10

Mechanical Springs
10.1 MECHANICAL SPRINGS
Asoring is a
mechanical deice which is used for the efficient storage and
of energy. Depending upon the release
as the belical coil off a wire, a requirements, a spring can take different
shapes, such
piece of stamping, or a flat, wound-up strip. The main
applícations of the springs are as follows:
) to act as a reservoir of energy,
e.g.springs in clocks, toys or
(i) to absorb shocks and
vibrations, e.g. movie-cameras;
(ii) to return the mechanical part to itsvehicle suspension spring:
original position, when it has been
temporarily displaced, e.g. springs in valves, clutches and linkages;and
(iv) to measure force, e.g. spring balance.
Strength and flexibility are the two essential
this chapter, the discussion is restricted to helical requirements
of spring-design. In
and leaf springs.
10.2 HELICAL SPRINGSSTRESS EQUATION
There are two basic equations for the design of the helical spring- the load-stress
and the load-deflection. A helical spring made of round wire is shown in Fig. 10.1 (a)
The notations used in the figure are as follows:
D= mean coil diameter (mm)
d= wire diameter (mm)
P= axial force (N)
N= number of active coils
mportant parameter in spring-design is the spring index C, which is defined as
D
C (10.1)
 284 Design of Machine Elements

IA)

(n DN)

D/2
(B!
P
Fig. 10.1 (a) Helical spring (b)
Helical springunbent
In practice, the value of the spring
the helical spring is uncoiled and index varies from 6 to 12. When the wire of
dand length (DN) as shown in straightened, it takes the shape of a bar of diameter
Fig. 10.1(b). The torsional shear stresses in the
are given by bar
Tory 16M, 16(PDI2)_ &PD
TË=
(a)
The dired shear stress in the bar is
given by
P 4P 8PD (0.5d)
D (b)

Superimposing the two stresses, the resultant shear stress in the spring wire is given
by
 Mechanical Springs 285
8PD 0.5d
(c)
stress coection factor K, is defined as
sher
A

(10.2)
Substitutingthis value in expression (c),

(10.3)
Whenthe bar is bent in the form of a hclical coil, the
lessthanthe length of the ouside fibre. This results inlengthstressofconcentration
the inside fibre
at theis
insidefibe of the coil. Equation (10.3) does not take into consideration the effect
of stress concentration due to the curvature of the coil. (1he equation for resultant
stress, which includes direct shcar stress, torsional shcar stress and stress concentra-
tion due to curvature, was derived by A.M. Wahi' This cquation is given by

T= K
8PD)\
(10.4)
where Kis called the Wahl factor, and given by

(4C-1 0.615)
K=
4C- 4 (10.5)
shear
The superimposition of torsional
curvature
stress, direct shear streSs and (C)
effect is shown in Fig. 10.2. The Wahl
correction factor K consists of two fac
tors-correction factor K, for direct shear
stress and correction factor K for the
curvature effect. Therefore, (B)

K= K,k¢
K
or K,= K, (10.6)
(A)
The values of these three factors are given
D
in Table 10.1. The stress concentration due
tocurvature is localised at the inner side of
the spring. When the spring is subjected to Fig. 10.2 Stresses in spring wire
(a) Pure torsional stress
astatic force,the effect of stress con
(b) Direct shear stress
Centration is neglected due to localised (c) Combined torsional,
yielding. The load stress equation for direct and CUrvature
static forces is, therefore, given by shear stresses
 286 Design of Machine Flements

/8PD)
nd

When the spring is subjected to fluctuating forces, the endurance strengh is reduced
due to stress Concentration and K, is Used as the stress concentration factor.
Teble 10.1 Spring stress factors
( K K, Ke
S0 1.311 L100 1.192
5.5 1.278 1.091 1.171
6.0 1.253 1.083 1.157

6.5 1.231 1.077 1.143

7.0 1.213 1.071 1.133
7.5 1.197 1.067 1.122
8.0 1.184 1.063 1.114
8.5 1.172 1.059 1.107
9.0 1.162 1.056 1.100
10.0 1.145 1.050 1.090
11.0 1.131 1.045 1.082
12.0 1.119 1.042 1.074

10.3 HELICAL SPRING -DEFLECTION EQUATION

The work done by the axial force 'P is converted into strain energy and stored in the
spring. Therefore, the strain energy Uis given by
U= work done by P
- (average toque) x(angular displacement)
or
M,
(a)
Referring to Fig. 10.1 (b).
8=
M!
JG (b)
where

M,= torque acting on the spring wire D

2
l= length of thespring wire (rDN)
J= polar moment of inertia of the wire
32
G=modulus of rigidity
Substituting these values in Eqs (a) and (b),
 Mechanical Springa 287

Go
AwOonting to
ained by Castigliano's thcorem, the displacement
nartially
(c)

Iherfoe,
diferentiating strain energy witth
corresponding
respect
to force P is
fo that force.

Gd
Or
8PD'N
where S - axial Gai
The stifness of delection of the
the spring (k)spring (mm).
(10.7)
deflection. Therefore, is defined as the force
required to produce unit
k
k= Ga4
&D³N
svoriously called the scale of the (10.8)
the spring.
ere are two
spring, the gradient of the spring
or the rate of
types of spring
used in practice
tion, or to
to save the
Space,
provide fail-safe
a combinationsseries
to change the and parallel, which are
stiffness
system. When the springsof the system at a often
certain
1 1 1 are arranged in series,
k kË kz
When the springs are arranged in (10.9)
parallel,
cbere k is the stiffness of the k=k+ ky t
the combination and ki, ko .. . etc. are the stiffnesses of (10.10)
individual springs. The
the forces are additive in deflections are additive in a series
aparallel
cquations can be easily derived.
combination, while
combination. Using this principle, the above
10.4 SPRING MATERIALS
There are four basic varieties of steel
of applications 3, 4. wire which are used in springs in the
majority
) patented and cold-drawn steel
(ii) oil-hardened and tempered springwires (unalloyed);
steel wires and valve spring wires
(unalloyed);
1.S. 44S4-1975:Specifications for steel wires for
cold formed springs (in four parts).
1S. 7906-1975:Helical compression
springs (in five parts).
*IS. 7907-1976:Helical extension springs (in four parts).
 288 Daeign of Maciro Fleents

fii) ol hordered snxt tempeed steel wies (alloyed); and

[i) stainless steel spring wires for nomal corosion resistance.
Ihe patented and od drawn steel wires are mainly used in springs subjected to
static fores There are four grades of this wire. Grade 1is used in springs
subjeced
tostatic or kow had cvcles (irnde 2 is used in srings suhjected to moderate-loa
cictes Gre 3 is used in highly stressed static springs or springs subjected io
moderate dynamic londs (irde 4is suitable for springs subjected to severe stresses
The tensile sirengths of these wires are given in Table 10.2. The modulus of rigidity
(G) of these wies is 81 37) Nmm.
Ther are (wo grales of unalloyed, oil-hardened and tempered spring steel wire
and vahe sring wires: SW and \WGrade SW is suitable for springs subjected o
moderate lxtuating sieses, wheres grade VW is recommended when the spring
is subjeted o ahigh magnitude of fluctuating stresses) The tensile strengths of these
wins an given in able 10.3. Ihe modulus of rigidity (G'is 81370 N/mm. The
limiting temeratus for SW and VW grades are i00°C and 80°C respectively.
Table 10.2 Mechanical properties of patented and cold-drawn steel wires
Wire diameter
d (mm)
Minimum tensile strength N/mm
Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4
0.3 1720 2060 2460 2660
0.4 1700 2040 2430 2620
0.5 1670 2010 2390 2580
0.6 1650 1990 2360 2550
0.7 1630 1970 2320 2530
0.8 1610 1950 2280 2480
0.9 1$90 1920 2250 2440
1.0 1570 1900 2240 2400
1.2 1540 1860 2170 2340
14 1500 1820 2090 2290
1.6 1470 1780 2080 2250
1.8 1440 1750 2030 2190
2.0 1420 1720 1990 2160
2.5 1370 1640 1890 2050
3.0 1320 1570 1830 1980
3.6 1270 1510 1750 1890
4.0 1250 1480 1700 1840
4.5 1230 1440 1660 1800
5.0 1190 1390 1600 1750
6.0 1130 1320 1530 1670
7.0 1090 1260 1460 1610
8.0 1050 1220 1400 1540
 289
Mechanical Springs

Table
10.9 Mechanlcal properties of of hardened and tempered spring
steel wire and vave spring wire (unaltoyed)
Wiredinmeter
d (mm)
Minimum tensite strength N/mm
SW VW
1.0
170 1670
1.2 1720 1620
1.5 1670 1570
2,0 1620 1520
2.5 1570 1470
3.0
1520 1430
3.6 1480 1400
4.0 1480 1400
4.5 1440 1370
S.0 1440
1370
6.0 1400 1340
7.0 1360 1300
8.0 1290
10.0 1250

me alloycd varieties of oil-hardencd and tempcred steel wires are mainly used
for clevated temperature applications. Stainless steel springs, which exhibit an
excellent corrosion resistance, are ideal to work in steam or
some other corTOS0ve
medium. The physical properties of these two
categories can be obtained rom
standards. There are non-ferrous materials, such as spring brass,
silicon-bronze, monel and beryllium-copper, which are
used
phosphor-bronze,
in spring wires. The
discussionin this chapter is restricted to steel wire
springs.
10.5 STYLES OF END
There are four common methods which are used in forming the ends of the helical
compression spring as shown in Fig. 10.3-plain ends, plain and ground ends, square
ends and square and ground ends. The tums at the two ends do not affect the
deflection calculated by the load-deflection equation. Therefore, while calculating
the number of active turns, the end turns should be subtracted from the total number
of turms. The number of active turns for different styles of ends are as follows:
Type of ends Number of active turns (N)
plain ends N,

plain ends (ground)

square ends (N,-2)
square ends (ground) (N, -2)
 290 Denign of Machine Elemerts

(A) PLAIN END (B) PLAIN AND GROUND (C) SQUARE END (D) S0UARE AN)
END GROUiD END
Fig. 10.3 End styles for
helical-compression springs
where
N,- total number of turns
N- number of active turns
The diffcrent stylcs of cnds for the hclical extension spring are shoWn in Fig. 10.4,
The end should be designed in such a way that the stress concentration at the bend
is minimum. Sometimes the effcct of stress concentration in springs is so Severe that
the spring body becomes stronger than the end and failure occurs in the end coils,.

(A) V-HOOK (C) FULL HOOK

(B) RECTANGULAR HOOK (D) EXTENDED HOOK

Fig. 10.4 End styles for helical-extension springs

For helical extension springs, all coils are active. The number of
acive coils
(N) is the same as the total number of coils (N).

10.6 DESIGN AGAINST STATIC LOAD

The design of the helical spring subjected to a static load involves trial and
solution. There are three objectives in the design of such springs: error
 Mechanical Springs 291
i)Itshould nossess sufficient strengthto withstand the extermal load:
i)Itshould have the required load-deflection characteristic; and
should not buckle under
Itispossibleto design a number ofload.
springs for a given application by changing the
ihrecbasiC paramelers. viz. mean coil diameter, wire diameter and number of active
(urns. HOwever, there are practical limitations on these parameters. In certain
ápplications,there are space
djameter, the
where
tofit Over a rod,
maximumlimitations, e.g. the
coil diameter is Spring is to fit in a hole of certain
restricted. In some applications the
springis design where the minimum inside
proceeding to the djarmeter is specified. Before
calculations designer should specify the limitations on these
dimensjons.
Thenext steep in spring- design is to take
) material for the spring; decisions in the following respects:
(i) the style ofindex.
end coils; and
(ii) the spring
The selection of material and the style of end
previous Sections. For turns have been iscussed in the
industrial applications, the spring
Aspringinddex
of 8is
considered as a good value. The index varies from to 10
valves and| clutches is taken as 5. The spring
index
spring index for springs in
The factor of safety based on torsional yield should never be less than 3.
subjected to static forces. The sstrrength (S,) is 1.5 for springs
permissible shear stress ta is given by
1.5
Assuming S, - 0.755,
and
S, m0.S77S,
(0.S77X0.75)S.
15
Ty-0.35, (10.11)
The permissible shear stress is, therefore, 30% of the
given in Tables 10.2 and 10.3. Tbe Indian Standard 4454-1975ultimate tensile strength
has
much higher value for the pemissible shear stresses. According to recommended
a
this standard,
Ty"0.55, (10.12)
This is due to higher tensile yield strengths exhibiled by the spring wires.
The main dimcnsions to be calculated in the spring design arewire diameter,
mean coil diameter and the number of active turns. The first two are calculated by
the stress cquation, while the third is calculated by 'he deflection equation.
D
Substituting C
-in Eq. (103)
(8PC
(10.13)
 D- 37 mm (01)
Check for design
D37 -74

1 0.615) (296-1.0615
K 4

C
-

296-4
-
12.
8PmCK 8(750X7 4y1.2)-K18 38 Nimm
S

Therefore,
Tmux 750 N/mm?
andthe dimensios are satisfactory.

10.9 HELICAL TORSION SPRINGS

Ahelical torsion spring is a device used to transmit the torque to a particular
componcnt of a machine or mechanism. It is widely used in door-hinges, brush
hoiders, automobile-starters and door-locks. As shown in Fig. 10.10,the construction

Fig. 10.10 Helical torsion spring

 312 Decign of Machine Elements

of the helical torsion spring is similar to that of comprr ssion or extension

bending sprtionrgque,
except that the ends are formcd in such a way that the spring is loaded by a
about the axis of the coils. 1he helical torsion spring resists the
(Pxr) which tends to wind up the spring. The primary stresses in this m
flexural in contrast with torsionalshear stresses in compression or extension
The term torsion spring is somewhat misleading, because the wire is sprisnmopgrimngensmare
of a curved beam. Using the curved-beam theory, the bending stresses
aresubjcgivporteneltionby
bending stesses. Each individual section of the torsion spring is, in effect, a n

(a
where Kis the stress cconcentration factor due to curvature. For a wire of
crOSs-section, circula
64
Substituting the above in (a), we get
%-324,)
(10.21)
The expression for stress concentration factor K was analytically derived
A.M. Wahl.
4C-C-1
KË= 4C (C-1) (10.22)
4C+C-1
KÍ
4C(C+1) (10.23)
where K; and K, are stress concentration factors at the inner and outer fibres of the
coil respectively.
Referring to Fig. 10.11,
r0

Fig. 10.11 Angular deflection of torsion spring

 Mechanlcal Springs 315
LEAVES
LENGTH
FULL

LEAP
MASTER
EXTRA
TWO

EYE

LEAVES
GRADUATED

P
CLIP
CENTER

L
2 P2

spring
leaf
Semi-elliptic

U-BOLT

P
CLIP
REBOUND
10.12
Fig.
 wnthe atve eqations
those in grnduated tht
Nmhnet
fhm l's ) anNtlengtth henilenves.ng atIheres e% in full (027)

are designed
12r deflectien lengtteh lendeavesof tharee
(imensisfor
| thickness(mm):
IN0Ng
wilh andlont stress andf lood
Nwninnl,
thkness (10,28)
des10,felectcitoion1,n areequtions The
)mutomobi.45,e s6u,spens.555S2Mr,i7om.15,8g0,9,
width (mm):
Nwninnl 32, 4A0, he lenf
(SUally made of 45,steel5s,), 55,60, 65, e
hartened aN tempered.
o 2.5for the Ie facto 0,15, Qn, 12,%, 10014,froandl ows16.
NIPPINGOF LEAF SPRINGS
of
safety based50XrlonortheS0Cr|V. 125.Thent
yield trength
in the previus:
scctis ion, he stresses in extra
the stresses in graduated.
hifferent leaves to length leaves.
One full- length
the leaves
Nnlingthelcaves to
chp. As
pre-stress
different radii of the
sprin g.
of
The meth s of
are S0%
N ntre shown in Fig. the
.10.15, curfuvlat-luerngte, h pre-stres ing equali ng
bcfore is
leaf is given a achievedwith
they are
asgrseemblateredradius
RI

R2

Fig, 10.15 Nipping of leaf springs

S.1135-1966:
Specifications for leaf-springs for automobile suspension.