoli pg 165 Example 7-1
A person pulls a 50-kg crate 40 𝑚 along a horizontal floor by a constant force
FP = 100 N, which acts at a 37° angle as shown. The floor is rough and exerts
a frictional force 𝐹𝑓 = 50𝑁. Determine (a) the work done by each force
acting on the crate, and (b) the net work done on the crate. (c) What can you
say about the change in kinetic energy of the crate at the end of 40m?

𝐹𝑓𝑟

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Revisiting Gravitation Potential Energy
Now that we developed the formalism for work done – we will discuss about
gravitational potential energy in greater detail. Consider a hand exerting a force
N = 𝑚𝑔 such that the ball moves vertically in 3 different cases.

Up at constant Down at constant Releasing from rest

velocity velocity at a height

Displacement

Work done by
hand
Work done by
weight
Net work done

Change in K.E.

Work Energy Theorem:

Consider dropping an object of weight 𝑚𝑔 from height ℎ, we will generalize our

observations that the change in kinetic energy of an object is related to the constant force
𝐹 is applied on it over a displacement 𝑥. As before, starting from the equation of motion
𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 + 2𝑎𝑥
1
Multiplying throughout by 2 𝑚 and identifying 𝑚𝑎 as 𝐹, we have
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥(= 𝐹 ∙ 𝑥)
2 2
Thus, we have the equation for work-energy theorem which states that when an object is
displaced, the work done by the net external force on it is equal to the change in kinetic
energy. In the most general case where is force can be non-constant, we should write
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑥
2 2
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Example
On a moon landing, a rocket of mass 47 000 kg is descending vertically at a
steady speed of 10 m/s. At a height of 80 m above the surface, a box dropped
out of the rocket and landed on the surface of the moon. Take g on moon as
1.6 m/s2. Calculate the velocity when the box hit the surface.

Method 1: (Kinematics)

Method 2: (Conservation of energy)

Conservative Force

We note that in the case of gravitational potential energy, the change in

energy is path independent and it is only dependent on the starting and end
points. In this case, the gravitational force is classified as a conservative
force.

𝑦2

𝑦1

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Giancoli pg 192 Conceptual Example 8-5
Two water slides at a pool are shaped differently, but start at the same height
h. Two riders, Paul and Kathleen, start from rest at the same time on different
slides. (a) Which rider, Paul or Kathleen, is traveling faster at the bottom? (b)
Which rider makes it to the bottom first? Ignore friction and assume both slides
have the same path length.

Google homework brachistochrone

The reference for GPE=0 is arbitrary:
As an example, consider throwing a 2-kg mass downwards at 2 m/s from 10 m
above the ground.

PE = __ J 10m KE = __ J PE = __ J 2m KE = __ J

0m

5m
PE = __ J KE = __ J PE = __ J KE = __ J

PE = __ J 0m KE = __ J PE = __ J -8 m KE = __ J

We see that even if we choose a different point for zero GPE, we obtain the same
kinetic energies at the corresponding levels.
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Example of non-conservative force: Friction

Giancoli pg 185 Fig 8.3:

The work done against by a force of constant magnitude 𝐹𝑝 is greater round the curved
path since 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑝 𝑑 and 𝑑 is larger for the curved path.

Giancoli pg 185 Table 8-1:

Conservation of Energy
In the example of the falling ball, the total energy at the initial point is equal to
the total energy at the final point:
K. E.𝑖 + P. E.𝑖 = K. E.𝑓 + P. E.𝑓
This is essentially the conservation of mechanical energy. The kinetic and
potential energy of the object can transform reversibly into each other. Other
types of energy include heat, light and sound. These are usually a result of work
done due to friction. Thus, in the presence of friction or any other dissipative
forces, the above equation can be modified as
K. E.𝑖 + P. E.𝑖 = K. E.𝑓 + P. E.𝑓 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟 𝑙
Nature follows a simple rule:
The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy in a
closed system is always constant.
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Revisiting ‘G.P.E. = mgh’

Giancoli pg 184 Fig 8.1:

Comparing the work done
when object is raised through two different paths.
In fig (b), the work done by gravity
2 2
𝑊𝐺 = 𝐹𝐺 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝑙
1 1
From fig (b), we see that 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠 180 − 𝜃 = −𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃.
Therefore,
𝑦2
𝑊𝐺 = − 𝑚𝑔𝑑𝑦 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 .
𝑦1
We see that the work done is path independent and is determined by the
initial and final positions. We can say that gravity is a conservative force. We
call any force a conservative force if

the work done by the force on an object moving from one point to another
depends only on the initial and final positions of the object, and is
independent of the particular path taken.

We also note that the net work done by a conservative force on an object
moving around any closed path is zero. The work done by a conservative
force is recoverable (in particular as kinetic energy).

An example of a non-conservative force is friction.

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Dissipative (Non conservative) Forces: Friction [email protected]

A block of mass 3.0 kg is released from the same height down two different
inclined plane with the same tilt of 35°. One is frictionless and the other exerts a
constant frictional force of 2.5 N on the block. The displacement of the block along
the slope is 0.3 m. Calculate the final velocity in each case.

0.3 𝑚 0.3 𝑚

No friction Friction=2.5N
35° 35°

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Work Done with constant forces
Moving through small vertical distances (compared to Earth’s radius)

𝑚𝑔

𝑦
Work done with non constant forces
When the force is not constant, the work done is given by
𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓
𝑊= 𝑥𝑖
𝐹𝑑𝑥 or more generally in more than 1-D, 𝑊 = 𝑥𝑖
𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑥.

If we have the force-displacement graph, the work done can be obtained by

computing the area under the graph. These work done can be stored as
potential energy.

Extending a spring

Moving through large vertical distances (compared to Earth’s radius)

(cf page 12 of 04 Basic Mechanics)

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹=
𝑟2

𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏

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Giancoli pg 175 Example 7-10 (modified approach)

A horizontal spring has spring constant k = 360 N/m. (a) How much work is
required to compress it from its uncompressed length (x = 0) to x = -11.0 cm? (b) If
a 1.85-kg block is placed against the spring and the spring is released, what will be
the speed of the block when it separates from the spring at x = 0? Ignore friction.
(c) Repeat part (b) but assume that the block is moving on a table and that some
kind of constant drag force FD = 7.0 N is acting to slow it down, such as friction (or
perhaps your finger).

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