DEVELOPMENT OF FLY ASH USAGE IN THAILAND

Somnuk TANGTERMSIRIKUL, Professor

Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology, Thammasat University

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the situation of fly ash usage in Thailand. Firstly, the general
information including typical characteristics of fly ash in Thailand is given. Properties of fly ash in
Thailand were compared with those of the fly ash in Japan in terms of chemical composition and physical
properties. It was found that generally fly ash in Thailand has higher CaO content, higher alkali content
but lower silica content and LOI while fineness of the Thai fly ash was generally lower. It was also found
that water requirement of both countries fly ashes was about the same. Regarding strength, the Thai fly
ash was slightly better. The consumption of fly ash in Thailand increases significantly after the economic
crisis in 1997 and at present almost all fly ash produced in Thailand is used as cement replacing material in
concrete industry. The paper also describes problem at the early stage of introducing fly ash into the
construction industry together with the strategies to promote its use. Finally, examples of application of
fly ash in various types of concrete and cementitious products in Thailand are given.

KEYWORDS: Fly ash, cement replacement, pozzolan, concrete

1. INTRODUCTION pumpability, improving long-term strength,

Fly ash is one of the by-products produced from reducing temperature, reducing shrinkage,
the process of coal burning. Electricity improving resistance against chloride-induced steel
generating using coal as the energy source is the corrosion, increasing sulfate resistance, reducing
main industry which produces fly ash as its major risk due to alkali-aggregate reaction, etc
solid waste. There are still other types of solid [3,4,5,6,7,8,9]. A proper use of fly ash based on
wastes produced from the coal generating plants the type of construction work and the service
like bottom ash and gypsum but their volumes are environment that the constructed structure is
generally far less than that of the fly ash. There are located is considered to be most rational.
difficulties around the world to achieve effective
utilization of fly ash or even to get rid of it. Though there have been worldwide studies,
Majority of the fly ash is dumped or used in indicating the benefit of using fly ash in concrete,
low-valued methods such as using as a land-fill fly ash has still not been effectively utilized in
material, soil improvement, road base, land most countries until now due to many reasons. In
reclamation, raw material for producing cement. Thailand, fly ash has been domestically available
Some high-valued methods of using are available since the end of the 1970’s. However, the use in
such as used as fertilizer, as filler in plastics and concrete was just started in early 1990’s and the
resins, as metal matrix composite (ceramic effective use of fly ash was just materialized in
additives) [1], etc., but only a little amount of fly 1997. At present (2005), almost all fly ash
ash can be consumed in such utilization. The produced in Thailand is used as a partial cement
most effective use of fly ash at present, by substitution material for both quality improvement
considering both volume and value, is still in the and cost reduction of concrete. The author
area of concrete. The use of fly ash as a cement believed that Thailand is one of the most
substituting material is believed to be beneficial by successful countries in regard of the effective use
various reasons. In regard of environment, the of fly ash in concrete industry. This paper states
cement substitution reduces the depletion of the efforts of the author and his colleagues in
natural resources used for cement production. It Thailand in paving ways for the construction
also reduces the energy used for clinkerization, societies in Thailand to the effective use of fly ash.
then reduces the gases emitted to the environment
especially CO2. It is estimated that abut 1 ton of
CO2 is released per a ton of clinker produced [2]. 2. GENERAL INFORMATION ON FLY
Although some properties of fly ash concrete, such ASH IN THAILAND
as initial strength, carbonation and freezing and The amount of fly ash produced annually is
thawing resistance, have been found to be inferior approximately 3 million tons during the past 10
than the concrete without fly ash, the use of fly ash years. About 95% of the total production is
to partially replace cement improves many produced from the Mae Moh generating plant of
properties of concrete especially durability the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand in
properties such as increasing workability and Lampang province, in the north of Thailand. The
rest of fly ashes are produced near Bangkok. In Thailand uses many sources of coal both local and
this section, some comparative studies are imported ones. The biggest local source is in
conducted to compare the general trend of Mae Moh, Lampang province, which is located in
characteristics of fly ash produced in Thailand and the north of Thailand. The coal used in Mae Moh
Japan. is lignite while most of the imported coals are
anthracite or bituminous coals. It is noted that for
2.1 Typical characteristics of fly ash in the Mae Moh fly ash, which comprises of 95% of
Thailand the total fly ash produced in Thailand, the
2.1.1 Chemical Composition scattering of the chemical composition is not
Table 1 compares the ranges of chemical much.
composition of fly ash in Japan and Thailand.
The data of Thai fly ashes are those observed From Table 1, most of the Thai fly ashes have
continuously for more than 10 years. The data of lower SiO2 content, larger CaO and alkali content
Japanese fly ashes, though were obtained from a than the Japanese fly ash. Though the data on
single study, covered large enough sample types SO3content of the Japaneses fly ash does not
and sources i.e. 40 types of fly ash from 24 appear in the Table, it is realized that most of the
generating plants in Japan [10]. It can be seen Thai fly ashes have rather high SO3 content. It
that the chemical composition of fly ash in must be noted here that the high CaO and high SO3
Thailand covers a wider range than that of Japan. fly ash mostly belongs to the Mae Moh power
This is mainly because, in addition of the plant where lignite coal is used.
differences of the types of the plants and processes,

Table 1 Comparison of Chemical Compostion between Fly Ashes in Japan and Thailand
Composition Japan* (%) Thailand** (%)
SiO2 47-70 20-55
CaO 0.49-7.55 1-35 (majority 7-20)
Al2O3 15.64-32.03 5-40
Fe2O3 2.54-15.68 (majority<5.0) 1-15
SO3 - 0+-10 (majority between 1.5-4.0)
MgO 0.22-2.81 0+-5
(Na2O+0.658K2O) 0.22-3.27 (majority <1.5) 0.5-2.5 (majority >1.5)
* from reference [10]
** from reference [11] and the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand.

2.1.2 Physical Properties and Loss on Ignition Thai fly ashes are thought to be coarser.
Table 2 compares some physical properties and However lower specific gravity of the Thai fly
loss on ignition between the Japanese and Thai fly ashes denotes that the Thai fly ashes have more
ashes. It can be observed from the Table that the cenospheres and plerosheres. The lower loss on
majority of the Thai fly ashes have lower specific ignition of the Thai fly ashes is considered to be
gravity, Blaine fineness and loss on ignition than due to higher allowable burning temperature of the
the Japanese fly ashes. From the data of Blaine coal powder in Thailand than that allowed in Japan
fineness and the amount retained on sieve#325, the due to the limitation of the emission.

Table 2 Comparison of Physical Properties between Fly Ashes in Japan and Thailand
Properties Japan* (%) Thailand** (%)
Specific gravity (g/cm3) 1.98-2.43 1.7 - 2.4 (almost half <2.0)
Blaine fineness (cm2/g) 2350-6580 1800 – 4000 (about 80% <2500)
% Retained on sieve #325 4.8-53.9 20 - 65
Loss on ignition (%) 0.4-13.9 0.1 – 5 (about 80%<1.0)
* from reference [10]
** from reference [11] and the Concrete Products and Aggregates Co.ltd
2.2 Properties of Paste, Mortars and Concrete and the sand to binder ratio is 2.0 while ASTM
using Fly Ash C311 specifies water to binder ratio of 0.484 and
sand to binder ratio of 2.75. However, though
2.2.1 Water Requirement both countries’ fly ashes were tested based on
Table 3 shows the comparison of water different standards but they have the same concept
requirement between the Thai fly ashes and the to evaluate the test results. If the two set of data
Japanese fly ashes. It should be noted here that are compared by discarding the difference of the
the test methods of both countries are not the same test methods, then both countries’ fly ashes have
(JIS A6201-1991 was used to test the Japanese fly similar water requirement as can be seen from
ashes and ASTM C311 was used to test the Thai Table 3. The lower loss on ignition makes the
fly ash). Mix proportion of the test samples, Thai fly ashes have similar level of water
apparatus and the test procedure are all different. requirement to the Japanese fly ashes though they
Especially for the mix proportion, in JIS are coarser.
A6201-1991, the water to binder ratio of the
control sample (cement only mortar) is set at 0.65

Table 3 Comparison of Water Requirement between Fly Ashes in Japan and Thailand
Properties Japan* (%) Thailand** (%)

Water requirement (%of 91-105 (majority <100%) 93-103(majority <100%)

the control)

* from reference [10], tested by JIS A6201-1991

** data from the Concrete Products and Aggregates Co.ltd., tested by ASTM C311

2.2.2 Strength However, the evaluation concept of the test results

The strength properties of fly ashes were compared is the same. Then if ignoring the difference of the
by using the strength index which is the ratio of mix proportion, it may be able to state that the Thai
compressive strength between the fly ash mixed fly ashes are about the same as the Japanese fly
mortar and the cement only mortar (control ashes in terms of strength development up to 28
mixture) at the age of 28 days. As in the case of days even though they are coarser. It should be
flow, the different test methods between the JIS noted here that another test condition that is not
A6201-91 and the ASTM C311 must be noted fro similar is the curing temperature which is 20°C in
preparing the test specimens in both countries. Japan but is 23°C for the Thai data used in this
The most important difference is the w/b of the report. However, this 3°C difference in the
control mortar samples which is 0.65 for JIS curing temperature can be considered to have
A6201-91 and 0.5 for ASTM C311. This makes negligible effect. The not lower strength of the
the two set of data not directly comparable. The Thai fly ashes is possibly due to the higher CaO
JIS A6201-91 is supposed to give wider content, as the major reason, and lower loss on
differences between the control and different fly ignition, as the minor reason, in most of the Thai
ash samples due to lower strength of the control fly ashes than the Japanese ones
sample.

.Table 4 Comparison of Strength Index between Fly Ashes in Japan and Thailand
Properties Japan* (%) Thailand** (%)

Strength index at 28 days 57.8-97.8 65-100

(% of control) (about 90% between 65-85)

* from reference [10], tested by JIS A6201-1991

** data from the Concrete Products and Aggregates Co.ltd., tested by ASTM C311
 2.3 Fly Ash Consumption in Thailand this report is being written, almost 100% of the fly
Fig.1 shows the fly ash consumption in concrete in ash consumption is for this purpose. It is
Thailand. The consumption shown in the figure expected that the consumption of fly ash in cement
is only for those used as a cement replacing and concrete will still increase in the future.
material in concrete. In Thailand, up to the time

3000000
2700000
2500000 2300000

2000000 1800000

1500000 1400000

1000000
1000000 800000

500000 400000

400 1000 2200 15460

0
'94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04
Fly ash consumption (tons)

Fig.1 Fly ash consumption in concrete in Thailand

(The value of year 2000 is the forecasted one)

Fig.2 and Fig.3 show the statistics of fly ash used in confident with the fly ash application in concrete at
various types of concrete. It can be seen from Fig.2 that time. At present, fly ash has already become a
that up to 1997, fly ash was used mostly to produce conventional cement replacing material in Thailand so
special concrete like self- compacting concrete, sulfate that majority of the ready-mixed concrete plants,
resisting concrete and low heat concrete for mass including those in precast concrete and on-site ready
concreting. However, the situation changes in 1999 mixed plants, are using it as a major cementitious
when fly ash was used mostly in normal concrete. material and fly ash concrete has now become a
This expressed that fly ash had become more and conventional concrete in Thailand.
more popular and engineers were more and more

LHC

SRC SCC NC Others

4% 5% SRC
8% 1%

SCC

NC
LHC
82%
Others

Fig.2 Distribution of fly ash used in various types of concrete from 1994-1997
LHC:Low heat concrete, SRC:Sulfate resisting concrete,
SCC:Self compacting concrete, NC:Normal concrete
 LHC

Others
SRC
12%
NC
46% SCC

LHC
35% NC
SCC SRC
2% 5%
Others

Fig.3 Distribution of fly ash used in various types of concrete in 1999

(forecasted from January to April 1999)
LHC:Low heat concrete, SRC:Sulfate resisting concrete,
SCC:Self-compacting concrete, NC:Normal concrete

of Thailand to promote the use of fly ash in

3. PROBLEMS AND STRATEGIES TO Thailand.
PROMOTE THE USE OF FLY ASH
3.1 Problems 3.2.1 Research
During 1980’s, the image of fly ash produced from An original research group consisting of
Mae Moh was negative due to many researchers’ researchers from 7 universities in Thailand was
reports which pointed out the volume instability of formed to study the properties of fly ash and
concrete using fly ash due to high SO3 content in concrete using fly ash. By this original group,
the fly ash (mostly in the range of higher than 5% more than 30 research reports and more than 100
by weight of the fly ash) [12, 13]. Therefore the technical papers had been already published until
uses of fly ash at that time were in the low-value 2000. After that many other universities also
manners such as used for soil improvement, for started to conduct research on fly ash and many
embankment slope stability, for sub-base of more publications have been produced since then.
pavement, for concreting of temporally pavement,
etc. It was until the early 1990’s that the SO3 3.2.2 Education and Training
content of fly ash became lower to conservative From 1994 to 2001, eight seminars were arranged,
values of below 5%. From that time, various by the committee, in various places around the
intensive researches were restarted and many country to give information and educate engineers
merits were found from using the fly ash in on the effective use of fly ash in concrete. A
concrete as mentioned earlier in the section of learn-on-line project was created by the
introduction. In spite of the positive study results, cooperation between the National Science and
fly ash was very little used in concrete production Technology Development Agency, the Electricity
until 1997 (see Fig.1) due to many reasons as Generating Authority of Thailand and the Joint
follows. Research Group to provide information in a more
1) Lack of understanding and knowledge on effective and broadened way [14]. Many books
fly ash among the engineers and documents were also published for the purpose
2) Doubt on fly ash quality and its of educating engineers in the country [11,15]
consistency 3.2.3 Support for Real Practice
3) No systematic supplying system to Various efforts were made to provide support for
facilitate the use. real application as follows
1) Conducting demonstration construction
3.2 Strategies using fly ash concrete. Many
Many efforts were made by the Committee on demonstration construction projects were
Concrete and Materials of the Engineering Institute conducted during 1992 to 1996 (see Figs.
4, 5 and 6) to provide information.
 2) Set up a unit called “By-Product Business Mae Moh fly ash did not pass the
Unit” at the Mae Moh generating plant for requirement on fineness. However,
supplying business and quality control of researches had proved that though the fly
fly ash. For quality control, the fine coal ash had low fineness, it provided very
used for boiler burning is blended from satisfactory performance when used in
various locations and layers of coal mines concrete. Many performances are even
in Mae Moh in order to both satisfy the better than fly ashes from many other
requirement of energy output and obtain countries. The committee on concrete
fly ash with constant properties. At the and materials of the Engineering Institute
moment, the measured properties of fly of Thailand then decided to draft a new
ash for quality control at Mae Moh are standard specification for fly ash in
CaO, SiO2 and SO3 contents. It is Thailand based on properties of Thai fly
expected that fineness will be another ashes and was published in 2003 [16].
measured value for quality control at Mae Tables 5, 6 and 7 summarize the classes of
Moh in the near future. Since fly ash is fly ash and the corresponding chemical
not an industrial product but a by-product, and physical requirements according to
the qualities of fly ash is expected to vary the latest Thai specification.
and be not constant like cement. The 4) Produced references for practical
variation in properties is one of the main engineers. Two books were published
hurdles for fly ash using in many parts of for being used as references for practical
the world, not excepting Thailand. This engineers [11,15].
system of quality control at the origin 5) A software “FACOMP T1.0” was
together with the coal blending technique developed as a tool to facilitate the
will help reducing the uncertainty of fly practical engineers for mix proportioning
ash quality and provide confidence to the of fly ash concrete (see Fig.7).
users. 6) Encouraged ready-mixed concrete
3) Provision of standard for fly ash. One of company to launch special fly ash
the problems at the beginning of fly ash concrete products such as marine concrete,
application is the lack of appropriate sulfate-resisting concrete, sulfate-resisting
standard that suited the local fly ash. concrete, self-compacting concrete,
According to many foreign standards, the low-heat concrete, etc.
properties of Thai fly ash especially the

Table 5 Chemical properties

Requirement
Item Properties Second class
First class Third class
Type a Type b
1 Silicon dioxide (SiO2), min. % 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0
Not less than
2 Calcium oxide (CaO), % - Less than 10.0 -
10.0
3 Sulfur trioxide (SO3), max. % 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
4 Moisture content, max. % 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0
1) 1) 1)
5 LOI content, max. % 6.0 6.0 6.0 12.0

Note: 1) The use of fly ash with up to 12% LOI may be approved if either acceptable performance records or
laboratory test results are made available.
 Table 6 Chemical properties (optional)

Requirement
Item Properties Second class
First class Third class
Type a Type b

Alkali content (Na2O + 0.658K2O) 1), max. %

1 1.1 when SO3 between 3.0 to 5.0 % 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
1.2 when SO3 less than 3.0 % 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

Note: 1) Fly ash with alkali content exceeding this limitation may be approved if the test results on control of
alkali-silica reaction satisfy the requirement.

Table 7 Physical properties

Requirement
Item Properties First Second class
Third class
class Type a Type b

Fineness (select a method)

1 Amount retained on 45-μm-mesh sieve, max. % 10 50 55 65
Or Blaine fineness, min. cm2/g 6000 2300 2000 1600

Strength activity index 1) with OPC type 1

7-day, min. % of the control 85 70 70 60
2
28-day, min. % of the control 95 75 75 70
91-day, min. % of the control 2) 100 85 85 75

3 Water requirement, max. % of the control 102 105 105 108

4 Autoclave expansion 3), max. % 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

Fig.4 Demonstration of mass concreting using fly ash concrete at Mae Moh power generating plant
 Fig.5a Concrete wall Fig.5b Concrete box culvert

Fig.5 Demonstration of Self-Compacting Concrete using fly ash at Mae Moh power generating plant

Fig.6 Demonstration construction of Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavement using fly ash at Mae Moh
power generating plant
 Fig.7 A computer software for mix proportioning of fly ash concrete

4. APPLICATION OF FLY ASH IN ready-mixed concrete industry. As mentioned

CONCRETE above, many ready-mixed concrete companies
Fly ash has become a popular cement replacing started to launch special concrete products with fly
materials for concrete application since 1997 (see ash such as marine concrete, sulfate-resisting
Fig.1) after the country faced economic crisis. concrete, sulfate-resisting concrete,
One of the main reasons is that the cost of fly ash self-compacting concrete, low-heat concrete, since
is much lower than that of the cement. The late 1990’s. Some high volume fly ash concrete
immediate gain from the low cost of fly ash could were also practiced in Thailand with the maximum
overcome the more fly ash content up to 55% of the total binders for
self-compacting concrete, 47.5% for low-heat
4.1 Ready-Mixed Concrete concrete and 68% for roller-compacted concrete
For ready-mixed concrete, fly ash is normally used (see Fig.8 for Pak Mool dam constructed using
to replace cement in the ranges of 20 to 30% by roller-compacted concrete). The ready-mixed
weight of the total cementitious materials. Fly concrete industry is currently the major consumer
ash concrete has become conventional concrete for of fly ash in Thailand.

Fig.8 Pak Mool dam in Ubol Rachathani constructed using roller-compacted concrete with fly ash content
of 68% of the total cementitious materials.
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